Taylor–Mclaurin (Power) Series Expansions;

the Identity Theorem

Differentiation of Analytic Functions Suppose f(z) is analytic in a

region R in the complex plane and z0 is a point in the interior of R. Then
we can find a positive number r and a circle, Cr , or radius r such that Cr and
its interior both lie in R. Cauchy’s formula then tells us that, for z in the
interior of Cr ,
1 f(w)
Z
f(z) = dw.
2πi Cr w − z
An analytic function in R has been defined as one having a complex derivative
in that region. Thus we are not surprised that we can differentiate both sides
of this equation with respect to z and obtain
1 d 1 1 f(w)
Z   Z
0
f (z) = f(w) dw = dw.
2πi Cr dz w−z 2πi Cr (w − z)2
But now we observe that the right hand side of this equation continues to be
differentiable with respect to z in the interior of the curve Cr . This implies
0
f (z) is also differentiable in the complex sense in the interior of Cr and
!
1 d 1 2 f(w)
Z Z
00
f (z) = f(w) 2
dw = dw.
2πi Cr dz (w − z) 2πi Cr (w − z)3
We can continue this process indefinitely; we find that for z in the interior of
Cr the function f(z) has derivatives of all orders given by the general formula
1 dk 1 k! f(w)
Z   Z
(k)
f (z) = f(w) k dw = dw.
2πi Cr dz w−z 2πi Cr (w − z)k+1
Since any point z ∈ R lies in the interior of some such circle Cr , we conclude
that a function f(z), analytic in R, has derivatives of all orders throughout
the region R. If we take z = z0 as the center of the circle Cr , we obtain the
estimate  
   k! Z f(w) 
 (k)
f (z0 ) = dw  ≤
  
 2πi Cr (w − z0) k+1



k! 1 k!
≤ length (Cr ) sup {|f(w)|} k+1 = k sup {|f(w)|} .
2π w ∈ Cr r r w ∈ Cr

1
Power Series A complex power series takes the form, for given z 0 and a
sequence of complex numbers { ak |k = 0, 1, 2, ...},
∞
ak (z − z 0 )k
X
P =
k=0

In the case where ak = 0, k ≥ n + 1, P becomes a polynomial of degree

n in z. These are special cases of power series but are not the main item of
interest here. The power series P converges for a particular complex z to a
limit p(z) if for every  > 0 there is a non-negative integer N = N() such
that
∞
 
X 
n ≥ N⇒ ak (z − z 0 )k − p(z) ≤ .
 

 
k=0

This convergence is uniform for z in a region R if, for  > 0, N = N()

can be chosen, independent of z, so that the above inequality holds for all
z ∈ R. In that case we say that the power series converges uniformly for
z ∈ R.

The main result on convergence of power series relevant for this course is
the following.

Theorem Let the power series P converge for ẑ with r = |ẑ − z 0| > 0.
Then P converges for all z with |z − z 0| < r to an analytic function p(z)
and converges uniformly to p(z) in any set { z ||z − z 0| ≤ ρ, ρ < r}.

Proof Since P converges at ẑ its terms there must be bounded; i.e., there
is a B > 0 such that for k = 0, 1, 2, ...
  B
 ak (ẑ − z 0)k  = |ak | rk ≤ B ⇒ |ak | ≤ .
 
rk
Then if |z| < r the terms in P at that point satisfy
k
 
k B |z − z0|
ak (z − z 0) ≤

rk


and, since |z − z 0 | < r, P converges at z by comparison with the series

P∞ |z−z 0 |k
B k=0 rk
, convergent by the ratio test, which we will discuss in the
course of proving the uniform convergence result below.

2
 For z satisfying |z − z 0| ≤ ρ < r the previous inequality becomes
 
k B ρk
ak (z − z 0)  ≤ ≡ B αk , 0 ≤ α < 1.

r k

Then for 0 < K < L we have, by summation of geometrical progressions,

 
K L  L
  
X 
ak (z − z 0)k − k k 
X  X
ak (z − z 0)  = ak (z − z 0) 
 
 
 
k=0 k=0 k=K+1 
   
 L  ∞
B αK+1
 
αk  αk 
 X   X 
≤ B  ≤ B  =

k=K+1 

k=K+1  1−α
and from this we can see that
K L
 
X 
k k
X
lim ak (z − z 0) − ak (z − z 0) = 0

 
K →∞  
k=0 k=0

which shows that the sequence {SK (z)} defined by

K
k
X
SK (z) = ak (z − z 0) , K = 1, 2, 3, ...
k=0

is a Cauchy sequence and therefore has a limit p(z) for each z as described.
Using p(z) = limL → ∞ we have
K
 
X
k
 B αK+1
|SK (z) − p(z)| = ak (z − z 0) − p(z) ≤ .
 
1−α

 
k=0

Since the right hand side tends to zero as k → ∞ and is independent of the
particular z satisfying |z − z 0 | ≤ ρ we conclude that the partial sums SK (z)
converge uniformly to p(z) in that region and therefore p(z) is analytic there.
Then letting ρ → r through values < r we conclude that the limit function
p(z) is, in fact, analytic for |z − z 0 | < r and the theorem is proved.

Example The series ∞ j 2j

j=0 (−1) z converges for |z| < 1, uniformly for
P

2 −1
|z| ≤ ρ < 1 to p(z) = (1 + z ) . Here ak = 0, k odd, ak = (−1)j for
k = 2 j even. We will have more to say about this case subsequently.

3
Taylor–McLaurin Series We return temporarily to functions of a real
variable and suppose that h(x) is defined and infinitely differentiable on an
interval (a, b) of the real line. We fix x0 ∈ (a, b); for an arbitrary x ∈ (a, b)
we then have Z x 0
h(x) = h(x0) + h (ξ) dξ.
x0
Integrating by parts, this gives
0
ξ=x Z x 00
h(x) = h(x0 ) − h (ξ)(x − ξ) + h (ξ)(x − ξ) dξ

ξ=x0 x0

0
Z x 00
= h(x0) + h (x0 )(x − x0 ) + h (ξ)(x − ξ) dξ.
x0
At this point the first two terms on the right hand side constitute the linear
approximation to h(x) based at x0. Continuing, we repeatedly integrate by
parts and obtain
ξ=x
(x − ξ)2  x (x − x0)2
Z
0 00 000
h(x) = h(x0) + h (x0)(x−x0) − h (ξ) + h (ξ) dξ
2 2


ξ=x0 x0

0 00 (x − x0 )2
· · · = (after n steps) h(x0) + h (x0)(x − x0) + h (x0 ) + ···
2
(x − x0)n x (x − ξ)n
Z
(n)
+h (x0) + h(n+1) (ξ) dξ.
n! x0 n!

As n → ∞ this process associates with the function h(x) a Taylor –

Mclaurin series
∞
(x − x0)k
h(k) (x0)
X
.
k=0
k!
We say that the process associates this series with h(x) because, without
further information on h(x) it cannot be asserted that this series converges
at all, much less that it converges to h(x) in any interval about x0 . An
example is provided by the function
2
e−1/x , x 6= 0,

h(x) =
0, x = 0.
The exponential decays very rapidly as x → 0 with the result that
2
e−1/x
lim = 0,
x→0 x

4
 0
showing that h (0) exists and has the value zero; continuing it is easy to see
that all derivatives h(k) (x) exist, are continuous at x = 0 and have the value
0 there. Thus the Taylor - Mclaurin series about x = 0 has all zero terms;
if it were to converge to h(x) in any interval about x = 0 we would have
to conclude that h(x) ≡ 0 in such an interval. This is clearly not the case
and we conclude that, in fact, the series does not in any way represent the
function on any such interval. In order to show that the Taylor–Mclaurin
series represents the function in the sense of converging, in some appropriate
sense, to that function, it is necessary to establish that the series is convergent
and that the remainder term satisfies
x (x − ξ)n
Z
lim h(n+1) (ξ) dξ = 0
n→∞ x0 n!
uniformly in some interval about x0 . In the purely real variables context this
is generally a difficult task.

Taylor–Mclaurin Series for Analytic Functions In contrast to the

real variables situation, the convergence of the Taylor–Mclaurin series for
analytic functions of a complex variable is a surprisingly simple matter. We
suppose the function f(z) is analytic in a region R and that z0 lies in the
interior of that region. As before we construct a circle Cr , centered at z0,
such that Cr and its interior lie in R. Then, using the Cauchy formula, for z
in the interior of Cr we have
1 f(w)
Z
f(z) = dw.
2πi Cr w−z
We subtract and re-add z0 in the denominator of the integrand to obtain

1 f(w) 1 f(w) 1
Z Z
f(z) = dw =   dw.
2πi Cr w − z0 − (z − z0) 2πi Cr w − z0 1 − z−z0
w−z0

Since z lies in the interior of Cr we have |z − z0| = ρ < r and, since w lies
on Cr , |w − z0| = r.

The familiar formula for the sum of a geometric progression with common

5
ratio a (which may be real or complex)

2 1 − an+1 n
1 + a + a + ··· + a =
1−a
can be rearranged to

1 an+1
= 1 + a + a2 + · · · + an + .
1−a 1−a
z−z0
Using this in the last integral above with a = w−z0
we obtain f(z) =
  n+1 
2 n z−z0
1 f(w)  z − z0 z − z0 z − z0
Z  
w−z0
1 + + + ··· + + z−z0  dw

2πi Cr w − z0 w − z0 w − z0 w − z0 1 − w−z0

1 f(w) f(w) f(w) (z − z0 )2

Z Z Z
= dw + dw (z − z0 ) + 2 dw
2πi Cr w − z0 Cr (w − z0)2 Cr (w − z0)3 2
 n+1  
n z−z0
f(w) (z − z0 ) f(w) 
Z Z
w−z0
+ · · · + n! dw + z−z0  dw  .
 
(w − z0) n+1 n! w − z0 1 − w−z0

Cr Cr

Then, from the earlier formula for the k-th derivative,

k! f(w)
Z
f (k) (z0) = dw
2πi Cr (w − z0)k+1

we see that f(z) =

0 00 (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 )n
f(z0 ) + f (z0)(z − z0) + f (z0 ) + · · · f (n) (z0 ) + Rn (z, z0),
2 n!
where the “remainder term” is given by
 n+1 
z−z
1 f(w)  w−z00
Z
Rn (z, z0) = z−z0  dw.

2πi w − z0 1 − w−z

Cr
0

Clearly, as n → ∞, we again obtain the familiar Taylor–Mclaurin series. To

show that it is valid to write
∞
(z − z0)k
f (k) (z0)
X
f(z) =
k=0
k!

6
we need to show that the remainder tends to 0 as n → ∞ and that the series
is convergent. Working first with the series itself, we define the partial sums
by
n
X
(k) (z − z0)k
Fn (z) = f (z0) .
k=0 k!
To prove convergence we need to establish the Cauchy property

lim sup {|Fn (z) − Fm (z)|} = 0.

m→∞ n>m

For this we use the estimate

 
   k! Z f(w) 
 (k)
f (z0 ) =
  
 2πi Cr (w − z0 )k+1 
 

k! 1 k! B k!
≤ 2π r max {|f(w)|} k+1 = k max {|f(w)|} ≡ k .
2π w ∈ C r r r w ∈ C r r
Then, uniformly for |z − z0 | ≤ ρ < r and n > m, we have
 
 n (z − z0 )k  n
B k! ρk
 X 
f ( k)(z0 )
X
|Fn (z) − Fm (z)| = 
 ≤

k=m+1 k!  k=m+1
rk k!
 m+1
n ∞ ρ
X  k
ρ X  k
ρ B r
= B ≤ = ρ .
k=m+1 r k=m+1 r 1− r

Since this quantity clearly tends to 0 as m → ∞, we conclude that the series

is uniformly convergent in |z − z0| ≤ ρ < r and, since this is true for every
ρ < r, that the series is convergent for all z with |z − z0| < r.

The last step needed is to show that the remainder Rn (z, z0) tends uni-
formly to 0 for |z − z0| ≤ ρ < r as n → ∞. For this we note that
  n+1  
Z z−z0 
1  f(w)  w−z0

|Rn (z, z0)| = dw
  
z−z0
2π w − z0 1 − w−z0
   
 Cr 
 
  n+1   n+1
ρ ρ
1 B r
B r
≤ 2πr  = ,

ρ ρ
2π r 1− 1−

r r

and it is evident that this, also, tends to 0 as n → ∞. Consequently, we

have the following result.

7
Theorem 1 Let f(z) be analytic in a region R and let z0 lie in the interior
of R. Let r be such that the circle of radius r, centered at z0, and its
interior both lie in R. Then for |z − z0 | < r we have the Taylor–Mclaurin
representation
∞
(z − z0)k
f (k) (z0)
X
f(z) =
k=0
k!
and this series is uniformly convergent for |z − z0| ≤ ρ, ρ < r.

For a given point z0 we have this result for any circle Cr centered at z0
with the properties we have indicated. Such circles can be extended until
they meet the boundary of the region R in which f(z) is analytic. Most
typically in commonly met situations, that boundary is reached at point of
singularity of f(z).

1
Example 1 We consider the function f(z) = 1+z2
. On the real, x, axis
this function has no singularities; its graph is a smooth, bell shaped curve
with maximum 1 at x = 0, decreasing symmetrically to 0 as |x| → ∞. The
Taylor–Mclaurin expansion about the origin is obtained, in the real context,
from the formula for the sum of a geometric progression with ratio x2;
∞
1
(−1)k x2k .
X
=
1 + x2 k=0

A simple application of the ratio test shows that the series converges for
|x| < 1 and diverges for |x| ≥ 1. There is no indication on the real axis that
there should be such a change of behavior at |x| = 1; the graph is completely
1
smooth at x = 1 and at x = −1. Computing the derivatives of f(z) = 1+z 2

at z = 0 one can see that the Taylor–Mclaurin series is the same series:
∞
(−1)k z 2k .
X
f(z) =
k=0

1
Since 1+z2
has its only singularities at z = ±i, the foregoing theory also
predicts that the series will be convergent for |z| < 1 in the complex plane.
The singularities at ±i provide, in the complex context, an explanation for
why this series should converge for these values of z and diverge for |z| ≥ 1.

8
Principle of the Permanence of Functional Relations This is also
known as the identity theorem. Let f(z), R and z 0 satisfy the hypotheses
of the preceding theorem. Then we have

Theorem 2 Suppose there is a sequence { zk |k = 1, 2, 3, ...} ⊂ R such that

limk → ∞ zk = z0 and f(zk ) = 0, k = 1, 2, 3, ... . Then f(z) ≡ 0, z ∈ R.

Proof Clearly f(z0 ) = 0 by continuity. Let r > 0 be such that the disc
{ z | 0 ≤ |z − z0| < r } lies in R. The power series for f(z) based at z0,
must now take the form
∞
f (k) (z0)
(z − z0)k .
X

k=1
k!

Suppose there is a smallest positive integer K such that f (k) (z0) 6= 0. Then,
for 0 ≤ |z − z0 | < r, we have
∞ ∞
f (k) (z0 ) f (k) (z0)
!
(z − z0)k = (z − z0)K (z − z0 )(k−K) .
X X
f(z) =
k=K
k! k=K
k!

Since f K (z0) 6= 0 by assumption there must exist ρ with 0 < ρ ≤ r such

that f(z) 6= 0 in the set { z | 0 < |z − z0| < ρ } . But, for sufficiently large k
the points zk must lie in this set and are therefore such that f(zk ) 6= 0. This
contradicts our assumption that f(zk ) = 0 for k = 1, 2, 3, ... . There is,
therefore, no smallest integer K as described and f (k) (z0) = 0 for all k ≥ 0.
But then f(z) ≡ 0, 0 ≤ |z − z0| < r. The set R being defined as a region, it
must be open and connected and the process of analytic continuation applies
to show that f(z) ≡ 0 in R; the theorem is proved.

Example 2 It is familiar that sin(z) and cos(z) are analytic for all z in
the complex plane. Then f(z) ≡ sin 2 (z) + cos 2(z) − 1 is analytic in the
whole plane and, for z = x real,

f(x) ≡ sin 2 (x) + cos 2 (x) − 1 ≡ 0.

Taking z0 = x0 real it is clear that there is a sequence of points zk = xk

converging to z0 = x0 with f(zk ) = f(xk ) = 0, k = 1, 2, 3, ... . Since

9
r = ∞ here, the foregoing theorem implies f(z) ≡ 0 for all complex z. In
particular then, for z = i y, y real, f(i y) = 0. Since cos(i y) ≡ cosh(y)
and sin(i y) ≡ i sinh(y), for all real y we have

cos 2 (i y) + sin 2 (i y) − 1 = cosh 2 (y) − sinh 2 (y) − 1 = 0

for all real y. It then follows, again from Theorem 2, that

cosh 2(z) − sinh 2(z) ≡ 1

for all complex z so that this identity is seen to be essentially the same as
sin 2(z) + cos 2 (z) ≡ 1 for all complex z.

10