10

Lecture 8

We show that every analytic function can be expanded into a
power series, called the Taylor series of the function.

Taylor’s Theorem: Let f be analytic in a domain D & a D. Then,
f(z) can be expressed as the power series

f ( z )   bn ( z  a ) n (1)
n 0
1 f ( w) f ( n ) ( a ) (0)
where, bn   n 1
dw  , f ( a )  f ( a ) ,
2 i Cr  w  a  n!
where, Cr  D is a counterclockwise oriented circle, of radius r
and center at a , such that it encloses only points of D .

The representation (1) is unique and is valid in the largest open
disk with center a, contained in D.

Proof: By using Cauchy Integral Formula and Cauchy Theorem
For Multiply Connected Domains, w

 z
1 f ( w) 1 f ( w)  r
f ( z)   dw   dw ,
2 i C w  z 2 i Cr w  z C  a

where, z is any point enclosed by the

circle Cr and C is a counterclockwise
Cr
oriented circle | w  z |  with
sufficiently small radius  such that C D
lies in the bounded domain enclosed by Cr .
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Now,
1 1 1 z  a 1
  [1  ]
w z w  a  z  a w  a w  a
Recall that,
1  q n1
1  q  ...  q 
n
1 q
n 1
1 q
  1  q  ...  q n  ,
1 q 1 q
for any complex number q
za
Let q  . Then,
wa
z  a n1
( )
1 1 za za n 1 wa
 [1   ...  ( )  ]
w z wa wa wa w  a 1 z  a
wa

1 f ( w) 1 f ( w) 1 f ( w)
  dw   dw  ( z  a )  dw  ...
2 i Cr w  z 2 i Cr w  a 2 i Cr  w  a  2

1 f ( w)
...  ( z  a ) n  n 1
dw
2 i Cr  w  a 
1 f ( w)
 ( z  a ) n 1  dw
2 i Cr  w  a n 1 ( w  z )

Rn ( z )
where,
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n 1
za M * (r) f ( w)
Rn ( z )  . n 1 .2 r, for M * ( r )  max | |
2 r wC r w z

n 1
za za
 r M * (r)  0 as n  , since | | 1.
r r


Thus, f ( z )   bn ( z  a ) n , w
n 0
1 f ( w) C z r
with bn   n 1
dw .
2 i Cr  w  a   a

Further, since f ( z ) is represented
Cr
by power series, by a previous D
proposition on power series,
f ( z ) is infinitely many times
differentiable in z  a  r and
1 f ( w) f ( n ) (a )
bn   n 1
dw  .
2 i Cr  w  a  n!
f ( n ) (a )
Since bn  , it depends only on f and ' a ' , so bn ’s are
n!
uniquely determined.
 f ( n ) (a )
(because, if f ( z )   bn ( z  a ) , bn 
* n *
 bn ).
n 0 n!

Thus, (1) represents f uniquely.
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Proposition: Every function f ( z ) , analytic in a domain D, is
infinitely many times differentiable in D .

Proof: D   { z  a  ra }.
aD

 By Taylor’s Theorem, for every a  D , f ( z ) is represented
by a power series in z  a  ra .
 By an earlier proposition on power series, the functions
represented by a power series are infinitely many times
differentiable.

So that f ( z ) is infinitely many times differentiable in z  a  ra
for every a  D .

Therefore, f ( z ) is infinitely many times differentiable in D .
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Cauchy Integral Formula for nth‐derivative

________
If f is analytic in a domain D and B ( a, r )  D , where
________
B ( a , r )  {w : w  a  r}. Then,

n! f ( w)
f ( n ) (a )   n 1
dw, n  0,1,2,... (*)
2 i Cr ( w  a )

where, Cr : w(t )  a  reit , 0  t  2 , is a counterclockwise
oriented circle of radius r centred at a .


Proof: Follows immediately since, by the proof of Taylor’s
1 f ( w) f ( n ) (a )
Theorem, bn   n 1
dw  .
2 i Cr  w  a  n!

For n  0 , denoting f (0) ( a )  f ( a ) , (*) becomes Cauchy
Integral Formula.

Note: In view of Cauchy Theorem for multiply connected
domains, formula (*) remains valid with Cr replaced by any
simple closed piece‐wise smooth curve  so that (i) every
point enclosed by  is in D (ii)  encloses the point a . This is
because the function f ( w) / ( w  a ) n1 is analytic in the domain
lying between Cr and  .

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Remark: The formula (*) gives the value of the function and its
derivatives at any point enclosed by a simple closed piecewise
differentiable curve  , if the values of the function on  are
known.

This helps in knowing the values of the function and its
derivatives at sometimes inaccessible points through values at
accessible points.

A Computational Method, called Complex Variable Boundary
Element Method, developed using (*), is a great tool to
computationally generate the values of f (a ), f (a ), f (a ),... etc..

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Deductions From Tayolor’s Theorem:

Proposition 1: Every power series with nonzero radius of
convergence is the Taylor series of the function represented by it.


Proof: Let (*)  bn ( z  a ) n represents the function f(z) in
n 0

z  a  R , i.e. f ( z )   bn ( z  a ) n in z  a  R. Then, by the
n 0
f ( n ) (a )
proof of Taylor’s Theorem, bn  . This implies that the
n!
given series (*) is the Taylor series of f.


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Proposition 2 (Cauchy’s Estimate): Let f be analytic and

f ( z )  M ( R ) on z  a  R . Then,

n! M ( R)
f ( n ) (a )  n
.
R

Proof: By Cauchy Integral Formula
for nth‐derivative (Take D  {| z  a | R} , r R
 a
for any r  R ,

n! f ( w)
f ( n ) (a )   n 1
dw, n  0,1,2,...
2 i Cr ( w  a )

n! M ( R) n !M ( R )
 f ( n) (a)  n 1
.2  r  (using ML‐Estimate)
2 r r n

Since r < R is arbitrary, the result follows on letting r  R .


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Proposition 3 (Liouville’s Theorem): An entire (i.e. analytic in

the whole Complex Plane) function that is bounded in the whole
Complex Plane is constant.

Proof: Since f is entire and bounded in the whole complex
plane, f ( z )  M on every circle CR  {z :| z | R}.


Now, expand f ( z ) in to Taylor series as f ( z )   an z n for z in
n 0
z  R0 . The same expansion is valid for z  R for all R  R0 .

By Cauchy Estimate,

f n (0) M
 an  | |  n  0 as R  , for all n  1, 2...
n! R

 f ( z )  a0  constant, on every disk z  R

Consequently f ( z ) is constant in the whole complex plane C,
since R  R0 is arbitrary.


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Proposition 4 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra):

A polynomial of degree n has exactly n complex zeros (counted
according to multiplicity).


Proof: Let Pn(z) be a polynomial of degree n  1. and it has no
1
zeros in the complex plane C. Then, the function  ( z ) 
Pn ( z )
(i) is an entire function (ii) is bounded in C (since Pn(z)   as
z   ).

Therefore, by Liouville’s Theorem,  ( z ) is constant.
 Pn(z) is also a constant function, a contradiction.

Thus, Pn(z) has at least one zero, say a1 of multiplicity m1.

P ( z)
Now, the polynomial n m , is of degree n  m1 . A repetition
( z  a1 ) 1
of the above arguments gives that it has at least one zero, say
a2 of multiplicity m2 .

Continuing the process, it follows that Pn ( z ) has
m1  m2  ...  mk  n zeros at a1 , a2 ,..., ak .

 20

Proposition 5. If f is an entire function and f ( z )  MR n0 in

z  R for every R, 0  R   then f is a polynomial of degree at
most n0 .


Proof: By Taylor’s Theorem, expand f ( z )   an z n in z  R0 .
n 0
The same expansion is valid for all R  R0 .

By Cauchy Estimate,

n!M ( R)
f ( n ) (0)  n
, where M ( R )  max f ( z )
R | z|  R

MR n0 n0  n
 an  n
 MR  0 as n   , if n  n0 .
R

 f is a polynomial of degree at most n0 .