Taylor’s Theorem: Suppose that

a function f(z) is analytic

throughout a disk z  z0  R0
centered at z0 and with radius R0.
Then f(z) has the power series
representation
 
f  z    an  z  z 0  , n
 z  z0  R0 
n 0

where

an 
f  n
 z0  (n  0,1, 2.....)
n!
 Maclaurin Series
Taylor Series about the point
z 0  0 is called Maclaurin
series, i. e.
 (n)
f ( 0) n
f ( z)   z , ( z  R0 )
n 0 n!
 Examples:
 n
z
1. e   , ( z  )
z

n 0 n !
 2 n 1
z
2. sin z   (1) n
,
n 0 ( 2 n  1)!
( z  )
  2n
z
3. cos z   (1) n
,
n 0 ( 2 n )!
( z  )
 2 n 1
z
4. sinh z   ,
n 0 ( 2n  1)!

( z  )
  2n
z
5. cosh z   ,
n 0 ( 2 n )!
( z  )

1
6.  z ,n
( z  1)
1  z n 0
 
1
7.   (1) z ,
n n
1  z n 0
( z  1)
Laurent’s Theorem: Suppose
that a function f(z) is analytic
throughout an annular domain
R1  z  z0  R2 centered at z and
0
let C denote any positively
oriented simple closed contour
around z0 and lying in that
domain.
Then, at each point in domain f(z)
has the series representation

 
bn
f  z    an  z  z 0  
n

n 0  z  z0 
n
n 0

R  z  z
1 0  R2 
where
 1 f  z  dz
an  
2 i C  z  z0  n 1
( n  0, 1, 2 .....)

and
1 f  z  dz
bn  
2 i C  z  z0   n 1
( n  0, 1, 2,...)
Example:
Find the Laurent series
representation of
z
f ( z) 
( z  1)( z  3)
when
(a) D1 : 0  z  1,
(b) D 2 : 1  z  3,
(c) D3 : 3  z  ,
We have
z
f(z) 
(z  1)(z  3)
1 3
 
2( z  1) 2( z  3)
(a) Consider the domain
D1 : 0  z  1.

Then f(z) is analytic in D1.

 1 3
f(z)   
2( z  1) 2( z  3)
1 3
 
2(1  z ) 2  3(1  z )
3
  n
1 1 z
  z   
n
2 n 0 2 n 0  3 
   n
1 n 1 z
 f(z)   z    
2 n 0 2 n 0  3 


1  1 n
  1  n  z
2 n 0  3 
(b) Consider the domain
D 2 : 1  z  3.

Then f(z) is analytic in D 2 .

 1 3
f(z)   
2( z  1) 2( z  3)
1 3
 
1 z
2 z (1  ) 2  3(1  )
z 3
 n  n
1 1 1  z
      
2 z n 0  z  2 n 0  3 
   n
1 1 1 z
 f(z)    n1    
2 n 0 z 2 n 0  3 
(c) Consider the domain
D3 : 3  z  .
Then f(z) is analytic in D3 .
Note that
1 3
  1.
z z
 1 3
f(z)   
2( z  1) 2( z  3)
1 3
 
1 3
2 z (1  ) 2  z (1  )
z z
 n  n
1 1 3  3
      
2 z n 0  z  2 z n 0  z 
  n  n
1 1 3  3
 f(z)         
2 z n 0  z  2 z n 0  z 
  n 1
1 1 1 3
   n1   n1
2 n 0 z 2 n 0 z

 

1 n 1 1
   1 3 n 1
.
2 n 0 z
Excercise:
Show that, when 0  z  1  2,
the Laurent series representation
of
z
f ( z) 
( z  1)( z  3)
is
  n
( z  1) 1
f ( z )  3 n1  .
n 0 2 2( z  1)
 RESIDUE
1 Consider a function f(z) &
1
let z  . Then
w
1
f ( z )  f    g  w
w
(i ) f(z) is said to be analytic at
infinity if g(w) is analytic
at w  0.

(ii) f(z) is said to be singular at

infinity if g(w) is singular
at w  0.
(2) Zero of an analytic function :

Let f(z) is analytic in a domain D.

If f(z 0 )  0 for some z  z 0 , then

z  z 0 is called zero of f(z).
If f(z 0 )  f ( z0 )  f ( z0 )  ....
 n 1
 f  z0   0, but
(n)
f ( z0 )  0, then z  z0 is
called ZERO OF ORDER n
of f  z .
i.e. z  z0 is called zero
of order n of f(z) if
n
f ( z )  ( z  z0 ) g ( z ),
where g ( z 0 )  0.
(3)Singular Point of a fn f(z) :

(i) If a function f(z) fails to be

analytic at a point z 0 , but it
is analytic at some point in
every nbd of z 0 , then z 0 is
called Singular Point of f(z).
(ii) Isolated Singularity

The point z 0 is called an isolated

singularity of f(z) if
(a) z 0 is a singular point of f(z)
(b) f(z) is analytic in a deleted nbd
N : 0  z - z 0  .
(4) (i) Let z 0 is an isolated
singularity of f(z)

  R  0 such that f(z) is

analytic in 0  z  z0  R.
Hence f(z) has Laurent series
expansion :

 
f(z)   an ( z  z0 )   bn ( z  z0 ) ,
n n

n 0 n 0

0  z  z0  R
 1 f ( z ) dz
where an  
2i c ( z  z0 ) n 1
,

1 f ( z ) dz
bn  
2i c ( z  z0 )  n 1
,

C is any positively oriented

simple closed contour around z 0
and lying in the puctured disc
0  z - z 0  R.
 
(ii )  bn  z  z0 
n
is called
n 1
principal part (PP) of the Laurent
series, i.e.

PP   bn  z  z0  n

n 1
b1 b2
   .......
z  z0  z  z0  2
If b k  0, for some k, say k  m,
and b n  0  n  m, then

b1 b2 bm
PP    ... 
z - z 0  z  z0   z  z0  m
Then the singularity z  z 0 of
f(z) is called POLE OF ORDER m.

If m  1, then z 0 is a pole of order 1

and is called a SIMPLE POLE.
(iii) If an analytic function f(z)
has a singularity other than a
pole, then this singularity is
known as ESSENTIAL
SINGULARITY of f(z) , i.e.
if bn  0 for infinitely many n,

then the singularity z 0 is called

ESSENTIAL SINGULARITY
of f(z).
(iv) If b n  0 n,

then the singularity z 0 is called

REMOVABLE SINGULARITY
of f(z).
RESIDUE :
The PP of the Laurent series is
given by

PP   bn  z  z0  n
, where
n 1
1 f ( z )dz
bn 
2 i  ( z  z0 ) n1
C
If n  1, then
1
b1 
2i  f ( z ) dz
c

is called RESIDUE of f(z)

at z  z 0 , and we write
b1  Re s f ( z )
z  z0

1
 coeff of
z  z0
Residue Theorem :
Let C be a positively oriented
simple closed contour. Suppose
that f(z) is analytic within and on
C except for a finite number of
singular points z k (k  1, 2,....n)
inside C.
Then
n
 
 f ( z )dz  2 i   Re s f ( z ) 
C k 1  z  zk 
How to find residue of a given fn f(z) :
sin z
Ex1 : Let f(z)  4 , 0  z  .
z
1
Now f(z)  4  sin z 
z
1  z 3
z 5
z 7 
 4  z     ....
z  (3)! (5)! (7)! 
 1 1 1 1 1 3
f ( z)  3  .  .z  z  ....
z (3)! z (5)! (7)!
0 z 

1 1 1
PP   .  3
(3)! z z
Note that z  0 is a pole of
order ???
Hence
1 1
Res f ( z )  b1  coeff of  
z 0 z 6
sin z
  4
dz  2i Res f ( z )
c: z 1 z z 0

i

3
Ex 2. Find the residue of
f ( z )  exp(1 / z ), and hence
evaluate

 f(z)dz, C : z  1.
c
Soln :
1
f ( z )  exp  
z
1 1 1 1 1
 1  2
 3
 .....
z 2! z 3! z
Note : z  0 is an essential
singularity of f(z).
1
 b1  coeff of
z
 Re s f ( z )
z 0
1
Hence

 f(z)dz  2i.
c
Ex 3. Find the residue of
2
f ( z )  exp(1 / z ), and
hence evaluate

 f(z)dz, C : z  1.
c
 Hints:
1. z  0 is an essential
singularity of f(z).
2. b1  Re s f ( z )  0.
z 0
3. I  0.
How to find the residues ?

We have
 
f(z)   an  z  z0    bn  z  z0 
n n

n 0 n 1
Case IA : Let z  z 0 is a simple
pole of f(z). Then

b1
f(z)   an  z  z0 
n

n 0 z  z0
 ( z  z0 ) f ( z )

 b1  ( z  z0 )  an  z  z0 
n

n 0
 lim  z  z0  f  z   b1
z  z0

 Re s f  z 
z  z0
CaseIB : Let f(z) has a simple pole
at z  z 0 and f(z) is of the form
p( z )
f ( z)  ,
q( z )
where
(i) p(z) & q(z) are analytic
at z  z 0 ,
(ii) p(z 0 )  0, and
(iii ) q( z ) has a simple zero
at z  z 0 ,
Then
p( z )
Re s f ( z )  Re s
z  z0 z  z0 q ( z )

p ( z0 )

q( z0 )
CaseII : Let z 0 be a pole of order m  1
for the function f(z).

Then f(z)   an  z  z0  n

n 0
b1 b2 bm
   .... 
 z  z0   z  z0  2
 z  z0  m
  z  z0  m
f  z

  z  z0  m
 an  z  z 0  n

n 0

 b1  z  z0   b2  z  z0 
m 1 m2

 .....  bm1  z  z0   bm
Let  (z)  (z - z 0 ) m
f ( z)
then
Res
z z0 f  z   b1
m 1
 coeff . of (z - z 0 ) in the
expansion of  (z)


 (m 1)
 z0  by Taylor' s Thm
(m  1)!
Thus if z 0 is a pole of order m  1
of f(z), then
 m 1
Res  ( z0 )
z z0 f ( z) 
(m  1)!


1
(m  1)!
lim
z  z0 m 1
 z  
Res
z  z0 f ( z)

1 lim  d m 1 
 z  z0  m 1  z  z 0  m
f  z  
(m  1)!  dz 
Ex1.
Find the residue of f(z) at
z  0 and z   1, where
1
f(z)  2
.
zz
Soln :
Note that
z  0 and z  1
are simple poles of f(z).
 Res
 z 0 f lim
( z )  z 0  z  0 f ( z )

lim  1 
 z 0   1
1 z 
 Res
 z  1 f lim
( z )  z 0  z  1 f ( z )

lim 1
 z 1    1.
z
 z
e
Q.2 (a) Evaluate I   2
dz.
c: z 3 z
Soln :
Clearly, z  0 is a pole of order 2
z
e
of f ( z)  2 .
z
Now
I   f ( z )dz
c: z 3

 2i  Re s f ( z ),
z  zk
z
e
f ( z)  2
z
 Re s
 z 0 f ( z) 
1 lim  d 2
(2  1)!
 
. z 0  z f ( z ) 
 dz 

lim  d z 
 z 0  e 
 dz 
 Re s
z 0 f ( z)  lim
z 0  e 
z

 1

I  2 i
Q.2 (b) Evaluate
z
e
I  2
dz .
c: z 3 1
z

Ans : I  0 (WHY ???)

Ex2(c). Evaluate
z
e
I   z  1 2
.
c: z 3

So ln :
z  1 is pole of order 2 of
z
e
f ( z)  2
.
( z  1)
 Res
 z 1 f ( z) 
dz
 
d z
e z 1

z 1
 e z 1 
e

2i
I  
e
 1


2
(c ) I  z .e z dz
z 3
1
2 z
Let f(z)  z e
 z  0 is an essential
singularity of f(z)
 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
f ( z )  z 1   . 2  . 3  4  ...
 z 2! z 3! z 4! z 
2 1 1 1 1 1
 z  z   .  . 2  ....
2! 3! z 4! z
 Re s 1 1
 f ( z )  coeff . of 
z0 z 6

1 i
 I  2 i  
6 3
(d )
z 1
I  2 dz
z 3 z  2 z
z 1 z 1
Let f(z)  2 
z  2 z z  z  2
 z  0 & z  2 are simple poles
Re s
f ( z )  lim z f ( z )
z0 z 0

z 1
 lim
z 0 z  2

1

2
 lim
Re s f ( z )  ( z  2) f ( z )
z 2 z2
3

2
 I  2 i  Re s f ( z )
 1 3
 2i     2i.
 2 2
Q.3, p.233
Let f ( z ) be analytic at z 0 ,
and consider
f ( z)
g ( z)  .
z  z0
Then Show that
(a ) If f(z 0 )  0,
then z0 is a simple pole
of g(z) and

Re s g(z)  f(z 0 )
z z0
(b) If f(z 0 )  0,
then z0 is a
removable singularity of g(z)

and Re s g(z)  0.
z z0
Sol : f(z) is analytic at z 0

 f(z) has Taylor' s series

expansion about z 0 , &
f ( z )  f(z 0 )  ( z  z0 ) f ( z0 )
2 f ( z0 )
 ( z  z0 )
2!
3 f ( z0 )
  z  z0   ...
3!
 f ( z)
 g ( z) 
z  z0
f ( z0 )
  f ( z0 )
z  z0
f ( z0 )
 ( z  z0 )
2!
2 f ( z 0 )
  z  z0   ...
3!
(a) Clearly if f ( z0 )  0, Then
principal part (P.P) of
g(z) is
f ( z0 )

z  z0
 z0 is a simple pole of g(z)
and
1
Res g ( z )  b1  coeff of
z z0 z  z0
 f ( z0 )
(b) If f ( z0 )  0, then p.p.of g(z)
is 0
 bn  0  n
 z  z0 is a removable
singularity of g(z), and
Res
z  z0 g ( z)  0
 3
3z  2
Q.4 (a) I    
c
 z  1
 z 2
 
9
, c : z 2 2

3
3z  2
Let f ( z ) 

 z  1 z  9
2

Then 1, 3i,  3i are simple poles of f(z)
 2i

2 4
-2i
Note : z  1 is only inside C
Res  3z  2 
3
 f ( z)   2  z 1
z 1  z 9 
5 1
 
10 2
 I  2i  z 1 f  z   i
Re s
(b ) c : z  4
Then 1,3i ,3i are all inside C
1
 z 1 f ( z ) 
Re s 4i

2 3i

1
-4 4

3i
 3
Re s 3z  2
f ( z) 
z 3i
 z  1 z  3i  z 3i

 81i  2

 3i  1 6i 
2  81i

 18  6i
 3
3z  2
Re s f ( z ) 
z  3i  z  1 z  3i  z  3i

 81i  2

  3i  1  6i 
2  81i

 18  6i
  Res f  z 
1 2  81i 2  81i
  
2 6i  18 6i  18
3
I  2i  Res f  z   6i
 dz
Q.5 (b) I   3 ,c : z  2  3
c
z  z  4 
1
Let f ( z)  3
z  z  4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1
 z  0 is a pole of
order 3 and
z  4 is a simple pole
& both lie inside C.
 2
Re s 1 d  1 
 f ( z)  . 2  
z0 2 dz  z  4  z 0
1
 3
4
 Re s 1 1
f (z )  3 z  4  3
z  4 z 4
 1 1
I  2i 3  3   0
4 4 