DR ST - ETBS204-Module-5 (Text)

ETBS204-MODULE – V
COMPLEX INTEGRATION
rs n
ve lva
y
it
U ilse
Dr. S.TAMILSELVAN
Professor
ai m
Engineering Mathematics
ni
al Ta
am S
nn r
D
A
Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Annamalai University
Annamalai Nagar
rs n
5.1 Introduction
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y
Let w = f (z) be a continuous function of the complex variable z and C be any
it
continuous curve connecting the two points A and B of the domain. Divide C
U ilse
into n parts by the points z1 , z2 , z3 · · · zn−1 where A & B correspond to z0 & zn .
Let ∆zk = zk − zk−1 and let αk be any arbitrary point in the arc ∆zk .
n
Then, consider the sum Sn =
ai m
P
f (αk )∆zk
k=1
ni
al Ta
B zn
zn-1
am S
zk
ak
nn r
zk-
D
z3
A z2
z1
z0
x
0
If the limits Sn exists as n → ∞ and each zk → 0 and if this limit is inde-

A
pendent of the mode of subdivision of C and the choice of α k , then it is defined

as the line integral of f (z) from A to B along C. it is denoted by
Z Z
f (z)dz or f (z)dz
C AB
if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

Z Z
then f (z)dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy)
C C
5.2 Engineering Mathematics - II
Z Z
= (udx − vdy) + i (vdx + udy)
C C
Note:
1. If the parametric equation of C be x = φ1 (t), y = φ2 (t) then w = f (z) &
dz = dx + idy can be expressed in terms of the parameter t.
Zb
dz
Z
i.e., f (z)dz = f (z(t)) dt
dt
C t=a
rs n
2. |∆zk | denotes the length of the chord joining Zk−1 & Zk . If the sum
ve lva
y
n
|∆zk | tends to a limit as n → ∞ in such a way that each ∆zk → 0,
P
it
k=1
then the limit is called the length of the curve C.
U ilse
3. If the starting point A of the arc and the end point B of the arc coincide then
Hthe complex line integral is called closed contour integral & is denoted by
ai m
f (z)dz.
C
ni
al Ta
It does not indicate the direction along the curve but by convention we take anti-
clock wise direction to be positive unless stated otherwise.
Regions
am S
A region is a connected set of points. It may consist of interior points or interior

and boundary points. An open region consists only the interior points, but a closed
nn r
region consists all its boundary points and interior points.

D
A region R is said to be connected region if any two points of it are connected

by curves, lying entirely with in the region.
A region R is said to be simply connected if any closed curve which lies in R
can be shrunk to a point without passing out of the region.
A
A region which is not simply connected is called multiply - connected.
Simply connected Multiply connected Multiply connected

region region region converted to a
simple connected region
A multiply connected region can be converted to a simply connected region

by introducing one or more cross cuts as shown in the above figure.
Complex Integration 5.3
Properties
1. If C = C1 + C2 then
R R R
f (z)dz = f (z)dz + f (z)dz
C C1 C2
2. If α be a complex constant, then

R R
αf (z)dz = α f (z)dz
C C
3.
R R R
[αf (z) + g(z)]dz = α f (z)dz + g(z)dz
C C C
4. If
R C2 representsRthe contour C1 , transferred in the reverse direction, then
f (z)dz = − f (z)dz
rs n
C2 C1
5. If
` be the length of the curve C and if |f (z)| ≤ M for all z on C, then
ve lva
y
f (z)dz ≤ M ` .
R
it

C
U ilse
5.2 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem (Cauchy’s Fundamen-
tal Theorem)
ai m
Statement : If f (z) is analytic and f 0 (z) is continuous at every point inside and
ni
on a simple closed curve C then
al Ta
Z
f (z)dz = 0
am S
Proof:
nn r
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

D
Z Z
f (z)dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy)
C C
Z Z
= (udx − vdy) + i udy + vdx
A
C C
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
Since f 0 (z) is continuous, the four partial derivatives, , and are
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
also continuous on C and in the region R enclosed by C, then applying Green’s
theorem in a plane, which states that
ZZ
∂Q ∂P
Z
P dx + Qdy = − dxdy
∂x ∂y
C R
Since f (z) is analytic, the Cauchy - Riemann equations hold at every point of R.
∂u ∂v ∂u −∂v
i.e., = , and =
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
ZZ
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v
Z ZZ
f (z)dz = − − dx dy + i − dx dy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
C R R
ZZ ZZ
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= − dx dy + i − dx dy
∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x
R R
= 0 + i0 = 0.
rs n
Note :
ve lva
y
1. In the above form of Cauchy theorem we had the assumption that the func-
it
tion f 0 (z) is continuous. It was the famous mathematician Goursat who
U ilse
first established that the above condition of continuity of f 0 (z) is unneces-
sary and can be removed from the hypothesis.
Hence ifR f (z) is analytic at all points on and inside a simple closed curve
ai m
C, then f (z)dz = 0.
ni
al Ta
C
2. Extension of Cauchy’s integral theorem
If f (z) is analytic within and on a multiply connected region bounded by
a simple closed curve C and non-intersecting close curves C 1 , C2 , · · · Cn
am S
then Z Z Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz + f (z)dz + · · · + f (z)dz
nn r
C C1 C2 Cn
D
where all the integrals are taken in the same sense.
5.3 Cauchy’s Integral Formula (Cauchy’s Fundamen-

tal Formula)
Statement: If f (z) is an analytic function within and on a closed curve C of a
A
simply connected region R and if ‘a’ is any point within C then
1 f (z)
Z
f (a) = dz
2πi z−a
C
Proof :
f (z)
Since f (z) is analytic within and on C, therefore is also analytic within
z−a
and on C, except at the point z = a. Now draw a small circle C 1 , with centre at
z = a and radius ρ, lying completely inside C.
f (z)
The function is analytic in the multiply
z−a
connected region bounded by C and C1 . Applying
Cauchy’s extended theorem, we have
f (z) f (z)
Z Z
a
dz = dz C
z−a z−a C1
C C1
on C1 , |z − a| = ρ hence z − a = ρeiθ
or z = ρeiθ + a
rs n
∴ dz = iρeiθ dθ
ve lva
y
Z2π
f (a + ρeiθ ) iθ
it
f (z) f (z)
Z Z
Hence dz = dz = iρe dθ
ρeiθ
C
U ilse
z−a
C1
Z2π
z−a
0
= f (a + ρeiθ )dθ taking limit as ρ → 0

ai m
0
ni
al Ta
Z2π
=i f (a)dθ
0
= i f (a)[θ]2π
0 = 2πif (a)
am S
1 f (z)
Z
∴ f (a) = dz
2πi z−a
nn r
C
D
Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives of an Analytic Func-

tion
(AU 2009)
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 f (z)
Z
A
f (a) = dz
2πi z−a
C
Differentiating partially both sides with respect to a within the integral sign,
we get 1!
Z
f (z)
0
f (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)2
C
Proceeding in a similar manner, we get
2! f (z)
Z
f 00 (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)3
C
and in general
n! f (z)
Z
f (n) (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)n+1
C
Note :
Cauchy’s integral formula can be extended to multiply connected region.
If f (z) is analytic in the region bounded by closed contour
C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 · · · and ‘a’ is point in the region then
1 f (z) 1 f (z) 1 f (z)
Z Z Z
f (a) = dz − dz − dz · · ·
2πi (z − a) 2πi (z − a) 2πi (z − a)
rs n
C1 C2 C3
ve lva
y
Example 5.1
it
Evaluate
1+i
R
0
U ilsex2 − iy dz along the path y = x.

(AU 2009)
Solution:
ai m
Along y = x dy = dx x varies from 0 to 1
ni
al Ta
Z1+i Z1+i
2
x2 − iy (dx + idy)

x − iy dz =
0 0
am S
Z1
x2 − ix (dx − idx)

=
nn r
Z1 0
D
2

= x − ix (1 − 1i) dx
0
Note:
2 1 z = x + iy
x3

x
= (1 + i) −i dz = dx + idy
3 2 0 put y = x

1 i & dy = dx
A
= (1 + i) −
3 2
5 1
= − i
6 6
Example 5.2
Z
Evaluate (x2 − iy 2 )dz along
C
(i) the parabola y = 2x2 from (1, 2) to (2, 8)

(ii) the straight line from (1, 1) to (2, 8)
Solution:
(i) Given y = 2x2
∴ dy = 4x dx
Z Z
∴ (x − iy )dz = (x2 − iy 2 )(dx + idy)
2 2
C C
Z
= (x2 − i4x4 )(dx + i4xdx)
C
Z2
rs n
= (x2 − i4x4 )(1 + i4x)dx
ve lva
y
x=1
it
Z2
U ilse =
x=1
(x2 + 16x5 ) + i(4x3 − 4x4 )dx
2
x3 16x6 4x4 4x5

511 49
ai m
= + +i − = − i
3 6 4 5 1 3 5
ni
al Ta
(ii) the straight line from (1, 1) to (2, 8) in parametric form is

y − y1 x − x1
= =t
y2 − y 1 x2 − x 1
am S
y−1 x−1
∴ = =t or y − 1 = 7t
8−1 2−1
x−1=t
nn r
D
∴ dy = 7dt and dx = dt and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

Z Z
(x2 − iy 2 )dz = (t + 1)2 + i(7t + 1)2 [dt + i7dt]

C C
Z
(t + 1)2 + i(7t + 1)2 [1 + 7i] dt

=
A
C
Z1
(1 + t)2 − 7(7t + 1)2 + i (7t + 1)2 + i7(t + 1)2 dt

=
t=0
"" # " ##1
(1 + t)3 (7t + 1)3 1 (7t + 1)3 7(t + 1)3
= − +i +
3 3 7 3 3
0
518
= − 8i
3
Example 5.3
Z
Evaluate (z 2 + 3z)dz along
C
(i) the straight line from (2, 0) to (0, 2)
(ii) the straight lines (2, 0) to (2, 2) and then from (2, 2) to (0, 2).
Solution:
The equation to the straight line joining (2, 0) to (0, 2)
rs n
is x + y = 2 or y = 2 − x and dy = −dx
ve lva
y
y
it
Z
∴ (z 2 + 3z)dz B
C
Z
U ilse (0,2)
x+y=2
= [(x + iy)2 + 3(x + iy)](dx + idy)
ai m
(2,0)
C x
0 A
ni
al Ta
Z
= (x2 − y 2 + 2ixy + 3x + 3iy)(dx + idy)
C
am S
Z
= [x2 − (2 − x)2 + 2ix(2 − x) + 3x + 3i(2 − x)](1 − i)dx
C
nn r
Z0
D
= [(−2x2 + 8x + 2) + i(−2x2 − 6x + 10)]dx

2
0
−2x3 8x2 −2x3 6x2

= + + 2x + i − + 10x
3 2 3 2 2

44 8
A
=− + i
3 3
Z Z
2
(ii) (z + 3z)dz = (z 2 + 3z)dz
C AB
x=2 y
dx=0
Z
+ (z 2 + 3z)dz
BC
y=2
dy=0
Z2 Z0
2
= [(2 + iy) + 3(2 + iy)]idy + [(x + i2)2 + 3(x + i2)]dx
y=0 x=2
" #2 " #2
(2 + iy)3 3 (2 + iy)2 (x + 2i)3 3 (x + i2)2
= + + +
3 2 3 2
0 0

−8 8
= −6 − i−6
3 3
44 8
=− − i
rs n
3 3
ve lva
y
Example 5.4
it
Z1+i
Evaluate (x2 + iy)dz along the parabola
0U ilse
(i) y = x2 and (ii) x = y 2
ai m
Solution:
(i) Given y = x2
ni
z = x + iy
al Ta
∴ when z = 0 ; x = 0
∴ dy = 2x dx
z =1+i ; x=1
Z1+i Z1
am S
∴ (x + iy)dz = (x2 + ix2 )(dx + i2xdx)

2
0 0
nn r
Z1
D
= x2 (1 + i)(1 + i2x)dx
0
Z1
x2 (1 − 2x) + ix2 (1 + 2x) dx

=
0
A
Z1
(x2 − 2x3 ) + i(x2 + 2x3 ) dx

=
0
1
x3 2x4
3
2x4

x
= − +i +
3 4 3 4 0

1 1 1 1
= − +i +
3 2 3 2
1 5
=− +i
6 6
(ii) Given x = y 2 z = x + iy
∴ when z = 0 ; x = 0
∴ dx = 2y dy
z =1+i ; x=1
Z1+i Z1
∴ (x + iy)dz = (y 4 + iy)(2ydy + idy)
2
0 0
Z1
= (y 4 + iy)(2y + i)dy
rs n
0
ve lva
Z1
y
(2y 5 − y) + i(y 4 + 2y 2 ) dy

=
it
U ilse =
0

2y 6 y 2
6
−
2

+i
5
y
5
+
2y 3
3
1
0

1 1 1 2
ai m
= − +i +
3 2 5 3
ni
al Ta
1 13
=− +i
6 15
am S
Example 5.5
nn r
dz
Z
Evaluate where C is the circle |z − a| = r.
D
z−a
C
Solution:
Given C is |z − a| = r
z = a + reiθ and dz = reiθ i dθ

A
Z2π
dz reiθ i dθ
Z
∴ = = i[θ]2π
0 = 2πi
z−a a + reiθ − a
C 0
Example 5.6
Evaluate sec z dz, where c is the unit circle |z| = 1. (AU 2009)
R
c
Solution:
1
Z Z
sec z dz = dz
cos z
c c
cos z = 0
π
⇒ z = (2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2 . . .
2
π 3π
Singular points are z = , , . . ..
rs n
2 2
Since the singular points are lies outside the circle |z| = 1.
ve lva
y
it
dz
Z Z
= sec z dz = 0
U ilse
c
cos z
c
ai m
Example 5.7
ni
al Ta
Z
Evaluate (z − a)m dz, m 6= −1, C is the circle |z − a| = r.
0
am S
Solution:
Given C is |z − a| = r
nn r
∴ z = a + reiθ , dz = reiθ i dθ
D
Z Z2π
m
∴ (z − a) dz = rm eimθ reiθ idθ
C 0
" #2π
(m+1)iθ
A
e
= rm+1 i
(m + 1)i
0
rm+1 h 2πi(m+1) i
= e − 1 = 0 Since m 6= −1
m+1
Example 5.8
z+2
Z
Evaluate dz, where C is the semicircle z = 2eiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
z
C
Solution:
Given z = 2eiθ ∴ dz = 2ieiθ dθ
Zπ
z+2 (2eiθ + 2) iθ
Z
∴ dz = (2e i dθ)
z 2eiθ
C 0
Zπ
= 2i (1 + eiθ )dθ
0
π
rs n
eiθ

= 2i θ +
ve lva
i
y
0

πi − 2
it
= 2i
i
U ilse = 2πi − 4
ai m
Example 5.9
ni
Z
al Ta
Evaluate (z 2 + 3z)dz along the circle |z| = 2 from (2, 0) to (0, 2).
C
Solution:
am S
Given |z| = 2, i.e. z = 2eiθ and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2

Z Z
nn r
2
∴ (z + 3z)dz = (z 2 + 3z)dz
D
C |z|=2
π
Z/2h i
= (2eiθ )2 + 3(2eiθ ) 2eiθ .idθ
0
π
A
e3iθ e2iθ

2
= 8i + 12i
3i 2i 0
8 π
= (ei3 /2 − 1) + 6(eiπ − 1)
3
8
= (−i − 1) + 6(−2)
3
−44 8
= − i
3 3
Example 5.10
Z2+i
Evaluate z 2 dz along
0
(i) the line x = 2y
(ii) the real axis upto to 2 and then to 2 + i.
Solution:
rs n
(i) Given x = 2y
ve lva
y
∴ dx = 2dy
it
U ilse ∴
Z2+i
0
2
z dz =
Z2+i
0
(x + iy)2 (dx + idy)
ai m
Z2+i
= (x2 − y 2 + i2xy)(dx + idy)
ni
al Ta
0
Z1
4y 2 − y 2 + i2(2y)y [2dy + idy]

=
am S
0
Z1
3y 2 + i4y 2 [2 + i] dy
nn r

=
D
0
Z1
6y 2 − 4y 2 + i 3y 2 + 8y 2 dy

=
0
Z1
A
2y 2 + i11y 2 dy

=
0
3 3 1
y y
= 2 + i11
3 3 0
2 11
= +i
3 3
Z2+i Z Z
(ii) Now z 2 dz = z 2 dz + z 2 dz
0 OA AB
Z Z
2
= z dz + z 2 dz
OA AB
y=0 x=2
dy=0 dx=0
Z Z
2
= (x + iy) (dx + idy)+ (x + iy)2 (dx + idy)
OA AB
y=0 x=2
∴dy=0 ∴dx=0
Z2 Z1
2
= x dx + (2 + iy)2 idy
rs n
ve lva
x=0 y=0
y
2 1
it
x3 y3

2
= + i 4y − + 2iy y
8 U ilse
3 0

= + i 4 − + 2i
3
1
3
3
0
B
ai m
8 11i x=2y
= −2+ x=2
3 3
ni
al Ta
2 11
= + i x
3 3 0 y=0 A
am S
Example 5.11
nn r
Find the value of (z 2 + 2z + 1)dz where C is the circle |z| = 1. (AU 2009)
R
D
C
Solution:
By Cauchy’s Integral theorem
Z
2
f (z) = z + 2z + 1 f (z) dz = 0
A
C
Z
∴ (z 2 + 2z + 1) dz = 0
C
Example 5.12
z+4
Z
Using Cauchy’s integral formula, find the value of , where C is
z2 + 2z + 5
C
the circle |z + 1 − i| = 2. (AU 2008, 2012)
Solution:
Given C : |z + 1 − i| = 2, this represents a circle with center at −1 + i and radius
2 units.
z+4 z+4
Z Z
∴ 2
dz = dz
z + 2z + 5 (z + 1 + 2i)(z + 1 − 2i)
C C
The point z = −1 + 2i lies inside the circle C and the point

z = −1 − 2i lies outside the circle C.
Hence by Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
rs n
z+4
ve lva
1 f (z) 1
Z Z
z+1+2i
y
f (a) = dz = dz
2πi z−a 2πi [z − (−1 + 2i)]
it
C C
z+4
Taking a = −1 + 2i, and f (z) =
U ilse ∴
Z
f (z)
dz = 2πif (a)
z + 1 + 2i
z−a
ai m
C
z+4
Z
ni
dz = 2πif (a)
al Ta
(z + 1 + 2i)(z + 1 − 2i)
C

a+4
= 2πi
a + 1 + 2i
am S

−1 + 2i + 4
= 2πi
−1 + 2i + 1 + 2i
nn r

2i + 3
D
= 2πi
4i

3 + 2i
= π
2
Example 5.13
A
R 3z 2 + z
State Cauchy’s integral formula. Evaluate 2
dz where C is the
C z −1
circle |z − 1| = 1 using the formula. (AU 2009)
Solution:
Cauchy’s integral formula

If f (z) is analytic within and on a simple closed curve C and z 0 is any point
1 R f (z)
inside C, then f (z0 ) = dz the integration round C being taken in
2πi C z − z0
the positive sense.
Here f (z) = 3z 2 + 2

1 1 A B 1 1 1
Now = = + = −
z2 − 1 (z + 1)(z − 1) z−1 z+1 2 z−1 z+1

1 1
∵ A= B=−
2 2
3z 2 + z 3z 2 + z

1 1 1
Z Z Z
2

dz = dz = − 3z + z dz
z2 − 1 (z + 1)(z − 1) 2 z−1 z+1
C C C
3z 2 3z 2
Z
1 +z +z
rs n
I= − dz
2 z−1 z+1
ve lva
y
C
it
Clearly z = 1 lies inside the circle and z = −1 lies outsides the circle |z| = 1.
∴ 2
z +1
U ilse
3z 2 + z
is analytic inside |z| = 1. y
|z-1|=1
By Cauchy’s integral theorem, we get
ai m
ni
z=-1 1 x
al Ta
3z 2 + z
Z
dz = 0
z2 − 1
|z|=1
1 3z 2 + z
Z
am S
I= dz
2 z−1
|z−1|=1
nn r
1
= · 2πif (1), where f (z) = 3z 2 + z
D
2
= πi(3 + 1) = 4πi
Example 5.14
A
z
Z
Using Cauchy’s integral formula, evaluate dz, where C is the
(z − 1)(z − 2)2
C
1
circle |z − 2| = . (AU 2009)
2
Solution:
1 1
Given C : |z − 2| = , this represents a circle with centre at 2 and radius unit.
2 2
z
Z
∴ dz
(z − 1)(z − 2)2
C
The point z = 1 lines outside the circle C and the point z = 2 lies inside the circle
C. Hence, by Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
n! f (z)
Z
f (n) (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)n+1
C
z
1 f (z) 1
Z Z
0 z−1
take n = 1 or f (a) = 2
dt = dz
2πi (z − a) 2πi (z − 2)2
C C
z
here a = 2 and f (z) =
rs n
z−1
ve lva
y
f (z)
Z
dz = 2πif 0 (a)
it
(z − a)2
U ilse
Z C
z
(z − 1)(z − 2)2
dz = 2πif 0 (a)
C
ai m

d z
= 2πi
ni
dz z − 1 z=2
al Ta

−1
= 2πi
(z − 1)2 z=2
= −2πi
am S
Example 5.15
nn r
D
Z 2
z +1
Evaluate dz where C is a circle of unit radius and centre at
z2 − 1
C
(i) z = 1 (ii) z = i. (AU 2008)
Solution:
(i) Given C is a circle with centre at z = 1 and radius 1 i.e.
A
|z − 1| = 1
Z 2
z +1 z2 + 1
Z
dz = dz
z2 − 1 (z + 1)(z − 1)
C C
Hence the point z = 1 lies inside C and the point z = −1 lies outside C.
Hence by Cauchy’s integral formula.

Z z 2 +1
1 f (z) 1
Z
z+1
f (a) = dz = dz
2πi z−a 2πi z−1
C C
z2 + 1
Here a = 1 and f (z) =
z+1
z2 + 1 z2 + 1
Z Z
dz = dz = 2πif (a)
z2 − 1 (z + 1)(z − 1)
C C
2
a +1
= 2πi
a+1

1+1
= 2πi
1+1
rs n
= 2πi
ve lva
y
it
(ii) Given C is a circle with centre at z = i and radius 1 i.e. |z − i| = 1.
U ilse ∴
C
Z 2
z +1
z2 − 1
dz =
Z
z2 + 1
(z + 1)(z − 1)
C
dz
ai m
Here both the points z = 1 and z = −1 lie outside C.
ni
al Ta
Hence by Cauchy’s theorem

z2 + 1
Z
dz = 0
z2 − 1
am S
C
nn r
Example 5.16
D
e2z
Z
Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate dz where C is the circle
(z + 1)4
C
|z| = 2. (AU 2009)
Solution:
A
Given C : |z| = 2, which represents a circle with centre at zero and radius 2.
Hence z = −1 is a point inside C.
Here a = −1 and f (z) = e2z
Hence by Cauchy’s integral formula, where we have
n! f (z)
Z
(n)
f (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)n+1
C
Take n = 3
3! f (z)
Z
000
f (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)4
C
e2z 2πi 000
Z
∴ = f (−1)
(z + 1)4 3!
C
πi d3 2z
= e z=−1
3 dz 3
πi 2z
= 8e z=−1
3
rs n
8πi −2
= e
ve lva
3
y
it
Example 5.17
z3 − z
U ilse
1
Z
Prove that dz = 3z0 , If C is a closed curves described in the
2πi (z − z0 )3
C
positive sense and z0 is inside C. What will be its value when z0 lies outside C ?
ai m
Solution:
ni
By Cauchy’s integral formula
al Ta
n! f (z)
Z
(n)
f (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)n+1
C
am S
take n = 2, a = z0 and f (z) = − z. z3

2! z3 − z
Z
nn r
00
∴ f (a) = dz
2πi (z − z0 )3
D
C
1 z3 − z 1
Z
= 3
dz = f 00 (z0 )
2πi (z − z0 ) 2
1 d2 3 1
= z − z z=z0
= (6z)z=z0 = 3z0
2 dz 2
A
If z0 lies outside C, then by Cauchy’s theorem

z3 − z
Z
dz = 0
(z − z0 )3
C
Example 5.18
R dz
Evaluate where c is the circle |z| = 1. (AU 2010)
C 2z − 3
Solution:
The Cauchy’s integral formula is
f (z)
Z
dz = f (z0 ) · 2π (1)
z − z0
C
dz 1/2
Z Z
Given = dz (2)
2z − 3 z − 3/2
Comparing equation (2) with the L.H.S of equation (1) we get
rs n
ve lva
3
y
f (z) = 1 z0 =
2
it
U ilse
3
Here z0 = = lies outside the circle |z| =1.
1
2
∴ is analytic inside the circle C
2z − 3
ai m
∴ By Cauchy’s integral theorem
ni
al Ta
dz
Z
=0
2z − 3
|z|
am S
Example 5.19
nn r
D
3z 2 + 7z + 1

1
What is the value of the integral dz where C is |z| = ?
R
C z+1 2
(AU 2010)
Solution:
Since z + 1 = 0 ⇒ z = −1
A
1
Here 1 > . ∴ The point z = −1 is lies outside of the circle.
2
R 3z 2 + 7z + 1

Hence · dz = 0.
C z+1
Example 5.20
z+4
Evaluate dz where C is the circle |z| = 1. (AU 2009)
H
C z2 + 2z + 5
Solution:
|z| = 1 is the circle whose center is (0, 0) and radius is 1.

z+4 z+4
=
z2 + 2z + 5 (z + 1 + 2i)(z + 1 − 2i)
The points −1 − 2i and −1 + 2i are lies outside of the circle |z| = 1.
By Cauchy’s integral formula,
z+4
Z
rs n
2
= 2πi × 0
z + 2z + 5
ve lva
C
y
=0
it
Example 5.21
Z
U ilse dz
Evaluate , where C is |z| = 4 (AU 2009)
ai m
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3)
C
ni
al Ta
Solution:
Given C : |z| = 4 which represents a circle with centre at 0 and radius 4 units.
Here z = 1, z = 2 and z = 3 all the three points lies inside C.
am S
1 1/2 −1 1/2
= + +
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3) z−1 z−2 z−3
nn r
(by splitting into partial fractions)

D
using Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

dz 1 dz dz 1 dz
Z Z Z Z
= − +
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3) 2 z−1 z−2 2 z−3
C C C C
A
1 1
= 2πif (1) − 2πif (2) + · 2πif (3)
2 2
= πi − 2πi + πi
=0
Example 5.22
3z 2 + 7z + 1 √
Z
If f (a) = dz where C is |z| = 2 find f (3), f (1 − i), f 0 (1 − i)
z−a
C
and f 00 (1 − i)
Solution:
√
Given C : |z| = 2, which represents a circle with centre at 0 and radius 2 units.
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
(i) f (3) = dz
z−3
C
The point z = 3 lies outside C
∴ by Cauchy’s theorem
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
f (3) = dz = 0
rs n
z−3
ve lva
C
y
(ii) By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have,
it
1 f (z)
Z
U ilse
∴ f (a) =
2πi
C
(z − a)
dz
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
∴ f (1 − i) = dz
ai m
z − (1 − i)
ni
C
al Ta
= 2πif (a) here a = 1 − i , f (z) = 3z 2 + 7z + 1
= 2πi(3a2 + 7a + 1)
am S
= 2πi(3(1 − i)2 + 7(1 − i) + 1) = 2π(13 − 14i)
3z 2 + 7z + 1
nn r
Z
(iii) Given f (a) = dz differentiating with respect to a, we have
D
z−a
C
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
0
f (a) = dz
(z − a)2
C
√
z = 1 − i lies inside C ∵ |z| = 2 < 2
A
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
0
∴ f (1 − i) =
[z − (1 − i)]2
C
d
= −2πi [3z 2 + 7z + 1]z=1−i
dz
= −2πi[6z + 7]z=+1−i
= −2πi(13 − 6i)
= −2π(6 + 13i)
(iv) Now Differentiating f 0 (a) again with respect to a
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
00
f (a) = dz
(z − a)3
C
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
f 00 (1 − i) = dz
(z − (1 − i))3
C
= 2πi f 00 [3z 2 + 7z + 1]z=1−i
rs n
= 2πi(6)
ve lva
y
= 12πi
it
Example 5.23 U ilse
R 3z 2 + 7z + 1 1
Evaluate dz where C is |z| = . (AU 2013)
ai m
C z+1 2
ni
al Ta
Solution:
z+1=0 1
, which lies outside of |z| = .
z = −1 2
R 3z 2 + 7z + 1
am S
Hence by Cauchy’s theorem dz = 0

C z+1
nn r
Example 5.24
D
sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
Z
Evaluate dz, where C is the circle |z| = 3
(z − 1)(z − 2)
C
(AU 2007, 2009, 2011)
Solution:
A
Given C : |z| = 3, which represents a circle with centre at 0 and radius 3 units.
Here the points z = 1 and z = 2 both the inside C.
Hence a = 1 and a = 2, f (z) = sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 sin πz 2 + cos πz 2

Z Z Z
dz = dz + dz
(z − 1)(z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2)
C C C
(by partial fractions)
= −2πi f (1) + 2πi f (2)

= −2πi[sin π + cos π] + 2πi[sin 4π + cos 4π]
= −2πi(−1) + 2πi(1)
= 4πi
Example 5.25
ez
Z
Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate dz where C is
(z + 2)(z + 1)2
rs n
C
ve lva
|z| = 3 (AU 2008)
y
Solution:
it
Given |z| = 3, which represents a circle with centre at 0 and radius 3 units. Hence
U ilse
the points z = −1 and z = −2 both lie inside the circle C.
Let f (z) = ez .
ai m
ez ez ez ez
Z Z Z Z
ni
∴ dz = dz − dz + dz
al Ta
(z + 2)(z + 1)2 z+2 z+1 (z + 1)2

C C C C
(by partial fractions)
2πi 0
am S
= 2πif (−2) − 2πif (−1) + f (−1)

1!
= 2πi[e−2 ] − 2πi[e−1 ] + 2ie−1 π
nn r
= 2πie−2
D
Example 5.26
Show that whenZ f (z) is analytic

Z within and on a simple closed curve C and z 0 is
f 0 (z) f (z)
not on C then dz = dz
A
z − z0 (z − z0 )2
C C
Solution:
(i) Suppose z0 is an exterior point i.e. z0 lies outside C, then both
f (z) f 0 (z)
and are analytic inside and on C
(z − z0 )2 z − z0
∴ by Cauchy’s theorem
f 0 (z) f (z)
Z Z
dz = =0
z − z0 (z − z0 )2
C C
(ii) Suppose the point z = z0 lies within C then by Cauchy’s integral for-
mula,
f 0 (z)
Z
dz = 2πif 0 (z0 )
z − z0
C
and by higher derivative formula

f (z)
Z
dz = 2πif 0 (z0 )
(z − z0 )2
C
rs n
f 0 (z) f (z)
Z Z
Hence dz = dz
ve lva
(z − z0 ) (z − z0 )2
y
C C
it
Example 5.27
Z
U ilse
sin 2z
Evaluate , where C is |z| = 1. (AU 2008)
(z − πi/4)4
ai m
C
ni
al Ta
Solution:
Given |z| = 1, which represents a circle with centre at 0 and radius 1.
πi
Hence z = lies inside the circle C and f (z) = sin 2z.
am S
4
n! f (z)
Z
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have f 00 (a) = dz
2πi (z − a)n+1
nn r
c
D
take n = 3
f (z) 2πi 000
Z
∴ 4
= f (a)
(z − a) 3!
C
sin 2z πi d3
Z
= [sin 2z]z=πi/4
(z − πi/4)4 3 dz 3
A
C
πi
= [−8 cos 2z]z=πi/4
3
−8πi
= cosh(π/2)
3
Example 5.28
z+1
Z
Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate dz where C is the circle
z3− 2z 2
C
|z − 2 − i| = 2 (AU 2010)
Solution:
Given C : |z − 2 − i| = 2, which represents a circle with centre at z = 2 + i and
radius 2.
Hence z = 2 lies inside the circle C and z = 0 lies outside the circle C.
z+1
∴ a = 2, f (z) =
z2
by Cauchy’s integral formula we have
rs n
1 f (z)
Z
ve lva
f (a) = dz
y
2πi (z − a)
C
it
z+1
Z
or
U ilse C
z 2 (z − 2)
dz = 2πif (a)

a+1

= 2πi
a2
ai m

2+1 3πi
ni
= 2πi =
al Ta
4 2
Example 5.29
am S
z
Z
Evaluate dz, where c is the circle |z−2| = 3/2, using Cauchy’s
nn r
(z − 1)(z + 2)2
D
C
integral formula. (AU 2008)
Solution:
Given |z − 2| = 3/2, which represents a circle with centre at z = 2 and radius
3/2. Hence z = 1 lies inside the circle C and z = −2 lies outside the circle C.
A
z
Here a = 1 and f (z) =
(z + 2)2
1 f (z)
Z
f (a) = dz
2πi z−a
C
z
Z
∴ dz = 2πif (a)
(z − 1)(z + 2)2
C

a
= 2πi
(a + 2)2

1
= 2πi (∵ a = 1)
9
2πi
=
9
Example 5.30
rs n
z3 + z + 1
Z
Evaluate dz where C is the ellipse 4x2 + 9y 2 + 1, using Cauchy’s
ve lva
y
z 2 − 7z + 6
C
it
integral formula.
Solution: U ilse
Given 4x2 + 9y 2 + 1 or
x2
+
y2
= 1 is the standard ellipse.
(1/2)2 (1/3)2
ai m
z3 + z + 1 z3 + z + 1
Z Z
ni
al Ta
∴ dz = dz
z 2 − 7z + 6 (z − 6)(z − 1)
C C
z3 + z + 1
Here both the points z = 6 and z = 1 lies outside the ellipse hence
am S
z 2 − 7z + 6
is analytic within and on C.
nn r
z3 + z + 1
Z
Hence by Cauchy’s theorem dz = .0
D
z 2 − 7z + 6
c
Exercise 5(a)
☞ Part - A
A
1. State Cauchy’s integral theorem.
2. State Cauchy’s integral formula. (AU 2007)
3. State Cauchy’s extended integral theorem for a multiply connected region.
4. State Cauchy’s extended integral formula for a multiply connected region.
5. State Cauchy’s integral formula for the nth derivative of f (z).
6. Define simply and multiply connected regions. (AU 2008)

Z
7. Evaluate z 2 dz, where C is the curve y = x2 passing through the points
C
(1, 1) to (2, 4).
Z
8. Evaluate z 2 dz, where C is straight line passing through the points (1, 1)
C
& (2, 4).
Z
9. Evaluate log zdz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
rs n
C
ve lva
y
Z
it
10. Evaluate |z| dz, where C is a semi-circle of the unit circle |z| = 1 from
U ilse C
z = −i to z = i.
1
Z
11. Evaluate dz where C is the semi circular arc |z| = 1 above the real
ai m
z
C
ni
axis.
al Ta
Z
12. Evaluate (x2 − y 2 )dz along the straight line from (0, 0) to (0, 1) and
am S
from (0, 1) to (2, 1)

Z
nn r
13. Show that log zdz = 4πi, where C is the circle |z| = 2.
D
Z1+i
1 5
14. Show that (x2 + iy)dz = − + i along the parabola y = x2 .
6 6
0
A
Z1+i
1 13
15. Show that (x2 + iy)dz = − + i along the parabola x = y 2
6 15
0
Z
16. Show that z̄ 2 dt = 4πi, where C is the circle |z − 1| = 1
C
Z1+i
17. Evaluate |z|2 dz along the line 3y = x.
0
dz
Z
18. Evaluate where C is |z| = 3.
z 2 (z 2+ 4)
C
dz
Z
19. Evaluate where C is the circle |z − 2| = 5. (AU 2009)
z−3
C
ez
Z
20. Evaluate dz where C is the unit circle |z| = 1
z
C
rs n
☞ Part - B
ve lva
y
Z
it
21. Evaluate (x + 2y)dx + (y − 2x)dy where C is the ellipse defined by
U ilseC
x = 4 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ and C is described in the anti-clock wise direction.
(2,5)
Z
ai m
22. Evaluate (3x + y)dx + (2y − x)dy along
ni
al Ta
(0,1)
(i) The curve y = x2 + 1

(ii) The straight line joining (0, 1) and (2, 5)
am S
(iii) The straight line from (0, 1) to (2, 1) and then from (2, 1) to (2, 5).
nn r
(1+i)
D
Z
23. Evaluate (x − y + ix2 ) dz along the line from z = 0 to z = 1 + i
(0)
Z
2
24. Evaluate (z 2 + 1) dz along the arc of the cycloid x = a(θ − sin θ)
C
A
y = θ(1 − cos θ) from the point θ = 0 to θ = 2π

dz
Z
25. Evaluate , where C is the boundary of the square bounded by
z−2−i
C
the real and imaginary axes and the line x = 1 and y = 1.
26. Evaluate the following using Cauchy’s integral formula
z3 + 1
Z
(a) , where C is |z| = 1
z 2 − 3iz
C
dz
Z
(b) dz where C is |z − 2 − i| = 2
(z 2 + 4)2
C
z+1
Z
(c) dz, where C is |z − 2 − i| = 2
z 3 − 2z 2
C
7z − 1
Z
(d) dz, where C is the ellipse x2 + 4y 2 = 4
z2 − 3z − 4
C
rs n
tan z/2
Z
(e) dz, −2 < a, < 2, where C is the boundary of the square
ve lva
(z − a)2
y
C
where sides lie along x = ±2 and y = ±2 described in the positive
it
sense.
(f)
U ilse
Z
zez
(z − a)3
dz where z = a lies inside the closed curve C.
C
ai m
(AU 2007)
ni
al Ta
4z 2 + z + 5
Z
(g) If f (a) = dz, where C is |z| = 2, find the values of
(z − a)3
C
f (1), f (i), f 0 (−1) and f 00 (−i)
am S
Z
(h) dz, where C = |z| = 3.
(z + 1)(z + 2)
nn r
C
D
sinh 2z
Z
(i) dz, where C is the boundary of the square
z4
C
x = ±2 and y = ±2
zdz
Z
(j) , where C is |z| = 2 (AU 2008)
(9 − z 2 )(z + 1)
A
e3z dz
Z
(k) , where C is |z − 1| = 4
z − πi
C
sin 3z
Z
(l) dz, where C is |z| = 5
z + π/2
C
sin z
Z
(m) dz, where C is |z| = 1
z 2 ez
C
sin6 zdz
Z
(n) , where C is |z| = 1
(z − π/6)3
C
dz
Z
(o) , where C is the circle |z − i| = 2 (AU 2009)
(z 2 + 4)3
c
4 − 3z
Z
27. Show that dz = 2πi, where C is the circle |z| = 3/2.
z(z − 1)(z − 2)
C
(AU 2010)
rs n
ve lva
1 ezt t sin t
Z
y
28. Prove that 2 2
dz = if t > 0 and is the circle |z| = 3.
2πi (z + 1) 2
it
C
U ilse
29. If C is the
Z circle |z| = 3 described in the positive sense and if
2z 2 − z − 2
g(z0 ) = dz, |z| 6= 3, show that g(2) = 8πi. What is the
z − z0
ai m
C
value of g(z0 ) when |z0 | > 3 ?
ni
al Ta
3z 2 + 6z + 1
Z
30. If f (a) = dz, where C is the circle x2 + y 2 = 4, find the
z−a
C
am S
value of f (3), f (1 − i) and f 00 (i).
31. If C is Za closed curve described in the positive sense and

nn r
z4 + z
D
φ(z0 ) = dz show that φ(z0 ) = 12πiz02 , when z0 is inside C

z − z0
C
and φ(z0 ) = 0 when z0 lies outside C.
5.4 Taylor and Laurent’s Expansions

A
Let us consider the infinite series f1 (z) + f2 (z) + f3 (z) + · · · , whose terms are
functions of the complex variable z.
Let Sn (z) denote the sum of the first n terms of the series. If Sn (z) tends to a
limit S(z) as n → ∞ for all z in a region R, then the series as said to converge or
to be convergent in the region R and to have a sum S(z).
i.e., lim S(z) − Sn (z) = 0

n→∞
A series which is not convergent is said to diverge or to be divergent.

Every analytic function has a power series representation called the Taylor se-
ries. Analytic function can also be represented by another type of series called
Note :
1. (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · · if |x| < 1.
(1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · if |x| < 1.
(1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + · · · if |x| < 1.
(1 − x)−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + · · · if |x| < 1.
rs n
2. (1 + z)−1 = 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · · , Region of validity is |z| < 1.
ve lva
y
it
1 −1 1 1
3. 1 + · · · , Region of validity is z1 < 1 ⇒ |z| > 1

z =1− z + z2
U ilse
4. If we have only positive powers of (z-a) then the series is Taylor’s series
about the point z = a, if we have positive and negative powers of (z − a),
then the series is a Laurent’s series.
ai m
ni
al Ta
∞
5. The part an (z − a)n , consisting of positive integral powers of (z − a) is
P
n=0
bn ∞
called the analytic part of the Laurent’s series, and , consisting
P
n
n=1 (z − a)
am S
of negative integral powers of (z − a) is called the principal part of the

Laurent’s series.
nn r
D
Example 5.31
Expand f (z) = sin z in a Taylor series about z = π/4 and determine the region
of convergence of this series. (AU 2006, 2009)
A
Solution:
1
Given f (z) = sin z ∴ f (π/4) = √
2
1
f 0 (z) = cos z ∴ f 0 (π/4) = √
2
1
f 00 (z) = − sin z ∴ f 00 (π/4) = − √
2
1
f 000 (z) = − cos z ∴ f 000 (π/4) = − √
2
The Taylor’s series of f (z) = sin z at z = π/4, is given by
(z − π/4) 0 (z − π/4)2 00
f (z) = f (π/4) + f (π/4) + f (π/4) + · · ·
1! 2!
(z − π/4)2

1 (z − π/4) 1 1
∴ sin z = √ + √ + − √
2 1! 2 2! 2
(z − π/4)3

1
+ − √ + ···
3! 2
(z − π/4) (z − π/4)2 (z − π/4)3

1
rs n
= √ 1+ − − + ···
2 1! 2! 3!
ve lva
y
The region of convergence is |z − π/4| < ∞.
it
Example 5.32U ilse
Expand cos z into a Taylor’s series about the point z = π/2 and determine the
ai m
region of convergence. (AU 2007)
ni
al Ta
Solution:
Let f (z) = cos z at π/2 f (π/2) = 0
am S
f 0 (z) = − sin z f 0 (π/2) = −1

nn r
f 00 (z) = − cos z f 00 (π/2) = 0

D
f 000 (z) = sin z f 000 (π/2) = 1
∴ The Taylors series for cos z at z = π/2 is
(z − π/2)2 00
A
(z − π/2) 0
cos z = f (π/2) + f (π/2) + f (π/2) + · · ·
1! 1!
−(z − π/2) (z − π/2)3 (z − π/2)5
= + − + ···
1! 3! 5!
The region of convergence is |z − π/2| < ∞.
Example 5.33
1−z
Obtain the Taylor series of f (z) = in power of (z − 1).
z2
Solution:
f (z) is not analytic at z = 0, hence we consider a circle with at z = 1 and radius
1, such that z = 0 is excluded from the region.
Then the region of validity for Taylor’s series will be |z − 1| < 1
1−z
f (z) = ∴ f (1) = 0
z2
−2 1
f 0 (z) = 3 + 2 f 0 (1) = −1
z z
6 2
rs n
f 00 (z) = 4 − 3 f 00 (1) = 4
z z
ve lva
y
24 6
f 000 (z) = − 5 + 4 f 000 (1) = −18
it
z z
U ilse
Hence the required Taylor series expansion is,
f (z) = f (1) +
(z − 1) 0
f (1) +
(z − 1)2 00
f (1) + · · ·
1! 2!
ai m
1−z
f (z) = = −(z − 1) + 2(z − 1)2 − 3(z − 1)3 + 4(z − 1)4 · · ·
z2
ni
al Ta
Example 5.34
Expand ze2z in a Taylor’s series about z = −1 and determine the region of con-
vergence.
am S
Solution:
f (z) = ze2z = ze2(z+1) e−2
nn r
1 h
D
i
= 2 (z + 1)e2(z+1) − e2(z+1)
e
2(z + 1) 4(z + 1)2

1
= 2 (z + 1) 1 + + + ···
e 1! 2!
2(z + 1) 4(z + 1)2

− 1+ + + ···
A
1! 2!
2 2 (z + 1)2
2

1 2(z + 1)
= 2 (z + 1) + + + ···
e 1! 2!
2(z + 1) 22 (z + 1)2

− 1+ + + ···
1! 2!
22

1 2 2
= 2 1+ 1− (z + 1) + − (z + 1)2
e 1! 1! 2!
2
23

2 3
+ − (z + 1) + · · ·
2! 3!
Example 5.35
z2 − 1
Find the Taylors series expansion of f (z) = in |z| < 2.
(z + 2)(z + 3)
Solution:
Given
z2 − 1
f (z) =
(z + 2)(z + 3)
3 8
=1+ − (by partial fractions)
z+2 z+3
rs n
3 8
ve lva
=1+ z −
3 1 + z3
y

2 1+ 2
it
3 z −1 8 z −1
=1+ 1+ − 1+
=1+
U ilse
2
3
2
2
z z2 z3
3
1 − + 2 − 3 + ··· −
2 2 2
3
8
3

z z2 z3
1 − + 2 − 3 + ···
3 3 3

3 8 3 8 3 8
ai m
= 1+ − + − 2 + 2 z+ − z2 + · · ·
2 3 2 3 2.22 3.32
ni
al Ta

1 8 3 8 3
=− + − z− − z2 + · · ·
6 32 22 33 23
Example 5.36
am S
1
Obtain Taylor’s series for f (z) = in |z| < 1
(z + 2)(1 + z 2 )
nn r
Solution:
D
1
Given f (z) =
(z + 2)(1 + z 2 )
by splitting into

1 1 2−z
= +
5 z + 2 1 + z2 partial fractions
For |z| < 1
A
1 1 1 1
f (z) = + (2 − z)
10 1 + z2 5 (1 + z 2 )
1 z −1 1
= 1+ + (2 − z)(1 + z 2 )−1
10 2 5
1 z z2 (2 − z)
= 1− + ··· + [1 − z 2 + z 4 − z 6 + · · · ]
10 2 4 5
∞ ∞
1 X zn 2 − z X
= (−1)n n + (−1)n z 2n
10 2 5
n=0 n=0
Example 5.37
1
Expand f (z) = in Laurent’s series valid in the region 1 < |z| < 2.
z2 − 3z + 2
(AU 2009, 2010)
Solution:
1 1 1 1
Let f (z) = = = −
z2 − 3z + 2 (z − 2)(z − 1) z−1 z−2
f (z) is an analytic function in the region 1 < |z| < 2
rs n
1 1
Hence
ve lva
f (z) = z −
y
−2(1 − ) z(1 − 1 )
2 z
it
1 −1

1 z −1 1
U ilse 2

=− 1−
2
−
z
1−
z
h z i−1 z
The expansion of 1 − is valid when < 1 i.e., |z| < 2 and the

ai m
2 2
1 −1

1
ni
expansion of 1 − is valid when < 1 i.e., |z| > 1
al Ta
z z
Hence in the annular region 1 < |z| < 2, f (z) can be expanded in Laurent’s
series as
am S
" 2 3 #
1 z z 2 z 3 1 1 1 1
f (z) = − 1 + + + +· · · − 1+ + + +· · ·
2 2 2 2 z 2 z z
nn r
D
∞ ∞
X zn X 1
=− n+1
− n+1
n=0
2 n=1
z
Example 5.38
A
1
Expand f (z) = as Laurent’s expansion in the region
z2
− 3z + 2
0 < |z − 1| < 1 and obtain its residue at z = 1. (AU 2009)
Solution:
1
f (z) =
z2
− 3z + 2
1 A B
⇒ = +
(z − 1)(z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2)
⇒1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Put z = 1 we get Put z = 2 we get

1 = −A + 0 1=0+B
∴ A = −1 ∴ B=1
1 1
∴ f (z) = − +
z−1 z−2
0 < |z − 1| < 1
Let u=z−1 ∴ z =u+1 (i.e.,) |u| < 1
1 1
rs n
f (z) = − +
u u−1
ve lva
y
1 1
=− −
u (1 − u)
it
−1
U ilse =
=
u
−1
− (1 − u)−1
− (1 + u − u2 + . . . . . .)
u
ai m
−1
= − 1 − (z − 1) − (z − 1)2 + . . . . . .
ni
z− 1
al Ta

−1 2
=− + 1 + (z − 1) + (z − 1) + . . . . . .
z−1
Residues
am S
1
f (z) =
nn r
(z − 1)(z − 2)
D
Here z = 1 is a pole of order 1

z = 2 is a pole of order 1
1
Res [z = +1] = Lt (z − 1) · f (z) = Lt (z − 1) · = −1
z→1 z→1 (z − 1)(z − 2)
A
1
Res [z = 2] = Lt (z − 2) · f (z) = Lt (z − 2) · =1
z→2 z→2 (z − 1)(z − 2)
∴ Res [z = 1] = −1
Example 5.39
1
Find the Laurent’s expansion for f (z) = for the region
z 2 (1− z)
(i) 0 < |z| < 1 (ii) 1 ≤ |z| < 4 (AU 2010)

Solution:
(i) The region 0 < |z| < 1 is the interior of the circle |z| = 1, with the
exception of the point z = 0.
1 1
∴ f (z) = = 2 (1 − z)−1
z 2 (1− z) z
1
= [1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · ]
z2
1 1
= 2 + + 1 + z + z2 · · ·
z z
rs n
is the required expansion in 0 < |z| < 1
ve lva
y
1 −1

1 1 1
it
(ii) f (z) = 2 = =− 3 1−
z (1 − z) 1 z z
U ilse
1

1 1
3
−z 1 −
1
z

= − 3 1 + + 2 + 3 ···
ai m
z z z z
∞
ni
1
al Ta
X
= n+3
, binomial expansion is valid if |z| > 1
z
n=0
and hence this is the required expansion in 1 < |z| < 4.

am S
Note : In fact it is valid in the region 1 < |z| < M , where M is any large
positive number.
nn r
D
Example 5.40
1
Find the expansion of f (z) = in the region 1 < |z − 1| < 2 (AU 2009)
z − z3
Solution:
1 1 1
Let f (z) =
A
3
= 2
=
z−z z(1 − z ) z(1 + z)(1 − z)
1 −1/2 1/2
= + +
z z+1 1−z
Put z − 1 = u
∴ z =u+1
1 −1/2 1/2
∴ f (z) = + −
u+1 u +2 u

1 1 1 1 1
= − −
u+1 2 u+2 2 u
The region 1 < |z − 1| < 2 is equivalent to 1 < |u| < 2

1 1 1 1
∴ f (z) = 1 + 4 1 + u − 2u

u 1+ u 2
−1
1 1 1 u −1 1
= 1+ − 1+ −
u u 4 2 2u
The first two terms can be expanded binomially since 1 < |u| < 2

1 1 1 1 1 u u 2 u 3 1
∴ f (z) = 1− + 2 − 3 +· · · − 1 − + − +· · · −
rs n
u u u u 4 2 2 2 u
ve lva
y

1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + ···
it
z−1 z − 1 (z − 1)2 (z − 1)3
U ilse
−
1
4
"
1−
z−1
2
+

z−1 2
2

−

z−1 3
2
#
+ ··· −
1
2(z − 1)
∞ ∞
(−1)n X (−1)n 1
ai m
X
f (z) = − (z − 1)n −
(z − 1)n+1 2n+2 2(z − 1)
ni
n=0 n=0
al Ta
Example 5.41
1
am S
Expand as a Laurent’s series in the regions.

(z + 1)(z + 3)
(i) |z| < 1 and
nn r
D
(ii) 1 < |z + 1| < 2. (AU 2007, 2009)
Solution:
1 A B 1/2 1/2
Given f (z) = = + = −
(z + 1)(z + 3) z+1 z+3 z+1 z+3
A
(i) Given |z| < 1

1 = A(z + 3) + B(z + 1)
1
1 = 2A ⇒ A =
2
1
1 = −2B ⇒ B = −
2
 
1 1 1 1 
= −
2 1 + z 3 1 + z 

(z + 1)(z + 3)
3

1 −1 1 z −1
= (1 + z) − 1+
2 3 3

1 2 3 1 z z 2
= (1 − z + z − z + . . .) − 1− + − ...
2 3 3 3
z2

1 1 z
= 1 − z + z2 − z3 + . . . − + − + ...
2 3 9 27

1 2 8z 26 2 1 4z 13 2
f (z) = − + z − ... = − + z − ...
2 3 9 27 3 9 27
(ii) Put z + 1 = u
rs n
ve lva
y
∴ 0 < |z + 1| < 2 becomes 0 < |u| < 2
it
1 1 1
Now,
U ilse (z + 1)(z + 3)
Instead of expanding
1
=
(z + 1)(z + 1 + 2)
=
u(u + 2)
in powers of z + 1 it is enough to
(z + 1)(z + 3)
ai m
1
expand in powers of u in 0 < |u| < 2.
ni
u(u + 2)
al Ta
1 1
= u
u(u + 2) 2u 1 +
2
am S
0 < |u| < 2, we have 0 < |u| and |u| < 2

|u| u
(i.e.,) < 1 (or) < 1

nn r
2 2
D
1 1 1 u −1
= u = 2u 1 + 2

u(u + 2) 2u 1 +
2
1 u u 2 u 3
= 1− + − + ...
2u 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
A
= − + u − u2 + . . .
u(u + 2) 2u 4 8 16
Replacing u by z + 1 we get
1 1 1 1 1
= − + (z + 1) − (z + 1)2 + . . .
(z + 1)(z + 3) 2(z + 1) 4 8 16
Example 5.42
z+4
If f (z) = , find Laurent’s series expansions in
(z + 3)(z − 1)2
(i) 0 < |z − 1| < 4 (ii) |z − 1| > 4 (AU 2009)

Solution:
z+4 1 1 5
Let f (z) = = − +
(z + 3)(z − 1)2 16(z + 3) 16(z − 1) 4(z − 1)2
(i) 0 < |z − 1| < 4

put z − 1 = u
1 1 5
∴ f (z) = − + 2
16(u + 4) 16(u) 4u
1 u −1 1 5
rs n
= 1+ − +
64 4 16u 4u2
ve lva
1 1 5
y
= u −1 − + 2
64(1 + 4 ) 16u 4u
it

1 u u 2 u 3 1 5
U ilse

= 1− + − + ··· − +
64 4 4 4 16u 4u
" 2 3 #
1 z−1 z−1 z−1 1 5
f (z) = 1− + − + ··· − +
ai m
64 4 4 4 16(z − 1) 4(z − 1)
ni
al Ta
This is the required Laurent’s series expansion for f (z) in 0 < |z − 1| < 4.

4
(ii) |z − 1| > 4 or <1
z − 1
am S

4
put z − 1 = u or < 1

u
nn r
1 1 5
D
∴ f (z) = − +
16(u + 4) 16u 4u2
1 1 5
= 4 − 16u + 4u2

16u 1 + u
4 −1

1 1 5
= 1+ − + 2
16u u 16u 4u
A
" 2 3 #
1 4 4 4 1 5
= 1− + + + ··· − +
16u u u u 16u 4u2
" #
4 2 4 3

1 4
= 1− + − + ···
16(z − 1) z−1 z−1 z−1
1 5
− +
16(z − 1) 4(z − 1)2
1 1 4
∴ f (z) = 2
+ 3
− + ···
(z − 1) (z − 1) (z − 1)4
is the required Laurent’s series expansion for f (z) in |z − 1| > 4.
Example 5.43
z2 − 1
Expand the function f (z) = in Laurent’s series for |z| > 3.
z2 + 5z + 6
(AU 2013)
Solution:
z2 − 1
rs n
B C
=A+ +
ve lva
z 2 + 52 + 6 z+2 z+3
y
z 2 − 1 = A(z + 2)(z + 3) + B(z + 3) + C(z + 2)
it
U ilse
Put z = −2, B = 3; Put z = −3, C = −8 Equate Coeff of z 2 , A = 1
f (z) = 1 +
3
−
8
z+2 z+3
ai m
When |z| > 3

ni
al Ta
3 8
f (z) = 1 + 1 =
z 1 + z3

z 1+ z
2 −1 8 3 −1

3
=1+ 1+ − 1+
am S
z z z z
∞ n ∞ n
3X n 2 8X n 3
=1− (−1) − (−1)
nn r
z z z z
1 1
D
Example 5.44
7z − 2
Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = in
z(z + 1)(z + 2)
A
1 < |z + 1| < 3. (AU 2010)

Solution:
Take u=z+1 ⇒ z =u−1

7z − 2 7(u − 1) − 2 7u − 9
= =
z(z + 1)(z + 2) (u − 1) · u(u − 3) u(u + 1)(u − 3)
Using Partial Function

7u − 9 A B C
= + +
u(u + 1)(u − 1) u u+1 u−3
7u − 9 = A(u + 1)(u − 3) + Bu(u − 3) + Cu(u + 1)

Put u = 0 ⇒ −9 = −3A ⇒ A=3
Put u = −1 ⇒ −16 = 4B ⇒ B = −4
Put u = 3 ⇒ 12 = 12C ⇒ C = 1
7u − 9 3 4 1
∴ = − + if 1 < |u| < 3
u(u + 1)(u − 3) u u+1 u−3
1 −1

3 4 1 u −1
= − 1+ + 1−
u u u −3 3
rs n
" 2 #
3 4 1 1
ve lva
= − 1− + − ...
y
u u u u
it

1 u u 2
+ 1+ + + ...
U ilse −3 3

1
3
The second term of the series is valid for < 1 and the third term of the series
u
ai m
u
is valid for < 1 and finally put u = z + 1. Hence the series is valid for

ni
3
al Ta
1 < |z + 1| < u.
Example 5.45
am S
4 − 3z
Find all possible Laurent’s expansions of f (z) = about z = 0.
z(1 − z)(2 − z)
nn r
Indicate the region of convergence in each case. (AU 2009)

D
Solution:
4 − 3z
f (z) =
z(1 − z)(2 − z)
4 − 3z A B C
= + +
A
z(1 − z)(2 − z) z 1−z 2−z

A = 2, B = 1, C=1
4 − 3z 2 1 1
(i) = + +
z(1 − z)(2 − z) z 1−z 2−z
2 −1 1 z −1
= + (1 − z) + 1− valid in |z| < 1
z 2 2
2
= + 1 + z + z2 + z3 + . . . ∞

z
1 z z 2 z 3
+ 1+ + + + ...∞
2 2 2 2
1 −1 1

4 − 3z 2 1 z −1
(ii) = − 1− + 1− valid in 1 < |z| < 2
z(1 − z)(2 − z) z z z 2 2
∞ ∞
2 1 X 1 n 1 X z n
= − +
z z z 2 2
n=0 n=0
−1
2 −1

4 − 3z 2 1 1 1
(iii) = − 1− − 1− valid in |z| > 2
z(1 − z)(2 − z) z z z z z
∞ ∞
2 1X 1 n 1X 2 n
= − −
z z z z z
rs n
n=0 n=0
ve lva
y
it
Example 5.46
Expand
1
U ilse
z(z − 1)
as Laurent’s series
(i) about z = 0 in powers of z

ai m
(ii) about z = 1 in powers of z − 1.

ni
al Ta
Also state the region of validity. (AU 2009)

Solution:
am S
(i) The only points where f (z) is not analytic are 0 and 1. Hence f (z) can be
expanded as a Laurent’s series in the annulus 0 < |z| < 1.
nn r
1
D
f (z) =
z(z − 1)
1
= − (1 − z)−1
z
1
= − (1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · ) (since |z| < 1)
z
A
= −[1/z + 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · ]
This is the Laurent’s series expansion of f (z) in 0 < |z| < 1.
(ii) f (z) is analytic in 0 < |z−1| < 1 and hence can be expanded as a Laurent’s
series in powers of z − 1 in this region.
put z − 1 = u.
1 1 1
∴ f (z) = = = (1 + u)−1
z(z − 1) (u + 1)(u) u
1
= [1 − u + u2 − u3 + u4 · · · ]
u
1
= − 1 + u − u2 + · · ·
u
1
= − 1 + (z − 1) − (z − 1)2 + · · ·
(z − 1)
This is the Laurent’s series expansion in 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
rs n
ve lva
y
Example 5.47
it
2 < |z| < 3.
U ilse
Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) =
z2 − 1
z 2 + 5z + 6
valid in the region
(AU 2009)
ai m
Solution: 1
ni
al Ta
z2 + 5z + 6 z2 − 1
z2 − 1 5z − 7 z 2 + 5z + 6
f (z) = 2 =1− 2
z + 5z + 6 z + 5z + 6 −5z − 7
3 8
am S
=1+ −
z+2 z+3
Given 2 < |z| < 3
nn r
⇒ |z| > 2 and |z| < 3

D
3 8
=1+ − z
2 3 1 +
z 1+ 3
z
∞ ∞
3X 2 n

n 8 X z n
=1+ (−1) − (−1)n
A
z z 3 3
0 0
∞ ∞
3X 2n 8X zn
=1+ (−1)n − (−1)n
z zn 3 3n
0 0
Example 5.48
z−1
Obtain the expansion for f (z) = in powers of (z − 1). Indicate the region
z2
of validity.
Solution:
z−1
The function f (z) = is not analytic at z = 0. Hence f (z) will be analytic
z2
in the annular region 0 < |z − 1| < 1 and 1 < |z − 1| < ∞.
(i) In the region 0 < |z − 1| < 1
z−1 u
f (z) = = = u(1 + u)−2
z2 (u + 1)2
= u[1 − 2u + 3u2 − 4u3 + · · · ]
= (z − 1)[1 − 2(z − 1) + 3(z − 1)2 − 4(z − 1)3 + · · · ]
rs n
ve lva
is the Laurent’s series expansion in 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
y
it
(ii) In the region 1 < |z − 1| < ∞
U ilse
f (z) =
u
(u + 1)2
=
1
u

1+
1 −2
u

1 2 3 4
ai m
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + ···
u u u u
ni
al Ta
2 3 4 1
= − + − + ···
u u2 u3 u4
1 2 3 4
= − + − + ···
z − 1 (z − 1)2 (z − 1)3 (z − 1)4
am S
is the Laurent’s series valid in the region |u| > 1 or 1 < |z − 1| < ∞.
nn r
Example 5.49
D
1
Find all the Laurent’s series expansion for f (z) = and specify the
z(1 − z)2
regions in which those expansions are valid. (AU 2008)
Solution:
The function f (z) is not analytic at z = 0 and z = 1. To expand by Laurent’s
A
series, we have to find an annular region bounded by two concentric circles which
does not include z = 0 and z = 1.
(i) Consider the region 0 < |z| < 1
In this region f (z) is analytic
1 1
f (z) = = (1 − z)−2
z(1 − z)2 z
1
= [1 + 2z + 3z 2 + · · · ]
z
This is Laurent series expansion is valid when 0 < |z| < 1.
(ii) Consider the region 1 < |z| < ∞

f (z) is analytic in this region
1 1
f (z) = = 2
z(1 − z)2 3 1
z z −1
1 2

1
=+ 3 1−
z z

1 2 3
= 3 1 + + 2 + ···
z z z
rs n
ve lva
y
This is Laurent’s series expansion valid when |z| > 1.
it
(iii) Consider the region 0 < |z − 1| < 1
U ilse
f (z) is analytic in this region.
1
f (z) =
ai m
(1 − z)2 (1
+ z − 1)
ni
1
al Ta
= [1 + (z − 1)]−1
(z − 1)2
1
= [1 − (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 + · · · ]
(z − 1)2
am S
1 1
= − + 1 − (z − 1) + · · ·
(z − 1)2 z − 1
nn r
This is the required Laurent’s series valid when 0 < |z − 1| < 1.

D
(iv) Consider 1 < |z − 1| < ∞

where f (z) is analytic
1
∴ f (z) =
(z − 1)2 (1
+ (z − 1))
A
1
=
3 1
(z − 1) 1 + z−1
−1
1 1
= 1 +
(z − 1)3 z−1

1 1 1
= 1− + + ···
(z − 1)3 z − 1 (z − 1)2
This is the Laurent’s series expansion valid in the region 1 < |z − 1| < ∞.
Example 5.50
1
Find the Laurent’s series expansion of the function f (z) = in powers
z(1 + z 2 )
of z and specify the region in which the expansion is valid. (AU 2008)
Solution:
The function f (z) is not analytic at z = 0 and z = ±i. To expand by Laurent’s
series we have to find an annular region which does not include 0 and ±i. We
have to find the expansions in powers of z.
rs n
(i) Consider 0 < |z| < 1, where f (z) is analytic
ve lva
y
1
it
∴ f (z) =
z(1 + z 2 )
U ilse 1
= (1 + z 2 )−1
z
1
= (1 − z 2 + z 4 − z 6 + · · · )
ai m
z
1
ni
al Ta
= − z + z3 − z5 · · ·
z
This is valid when |z 2 | < 1 or |z| < 1.
am S
(ii) Consider 1 < |z| < ∞, where f (z) is analytic
1 1
nn r
f (z) = = 3
2 z 1 + z12

z(1 + z )
D
1 −1

1
= 3 1+ 2
z z

1 1 1
= 3 1 − 2 + 4 ···
z z z
A
1 1 1
= 3 − 5 + 7 ···
z z z

1
This is valid when 2 < 1 or |z| > 1
z
Example 5.51
3z − 2
Find the Laurent’s series expansion at f (z) = in the annular region
(z 2 − 2z)z
2 < |z + 2| < 4. (AU 2011)
Solution:
3z − 2
f (z) =
z(z 2 − 2z)
3z − 2
= 2
z (z − 2)
put z + 2 = u
3(u − 2) − 2
∴ f (z) =
(u − 2)2 (u − 2 − 2)
rs n
3u − 8
=
ve lva
(u − 2)2 (u − 4)
y
−1 1 1
it
= + 2
+ (by partial fractions)
u − 2 (u − 2) u−4
=
U ilse
−1
u 1− u 2 + 2

1
u 1 − u2
2 −
1
4 1 − u4

2 −1 2 −2 1
ai m

−1 1 u −1
= 1− + 2 1− − 1−
u u u u 4 4
ni
al Ta
2 ! 2 !
1 2 2 1 2 2
=− 1+ + + ··· + 2 1 + 2 +3 + ···
u u u u u u

1 u u 2
am S
− 1+ + + ...
4 4 4
nn r

2
The first and second expansion are valid when < 1 or 2 < |u| and the third
D
u u
expansion is valid when < 4 or |u| < 4. Hence in the annular region specified

4
2 < |u| < 4 or 2 < |z + 2| < 4, the Laurents expansion is
" 2 # " 2 #
−1 2 2 +1 2 2
f (z) = 1+ + + ··· + 1+2 +3 + ···
A
z+2 z+2 z+2 (z + 2)2 z+2 z+2

" 2 #
1 z+2 z+2
− 1+ + + ...
4 4 4
Exercise 5(b)
☞ Part - A
1. State Taylor’s theorem.
2. State Laurent’s theorem.

3. What is the analytic part and principal part of the Laurent’s series of a func-
tion of z ?
4. Define convergence of a power series.
5. Find the Taylor series for the following functions.

(i) f (z) = cos z about z = π/3
(ii) f (z) = ez about z = −i
(iii) f (z) = e−z about z = 1
rs n
(iv) f (z) = e2z about z = 2i
ve lva
y
(v) f (z) = cos z about z = −π/2.
it
6. Without expanding, find the region of convergence in each of the following
(i) U ilse
f (z) =
z+3
(z − 1)(z − 4)
about z = 2.
(ii) f (z) = sec z about z = 1

ai m
z−1
(iii) f (z) = about z = 0
ni
al Ta
z+1
(iv) f (z) = e2z about z = 2i

1+z
(v) f (z) = log at z = 0.
am S
1−z
7. Find the Laurent’s series of each of the following functions.
nn r
1
(i) valid in 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
D
f (z) =
z(z − 1)
1
(ii) f (z) = valid in |z + 1| < 1.
z(1 − z)
1
(iii) f (z) = 3 , valid in |z| > 1.
z (1 − z)
A
☞ Part - B
8. Obtain the Taylor’s series for the functions given below also state the region
of convergence in each case.
2z 3 + 1
(i) f (z) = about the point z = −i
z(z + 1)
z
(ii) f (z) = about the point z = 0
(z + 1)(z + 2)
z 3 + 2z 2
(iii) f (z) = in |z + 12 | < 1
z 2 + 2z + 3
9. Find the Laurent’s expansion for function f(z) given below in the specified
region.
4z + 4
(i) f (z) = in
z(z − 3)(z + 2)
(a) 0 < |z| < 2 (b) 2 < |z| < 3 (c) |z| > 3
z+3
(ii) f (z) = 2
z(z − z + 2)
(a) 0 < |z| < 1 (b) 0 < |z| < 2 (c) 1 < |z| < 2
rs n
z2−1
(iii) f (z) =
ve lva
z2 + 5z + 6
y
(a) |z| > 3 (b) |z| < 2 (c) z < |z| < 3
it
z
(iv)
U ilse
f (z) =
(z − 1)(z − 2)
(a) |z + 2| < 3
in
(b) 3 < |z + 2| < 4 (c) |z + 2| > 4

1
ai m
(v) f (z) = in
(z + 1)(z + 3)
ni
al Ta
(a) 1 < |z| < 3 (b) 0 < |z + | < 2

(c) |z| > 3 (d) |z| < 1
1
(vi) f (z) = in
am S
(z 2 + 1)(z 2 + 2)
√ √
(a) |z| < 1 (b) 1 < |z| < 2 (c) |z| > 2
nn r
z2
− 6z − 1
D
(vii) f (z) = in 3 < |z + 2| < 5

(z − 1)(z − 3)(z + 2)
e2z
(viii) f (z) = in |z − 1| > 1
(z − 1)3
1
(ix) f (z) = in
A
(z − 1)(z − 2)
(a) |z − 1| < 1 (b) |z| > 2
z
(x) f (z) = in 0 < |z − 1| < 2
(z − 1)(z − 3)
z+3
10. Expand f (z) = in powers of z.
z(z 2 − z − 2)
(a) within the unit circle about the origin.
(b) within the annular region between the concentric circle about the ori-
gin having radii 1 and 2 respectively.
(c) the exterior to the circle with centre as origin and radius 2.
1
11. Obtain the Laurent’s series expansion for about z = 0 and spec-
z(1 − z)2
ify the regions in which the expansion are valid.
z+1
12. Represent f (z) = by
z−1
(a) Its Laurent’s series in powers of z for the region |z| > 1
rs n
(b) Its Taylor’s series in powers of z and give the region of validity.
ve lva
y
(c) Its Maclaurin’s series and give the region for its validity.
it
U ilse
5.5 Singularities
Definitions
Zeros of an analytic function: A zero of an analytic function f (z) is a value of
ai m
z for which f (z) = 0.

ni
al Ta
Let f (z) be a function which is analytic in a region R and ‘a’ is any point in
R then f (z) is said to have a zero of order m at z=a if f (z) = (z − a) m φ(z),
where φ(z) is analytic at a and φ(a) 6= 0.
am S
Note: If f (z) has a zero of order 1 at z = a then f (z) is said to have a simple
zero at z = a.
nn r
For example
D
1. Let f (z) = sin z

By Taylor’s series expansion about z = 0, we have
z3 z5
sin z = z − + + ...
A
3! 2 5! 4
z z
=z 1− + + ···
3! 5!
= zφ(z)
φ(z) is analytic and φ(0) = 1 6= 0.

∴ z = 0 is a zero of order 1 for f (z) or sin z has a simple zero at z = 0.
2. Consider f (z) = z sin z

By Taylor’s expansion about z = 0, we have
z3 z5

f (z) = z z − + − ···
3! 5!
z2 z4

2
=z 1− + − ···
3! 5!
= z 2 φ(z)
φ(z) is analytic and φ(0) 6= 0.
rs n
ve lva
3.
y
f (z) = (z 2 − 1)(z 2 − 3z + 2)
it
= (z + 1)(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 1)
U ilse = (z + 1)(z − 2)(z − 1)2
∴ z = −1, 2 are zero’s of order 1 and z = 1 is a zero of order 2.

ai m
Singularities of an Analytic Function
ni
al Ta
A point ‘a’ is called a singular point of an analytic function f (z), if f (z) is not
analytic at ‘a’ or f (z) is said to have a singularity at ‘a’.
Types of singularities
am S
1. Isolated singularity:
A singular point z = a of f (z) is said to be an isolated singular point of f (z)
nn r
if there exists a circle |z − a| = δ, δ > 0 encloses no other singular point other

D
than ‘a’. In other words, the point z = a is called an isolated singularity of

f (z), if there is no other singularity of f (z), if there is no other singularity in its
neighbourhood.
Note: If ‘a’ is not singular point and we can find δ > 0 such that |z − a| = δ
A
encloses no singular point, then we call ‘a’ an ordinary point of f (z).

For example:
z+1
f (z) = has two isolated singularities z = 1,
(z − 1)(z − 2)
z+3
z = 2 and f (z) = 2 2 than three isolated singularities z = 0,
√ z (z + 2)
z = ± 2i.
2. Pole
If a is an isolated singularity of f (z). The point ‘a’ is called a pole if the principal
part of f (z) at z = a valid in 0 < |z − a| < δ has a finite number of terms.
If the principal part of f (z) at z = a is given by

∞
X b1 b2 bm
bn (z − a)−n = + 2
+ ··· + + ···
z − a (z − a) (z − a)m
n=1
where bm 6= 0 then we say that ‘a’ is a pole of order m.
Note: A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole and a pole of order 2 is called a
double pole.
For example
z 2 − 2z + 3 ez
rs n
f (z) = and f (z) = have simple poles at z = 2 and z = 0
z−2 z
ve lva
3z
y
respectively and f (z) = has a pole at z = 1 of order 2.
(z − 1)2
it
3. Removable singularity
U ilse
A singularity z = a is called removable singularity of f (z) if lim
For example
z→0 f (z) exists.
ai m
sin(z − a)
f (z) =
(z − a)
ni
al Ta
(z − a)3 (z − a)5

1
= (z − a) − + − ···
z−a 3! 5!
(z − a)2 (z − a)4
=1− + − ···
am S
3! 5!
sin(z − a)
lim =1
nn r
z→a (z − a)
D
∴ z = a is a removable singularity.
4. Essential singularity
If the principal part of f (z) in its Laurent’s series of f (z) at z = a, valid in
0 < |z − a| < r, has infinite number of terms, then z = a is called essential
singularity.
A
For example
1 1 1 1 1
1. f (z) = e1/z = 1 + + · 2 + · 3 + ...∞
z 2! z 3! z
hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.

1
2. f (z) = sin
z−a
1 1 1 1 1
= − 3
+ ...∞
z − a 3! (z − a) 5! (z − a)5
hence z = a is a essential singularity.
Entire function
A function f (z) which is analytic everywhere in the finite plane (except at infinity)
is called an entire function or an integral function.
For example ez , sin z, cos z are entire functions.
Meromorphic function
A function f (z) which is analytic everywhere in the finite plane except at finite
number of poles is called a meromorphic function.
z
For example f (z) = is a meromorphic function, as it has only two
rs n
z(z − 1)2
ve lva
poles a single pole at z = 0 and a double pole at z = 1.
y
it
5.6 Residues
about z = a.
U ilse
If z = a is an isolated singularity of f (z), we can find the Laurent series of f (z)
∞ ∞
X
n
X bn 1
i.e. f (z) = an (z − a) + , then the coefficient of i.e.
ai m
(z − a)n z−a
n=0 n=1
ni
b1 in the Laurent’s series of f (z) at z = a valid in 0 < |z − a| < r is called of
al Ta
the residue of f (z) at z = a.

Hence the residue of f (z) at z = a is also given by
am S
1
Z
[Res f (z)]z=a = f (z)dz
2πi
C
nn r
D
where C is any closed curve around ‘a’ such that f (z) is analytic within and on
C, except at z = a.
1. If z = a is a simple pole of f (z), then

∞
X b1
A
f (z) = an (z − a)n +
z−a
n=0
X∞
(z − a)f (z) = an (z − a)n+1 + b1
n=0
∴ lim [(z − a)f (z)] = b1 = [Res f (z)]z=a
z→a
Hence if z = a is a simple pole of f (z), then
Residue of f (z) at z = a = lim (z − a)f (z)

z→a
P (z)
2. If z = a is a simple pole of f (z) and if f (z) = then
Q(z)
Q(z) = (z − a) R(z) where R(a) 6= 0 then (z − a)
P (z) P (z)
f (z) = (z − a) =
Q(z) R(z)

(z − a)P (z)
∴ lim (z − a)f (z) = lim
z→a z→a Q(z)
(z − a)P 0 (z) + P (z)

rs n
= lim
z→a Q0 (z)
ve lva
y

P (z)
= lim
it
z→a Q0 (z)
U ilse
Hence for a simple pole z = a Residue of f (z) at z = a = lim
P (z)
.
z→a Q0 (z)
ai m
3. If z = a is a pole order m, then

ni
al Ta
∞
X m
X
m n
(z − a) f (z) = an (z − a) + bn (z − a)−n
n=0 n=1
am S
X∞
∴ (z − a)m f (z) = an (z − a)m+n + b1 (z − a)m−1
n=0
nn r
+ b2 (z − a)m−2 + · · · bm
D
Differentiating (m − 1) times and taking the limit as z → a, we get,
dm−1
Residue of f (z) at z = a = lim [(z − a)m f (z)]
z→a dz m−1
A
5.7 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Statement: If C is a closed curve, and f (z) is analytic within and on C, except
at a finite number of singular points within C, then
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi[R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn ]
C
where R1 , R2 · · · Rn are the residues of f (z) at the singular points z1 , z2 · · · zn .

Proof:
f (z) is an analytic function within and on C except for a finite number of singu-
larities, z, z1 · · · zn . We enclose the singularities by small non - intersecting cir-
cles C1 , C2 , · · · Cn with centre at z1 , z2 , · · · zn and radii r1 , r2 · · · rn lying wholy
within C.
Then f (z) is analytic in the multiply connected region enclosed by the curves
C1 , C2 · · · Cn . Hence by Cauchy’s extension of integral theorem we have
Z Z Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz + f (z)dz + · · · f (z)dz (1)
rs n
C C1 C2 Cn
ve lva
= 2πi[R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn ] (by definition of Residue)
y
it
Example 5.52
U ilse
Give the formula of obtain the residue of f (z) that has a pole of order m at z = a.
(AU 2009)
ai m
Solution:
Residue at a pole of order m is given by
ni
al Ta
1 dm−1
[Res f (z)]z=a = Lt [(z − a)m f (z)]
z→a (m − 1)! dz m−1
am S
Example 5.53
z − sin z
nn r
Find the nature and location of the singularity for function f (z) = .
z2
D
(AU 2011)
Solution:
z − sin z
f (z) =
z2
A
Hence z = 0 is the only singularity of f (z)

z3 z5

z − sin z = z − z − + ······
|3 |5
z3 z5
= + + ···
|3 |5

z − sin z
lim =0
z→0 z2
∴ z = 0 is a removable singularity
Example 5.54
Find the singularities of the following function
and classify them in each case.
z 1 cot πz
(i) f (z) = z (ii) f (z) = sin (iii) f (z) =
e −1 z (z − a)3
z
sin z − z e z 6= 0
(iv) f (z) = 3
(v) f (z) =
z 0 z=0

z−2 1
(vi) f (z) = 2
sin
z z−1
rs n
Solution:
z
ve lva
(i) Given f (z) =
y
ez −1
it
The singularies of f (z) are given by the values of z for which e z − 1 = 0
U ilse
∴ ez = 1 = e2nπi , (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · )
∴ z = 2nπi are the singularities of f (z) now
z2

ai m
ez − 1 = 1 + z + + ··· − 1
2!
ni
al Ta
z 2 z 3 z4
= + + − ···
2! 3! 4!

z
am S
∴ lim z = +1, hence z = 0 is a removable singularity for f (z) also

z→0 e − 1

z
lim = ∞ if n 6= 0, hence z = 2nπi are simple poles of f (z).
nn r
z
z→2nπi e − 1
D

1
(ii) Given f (z) = sin
z
Here z = 0 is the only singularity of f (z)

1 1 1 1
now sin = − + ···
z 3!z 3 5!z 5
A
z

1
lim sin does not exist and the principal part of f (z) contain an infinite
z→0 z
number of terms.
Hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.
cot πz
(iii) Given f (z) =
(z − a)3
cot πz
or f (z) =
(z − a)3 sin πz.
The singularities of f (z) are given by the value of z for which (z −a) 3 sin πz = 0.
Hence z = a and sin πz = 0 ⇒ z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are the singlularities of
f (z).
Hence z = a is a pole of order 3 of f (z) and z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are simple
poles (each)
sin z − z
(iv) Given f (z) =
z3
Here z = 0 is the only singularity of f (z).
rs n
z3 z5 z3 z5
ve lva
∴ sin z = z − + − ··· = − + ···
y
3! 5! 3! 5!
z3 z5
it
∴ sin z − z = z − + − ···
U ilse ∴ lim
z→0

z3
3! 5!
sin z − z
6= 0
ai m
Hence z = 0 is a removable singularity of f (z).
ni
al Ta
z
e z 6= 0
(v) Given f (z) =
0 z=0
given f (z) = 0 for z = 0

am S
∴ z = 0 is the only singularity

nn r
∴ lim f (z) = 1
D
z→0
Hence z = 0 is a removable singularity.

z−2 1
(vi) Given f (z) = sin
z2 z−1
1
A
The singularities are z = 0 and z = 1 + , (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · )

nπ
1
Hence z = 0 is a pole of order 2 and z = 1 + (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · ) is a
nπ
essential singularity.
As the limit does not exists and the principal part contains in limits number of
terms.
Example 5.55
1 − e2z
Find the residue of at z = 0. (AU 2013)
z4
Solution: h i
2z (2z)2 (2z)3
− + |1 + |2 + |3 + .......
f (z) =
z4
2 2 8
=− 3 − 2 − + .....
z z 6z
1 8 4
[Resf (z)]z=0 = Coeff of = − = −
z 6 3
Example 5.56
rs n
1
Expand f (z) = in Laurent’s series valid for the region
ve lva
(z + 1)(z + 3)
y
|z| > 3 &| < |z| < 3. (AU 2012)
it
Solution:
U ilse 1
(z + 1)(z + 3)
=
A
+
z+1 z+3
B
A = 1/2, B = −1/2
ai m
1/2 −1/2
ni
∴ f (z) = −
al Ta
z+1 z+3
Case 1: |z| > 3
1/2 1/2
f (z) = −
am S
z(1 + 1/z) z(1 + 3/z)

1 1
= (1 + 1/z)−1 − (1 + 3/z)−1
nn r
2z 2z
1 n
D
1 X 1 X
= (−1)n − (−1)n (3/z)n
2z z 2z

1
This is valid < | & |3/z| < 1
z
i.e., |z| > 1 i.e., |z| > 3
A
i.e., |z| > 3

Case 2: 1 < |z| < 3
i.e., |z| > 1 and |z| < 3
1/2 1/2
f (z) = −
z+1 z+3
1/2 1/2
= −
z(1 + 1/z) 3(1 + z/3)
1 1
= (1 + 1/2)−1 − (1 + 2/3)−1
2z 6
n
1 X n 1 1X
= (−1) − (−1)n (2/3)n
2z z 6

1
This is valid < 1 & |z/3| < 1
z
i.e., |z| > 1 |z| < 3
∴ 1 < |z| < 3
Example 5.57
4
rs n
Find the residues of the function f (z) = at a simple pole. (AU 2012)
z 3 (z− 2)
ve lva
y
Solution:
z = 2 is a simple pole
it
U ilse [Res f (z)]z=2 = lim (z − 2)f (2)
z→2
= lim (z − 2)
4
z→2 z 3 (z− 2)
ai m
4 4 4
= 3
= 3 = = 1/2
z 2 8
ni
al Ta
Example 5.58
z2
Determine the residue of f (z) = at z = 1. (AU 2011)
am S
(z − 1)2 (z + 2)
Solution:
z = 1 is a pole of order 2
nn r
z2

d
D
2
∴ (Res f (z) = lim (z − 1)
z→1 dz (z + 2)(z − 1)2
(z + 2)2z − z 2 (1)
= lim
z→1 (z + 2)2
6−1
= = 5/9
9
A
Example 5.59
z2
Find the residues of f (z) = at its singular points. (AU 2011)
(z − 1)(z + 2)2
Solution:
Put (z − 1)(z + 2)2 = 0
∴ z = 1 is a pole of order 1
z = −2 is a pole of order 2
z2 1
(Res f (z))z=1 = lim (z − 1) 2
=
z→1 (z − 1)(z + 2) 9
2

d 2 z
(Res f (z))z=−2 = lim (z + 2)
z→−2 dz (z − 1)(z + 2)2
(z − 1)2z − z 2 (1)

(−3)(−4) − 4
= lim 2
=
z→−2 (z − 1) 9
= 8/9
Example 5.60
rs n
ve lva
y
Find the residue of cot z at the pole z = 0. (AU 2010)
it
Solution:
∵ U ilse
[Res (f (z))]z=a = lim (z − a) f (z)
z→a
Here f (z) = cot z
ai m
cos z φ(z)
= =
ni
sin z ψ(z)
al Ta
& z=a=0
φ(z) = cos z
am S
φ(0) = cos 0 = 1 6= 0
ψ(z) = sin z
nn r
ψ(0) = sin 0 = 0
D
∴ [Res (cot z)]z=0 = lim (z − 0) f (z)

z→0
φ(z) cos z cos z
= = = =1
0
ψ (z) d cos z
(sin z)
dz
∴ [Res (cot z)]z=0 =1
A
Example 5.61
−1
If f (z) = − 2 1 + (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 + . . . , find the residue of f (z) at

z−1
z = 1. (AU 2010)
Solution:
[Res f (z)]z=1 = −1
Example 5.62
Calculate the residues of f (z) at its poles where

z2 z2
(i) f (z) = (AU 2009) (ii) f (z) =
(z − 1)2 (z + 2) z 4 + a4
ez z2 + 4
(iii) f (z) = (AU 2006) (iv) f (z) =
z 2 (z 2 + 9) z 3 + 2z 2 + 2z
1 zez
(v) f (z) = (AU 2007) (vii) f (z) = (AU 2009)
rs n
(z 2 + a2 )2 (z − 1)3
ve lva
y
Solution:
it
z2
(i) Given f (z) =
U ilse (z − 1)2 (z + 2)
Here z = 1 is a pole of order 2
and z = −2 is a pole of order 1
ai m
ni
al Ta
∴ Res [f (z)]z=−2 = lim (z + 2)f (z)

z→−2
z2
= lim (z + 2)
z→−2 (z − 1)2 (z + 2)
am S
4
=
9
1 d
nn r
and Res[f (z)]z=1 = lim [(z − 1)2 f (z)]

1! dz
D
z→1
z2

d 2
= lim (z − 1)
z→1 dz (z − 1)2 (z + 2)
2
d z
= lim
z→1 dz z + 2
(z + 2)(2z) − (z 2 )(1)
A

= lim
z→1 (z + 2)2
5
=
9
z2
(ii) Given f (z) =
z 4 + a4
The poles of f (z) are given by
z 4 + a4 = 0
or z = a(−1)1/4

(2n + 1)π (2n + 1)π
= a cos + i sin
4 4
= aei(2n+1)π/4 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3.
∴ z = aeiπ/4 , aei3π/4 , aei5π/4 , aei7π/4 are all simples poles.

P (z)
As f (z) is of the form
Q(z)
rs n

P (z)
ve lva
[Res f (z)]z=aeiπ/4 = lim
y
0
z→aeiπ/4 Q (z)
it

1
= lim
U ilse =
z→aeiπ/4 4z
1 −iπ/4
4a
e
(1 − i)
ai m
= √
4 2a
ni
al Ta

1 1 −i3π/4
[Resf (z)](z=aei3π/4 ) = lim = e
z→ae i3π/4 4z 4a
−(1 + i)
= √
am S
4 2a

1
[Resf (z)](z=aei5π/4 ) = lim
nn r
z→ae i5π/4 4z
D
1 −i5π/4 1
= e = √ (−1 + i)
4a 4 2a

1
[Resf (z)](z=aei7π/4 ) = lim
z→ae i7π/4 4z
1 −i7π/4
= e
A
4a
1
= √ (1 + i).
4 2a
ez
(iii) Given f (z) =
z 2 (z 2 + 9)
Here z = 0 is a double pole of f (z)
and z = 3i are simple poles of f (z).
1 d
[Res f (z)]z = 0 = lim (z − 0)2 f (z)
1! z→0 dz
z
d e
= lim 2
z→0 dz z +9
2
z (z + 9) − 2z
= lim e
z→0 (z 2 + 9)2
1
=
9
[Resf (z)]z=3i = lim (z − 3i)f (z)
z→3i
ez
= lim
z→3i (z 2 )(z + 3i)
rs n
e3i
ve lva
y
=
−54i
it
ie3i
=
U ilse
Similarly [Res f (z)]z=−3i =
54
ie−3i
54
ai m
z2 + 4
(iv) Given f (z) =
ni
z 3 + 2z 2 + 2z
al Ta
z2 + 4 z2 + 4
= =
z(z 2 + 2z + 2) z(z + 1 − i)(z + 1 + i)
am S
Here z = 0 and z = −1 ± i are simple poles of f (z) and f (z) is of the for
P (z)
.
nn r
Q(z) P (z)
∴ [Resf (z)]z=0 = lim 0
D
z→0 Q (z)
z2 + 4
= lim 2
z→0 3z + 4z + 2
4
= =2
2
A

P (z)
[Resf (z)]z=−1+i = lim
z→−1+i Q0 (z)
z2 + 4

= lim
z→−1+i 3z 2 + 4z + 2
−1 + 3i
=
2
−(1 + 3i)
Similarly [Resf (z)]z=−1−i =
2
1
(v) Given f (z) =
(z 2 + a 2 )2
Here z = ±ai are poles of order 2 for f (z)

1 d
(z − ai)2 · f (z)

∴ [Resf (z)]z=ai = lim
1! z→ai dz
1 d 1
= lim
1! z→ai dz (z + ai)2
−2
= lim
z→ai (z + ai)3
−i
rs n
=
4a3
ve lva
y
+i
Similarly [Res f (z)]z=−ai = 3
it
4a
U ilse
(vi) Given f (z) =
zez
(z − 1)3
Here z = 1 is a pole of order 3 for f (z).
ai m
d2
ni
[(z − 1)3 · f (z)]
al Ta
∴ [Resf (z)]z=1 = lim

z→1 dz 2
1 d2
= lim 2 [zez ]
2 z→1 dz
am S
1
= lim ez (z + 2)
2 z→1
3ez
nn r
=
2
D
Example 5.63
50z
Find the residue of f (z) = at z = 1. (AU 2009)
(z + 4)(z − 1)2
A
Solution:
50z
f (z) =
(z + 4)(z − 1)2
z = 1 is a pole of order 2.
The residue of f (z) at z = 1 is
d 50z
= lim (z − 1)2
z→1 dz (z + 4)(z − 1)2
(z + 4)50 − 50z(1)
= lim
z→1 (z + 4)2
5(50) − 50(1)
=
25
200
= =8
25
Example 5.64
Evaluate the following, using Cauchy’s residue theorem
4 − 3z
Z
rs n
(i) dz, where C is |z| = 3/2 (AU 2009)
z(z − 1)(z − 2)
ve lva
y
C
it
z−2
Z
(ii) dz, where C is |z| = 2
z(z − 1)
(iii)
C
U ilse
Z
dz
, where C is |z| = 1 (AU 2009)
z sin z
ai m
C
ni
ez dz
Z
al Ta
(iv) , where C is |z| = 4 (AU 2010)

(z 2 + π 2 )2
C
Z
(v) tan zdz, where C is |z| = 2 (AU 2011)
am S
C
nn r
Solution:
4 − 3z
D
(i) Let f (z) =

z(z − 1)(z − 2)
Here the poles of f (z) are z = 0, 1, 2 which are simple poles.
Given C : |z| = 3/2 which represents a circle with centre at 0 and radius 3/2.
Hence out of the three poles only z = 0 z = 1 lies within C.
A
∴ Let R1 = [Res f (z)z=0 ] = lim (z − 0)f (z)

z→0
4 − 3z
= lim
z→0 (z − 1)(z − 2)
4
= =2
(−1)(−2)
and R2 = [Res f (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1)f (z)
z→1
4 − 3z
= lim = −1
z→1 (z)(z − 2)
∴ By Cauchy’s residue theorem

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi[R1 + R2 ]
C
= 2πi(2 − 1)
= 2πi
4 − 3z
Z
dz = 2πi
z(z − 1)(z − 2)
C
rs n
z−2
Z
ve lva
(ii) dzC : |z| = 2
y
z(z − 1)
C
it
z−2
U ilse
Let f (z) =
z(z − 1)
Here, the poles of f (z) are z = 0 and z = 1 which are simple poles
Hence z = 0 and z = 1 line within |z| = 2
ai m
Let R1 = [Resf (z)]z=0 = lim (z − 0) · f (z)

ni
al Ta
z→0
(z − 2)
= lim
z→0 z − 1
=2
am S
and R2 = [Resf (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1)f (z)

z→1
z−2
nn r
= lim
z
D
z→1
= −1
By Cauchy’s residue theorem Z
f (z)dz = 2πi[R1 + R2 ]
C
A
= 2πi(2 − 1)
= 2πi
z−2
Z
∴ dz = 2πi
z(z − 1)
C
dz
Z
(iii) Given , C : |z| = 1
z sin z
C
1
Let f (z) =
z sin z
The poles of f (z) are gives by z sin z = 0
z3 z5

i.e. z z− + ··· = 0
3! 5!
2 z4

2 z
or z 1− + ··· = 0
3! 5!
∴ z = 0 is a double pole of (z), which lies with in |z| = 1.
1 d
∴ [Resf (z)]z=0 = lim (z − 0)2 · f (z)
rs n
1!, z→0 dz
ve lva

d 2 0
y
= lim form (using L’Hospital’s rule)
z→0 dz sin z 0
it

sin z − z cos z
U ilse = lim
z→0
= lim
h z i
sin2 z
=0
z→0 2 cos z
ai m
By Cauchy’s residue theorem
ni
al Ta
Z
∴ f (z)dz = 2πi[Res f (z)]z=0 = 0
C
am S
ez
Z
(iv) Given C : | z| = 4
(z 2 + π 2 )2
C
nn r
ez
Z
D
Let f (z) =
(z 2 + π 2 )2
C
Here the pole of f (z) are z = ±πi
Which are poles of order 2 and lie within C
A
1 d
Let R1 = [Resf (z)]z=πi = (z − πi)2 f (z)

∴ lim
1! z→πi dz
ez

d
= lim
z→πi dz (z + πi)2
(z + πi)2 ez − 2(z + πi)ez

= lim
z→πi (z + πi)4
eiπ (2πi − 2) 1
= 4
= 3 (π + i)
8πi 4π
1
Similarly R2 = [Resf (z)]z=−πi = 3 (π − i)
4π
By Cauchy’s residue theorem

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi(R1 + R2 )
C
[π + i + π − i] 2πi i
= 2πi 3
= 3 · 2π =
4π 4π π
Z
(v) Given tan zdz c : |z| = 2
C
rs n
sin z
Let f (z) = tan z =
ve lva
cos z
y
The poles of f (z) are given by cos z = 0.
it
U ilse π
i.e. z = (2n + 1) , where n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · which are simple poles.
2
π π
Out of these poles only z = + and z = − lie within C and f (z) is of the
2 2
ai m
P (z)
form .
ni
al Ta
Q(z)
P (z)
∴ let R1 = [Resf (z)]z=π/2 = limπ 0
z→ 2 Q (z)
sin z
am S
= limπ
z→ 2 − sin z
= −1
nn r
Similarly R2 = [Res f (z)]z=− π2 = −1

D

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi[R1 + R2 ]
C
A
= 2πi[−1 − 1]
= −4πi
Z
∴ tan z dz = −4πi
C
Example 5.65
Z
Evaluate dz, where C is |z| = 3. (AU 2013)
(z − 1)(z − 2)
C
Solution:
1 1 1
= −
(z − 1)(z − 2) z−2 z−1
2 2 Z
sin πz + cos πz 1 1
Z
= − (cos πz 2 + sin πz 2 )dz
(z − 1)(z − 2) z−2 z−1
C C
(cos πz 2 + sin πz 2 ) cos πz 2 + sin πz 2
Z Z
= dz − dz
z−2 z−1
C C
rs n
z = 2 lies inside |z| = 3; z = 1 lies inside |z| = 3.
ve lva
y
where f (z) = cos πz 2 + sin πz 2
it
I = 2πif (2) − 2πif (1)
U ilse
= 2πi[cos 4π + i sin 4π] − 2πi[cos π + sin π]
sin π = 0
cos π = (−1)n
= 2πi[1 + 0] − 2πi[−1 + 0]
ai m
= 2πi + 2πi = 4πi
ni
al Ta
Example 5.66
Evaluate the following using Cauchy’s residue theorem

am S
dz
Z
(i) where C is |z − i| = 2
(z + 4)2
2
nn r
C
D
12z − 7 √
Z
(ii) 2
dz, where C is |z + i| = 3 (AU 2006)
(2z + z)(z − 1)
C
z π
Z
(iii) dz, where C is |z − π| =
cos z 2
A
(z − 1)
Z
(iv) dz, where C is |z − i| = 2 (AU 2008, 2012)
(z + 1)2 (z − 2)
C
(z + 1)
Z
(v) dz, where C is |z + 1 + i| = 2 (AU 2010)
z 2 + 2z + 4
C
et dz
Z
(vi) , where C is |z − 1| = 1
(z + 2)(z − 1)
C
Solution:
dz
Z
(i) Given C : |z − i| = 2
(z 2 + 4)2
C
1 1
Let f (z) = =
(z 2 + 4) 2 (z + 2i) (z − 2i)2
2
The poles of f (z) are z = +2i and z = −2i, which are both poles of order 2.
Out of these two poles only z = 2i lies within C
1 d
rs n
(z − 2i)2 · f (z)

Let R1 = [Resf (z)]z=2i = lim
1! z→2i dz
ve lva
y
d 1
= lim
it
z→2i dz (z + 2i)2
U ilse = lim

−2
z→2i (z + 2i) 3

=
1
32i
ai m

1
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi(R1 ) = 2πi
ni
al Ta
32i
C
π
=
16
√
am S
12z − 7
Z
(ii) Given dz C : |z + i| = 3
(2z + 3)(z − 1)2
C
nn r
12z − 7
Let f (z) =
D
(2z + 3)(z − 1)2

The poles of f (z) are z = 1 and z = −3/2
where z = 1 is a pole of order 2
and z − 3/2 is pole of order 1
A
Out of these two poles only z = 1 lies within C.

1 d
(z − 1)2 · f (z)

∴ [Resf (z)]z=1 = lim
1! z→1 dz
d 12z − 7
= lim
z→1 dz 2z + 3

(2z + 3)(12) − (12z − 7)(2)
= lim
z→1 (2z + 3)2

50
= lim =2
z→1 (2z + 3)2

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi(2) = 4πi
C
12z − 7
Z
∴ dz = 4πi
(2z + 3)(z − 1)2
C
z
Z
(iii) Given dz when C : |z − π/2| = π/2
cos z
rs n
C
z
ve lva
Let f (z) =
y
cos z
it
The poles of f (z) are given by cos z = 0
U ilse
i.e. z = (2n + 1)π/2, n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · which are simple poles
P (z)
Out of these poles only z = π/2 line within C and f (z) is of the form
Q(z)
ai m
ni

P (z) z
al Ta

∴ [Res(f (z))]z=π/2 = lim = lim − = −π/2
z→π/2 Q(z) z→π/2 sin z

am S

−π
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi = −π 2 i
2
nn r
C
D
z+1
Z
(iv) dz, c; |z + 1 + i| = 2
z 2 + 2z + 4
C
z+1
Let f (z) =
z2
+ 2z + 4
A
the poles of f (z) are given by z 2 + 2z + 4 = 0

or (z + 1)2 + 3 = 0
√
∴ z =√−1 ± i 3 are the simple poles of f (z). Out of these two poles only
z = −1 − i 3 lies inside C.
√

√
z+1
∴ [Resf (z)]z=−1− 3 = lim √ (z + 1 + i 3)f (z) √
z→−(1+ 3i) z+1−i 3
1
= lim√ =
z→−(1+ 3i) 2

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi(1/2) = πi
C
ez
Z
(v) dz; C : |z − 1| = 1
(z + 2)(z + 1)
C
ez
Let f (z) =
rs n
(z + 2)(z + 1)
ve lva
∴ the poles of f (z) are z = −2 and z = 1. z = −2 and z = 1 are simple
y
poles of f (z). Out of these two poles only z = 1 lies inside C.
it
U ilse ∴ [Resf (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1) · f (z)
z→1
z
e e1
= lim =
z→1 z + 2 3
ai m
ni
By Cauchy’s residence theorem
al Ta
∴
Z e i2πe
f (z)dz = 2πi =
3 3
am S
z sec z
Z
(vi) Evaluate dz, where C is the ellipse 4x2 + ay 2 = 9, using
nn r
(1 − z 2 )
D
C
Cauchy’s residue theorem.
Solution:
z sec z z
Let f (z) = = y
1 − z2 (1 − z 2 ) cos z
A
The poles of f (z) are z = ±1, z = (2n + 1
1)π/2.
x
-3/2 0 3/2
z = ±1 and z = (2n + 1)π/2,
-1
n = 0, ±1, ±2 · · · are simple poles.
The ellipse 4x2 + ay 2 = 9, meets the real
axis at x = ±3/2 and the imaginary axis at y = ±1.
Hence out of these poles only z = ±1 lie within C.
Let R1 = [Res f (z)]z=1

= lim (z − 1)f (z)

z→1
−z
= lim
(cos z)(1 + z)
z→1
−1 − sec 1
= =
2 cos 1 2
−1 − sec 1
Similarly, R2 = [Resf (z)]z=−1 = =
2 cos 1 2
∴ By Cauchy’s residue theorem.
rs n
ve lva
Z
y
f (z)dz = 2πi[R1 + R2 ]
it
C
U ilse = 2πi

− sec 1 sec 1
2
−
2

= −2πi sec 1.
Example 5.67
ai m
z−3
Z
ni
Evaluate dz where C is a circle x2 + y 2 = 9. Using Cauchy’s residue
al Ta
z2 − z
C
theorem.
Solution:
am S
z−2 z−2
Let f (z) = 2
=
z −z z(z − 1)
nn r
Given C is a circle x2 + y 2 = 9 or |z| = 3 the poles of f (z) are z = 0 and

D
z = 1, which are both simple poles. Both these poles lie with in C.
Let R1 = [Resf (z)]z=0 = lim (z − 0)f (z)
z→0

z−2
= lim =2
z→0 z − 1
A
and R2 = [Resf (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1) · f (z)

z→1

z−2
= lim = −1
z→1 z
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi[R1 + R2 ]
C
= 2πi(2 − 1) = 2πi
Example 5.68
3z 2 + z − 1
Use Residue theorem, to evaluate dz where C is the circle
R
C (z 2 − 1)(z − 3)
|z| = 4. (AU 2010)
Solution:
3z 2 + z − 1 3z 2 + z − 1
Here f (z) = 2
=
(z − 1)(z − 3) (z − 1)(z + 1)(z − 3)
Here z = −1, 1, 3 is a pole of order 1
rs n
z = 1, 3, − 1 lies inside the circle |z| = 2
ve lva
y
Now Res [f (z)]z=1 = Lt (z − 1) f (z)
it
z→1
U ilse = Lt (z − 1) ·
3
z→1
3
3z 2 + z − 1
(z − 1)(z + 1)(z − 3)
= =
2(−2) −4
ai m
Res [f (z)]z=−1 = Lt (z + 1) f (z)

ni
al Ta
z→−1
3z 2 + z − 1
= Lt (z + 1) ·
z→−1 (z − 1)(z + 1)(z − 3)
3−1−1 1
am S
= =
(−4)(−2) 8
Res [f (z)]z=3 = Lt (z − 3) f (z)
nn r
z→3
D
3z 2 + z − 1
= Lt (z − 3) ·
z→3 (z − 1)(z + 1)(z − 3)
3(9) + 3 − 1 29
= =
(2)(4) 8
∴ By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem,
A
3z 2 + z − 1
Z
dz = 2πi [sum of the residues]
(z 2 − 1)(z − 3)
C

−3 1 29
= 2πi + +
4 8 8

−6 + 1 + 29
= 2πi
8
= 6πi
Example 5.69
1
Z
Evaluate dz where C is the circle
z 3 (z + 4)
C
(i) |z| = 2 (ii) |z + 2| = 3. (AU 2010)
Solution:
1
Let f (z) =
rs n
z 3 (z+ 4)
ve lva
The poles of f (z) are z = 0 and z = −4. z = 0 is a pole of order 3 and
y
z = −4 is a pole of order 1.
it
U ilse
(i) Consider C : |z| = 2
Out of these two poles only z = 0 lies within C.
ai m
1 d2
lim 2 (z − 0)3 f (z)

∴ [Resf (z)]z=0 =
ni
2! z→0 dz
al Ta
d2

1 1
= lim 2
2 z→0 dz z + 4

1 2 1
am S
= lim 3
=
2 z→0 (z + 4) 64
nn r

D

1 πi
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi =
64 32
C
(ii) Consider C : |z + 2| = 3
A
Both the poles z = 0 and z = −4 lie within c
1
∴ R1 = [Resf (z)]z=0 =
64
and R2 = [Resf (z)]z=−4 = lim (z + 4) · f (z)
z→−4

1
= lim
z→−4 z 3
1
=−
64

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi [R1 + R2 ]
C

1 1
= 2πi − =0
64 64
Example 5.70
2 + 3 sin πz
Z
Using Cauchy’s residue theorem, evaluate dz, where C is a square
rs n
z(z − 1)2
C
ve lva
bounded by the line x = ±3 and y = ±3i.
y
it
Solution:
2 + 3 sin πz
Let f (z) =
U ilse
z(z − 1)2
The poles of f (z) are z = 0 and z = 1.

ai m
z = 0 is a simple pole.
ni
al Ta
and z = 1 is a pole of order 2.

Both these poles lie within C.
∴ Let R1 = [Resf (z)]z=0 = lim (z − 0), f (z)
am S
z→0

2 + 3 sin πz
= lim =2
nn r
z→0 (z − 1)2
D
1 d h 2
i
and R2 = [Resf (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1) · f (z)
1! z→1 dz
d 2 + 3 sin πz
= lim
z→1 dz z

(z)(3π cos πz) − (2 + 3 sin πz)(1)
= lim
A
z→1 z2
= [(1)(−3π) − 2]
= −3π − 2.
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi [R1 + R2 ]
C
= 2πi[2 − 3π − 2] = −6π 2 i
Exercise 5(c)
☞ Part - A
1. Define simple pole and multiple pole of a function of f (z). Give one example
of each.
2. Define removable singularity with an example.
3. Define essential singularity with an example.
4. Define isolated singularity with an example.
5. Define meromorphic function with an example.
rs n
ve lva
6. Define entire function with an example.
y
7. State Cauchy’s Integral formula.
it
8. State Cauchy’s residue theorem.
U ilse
9. State the formulas for finding the residue of a function at a simple pole.
10. State the formula for finding the residue of a function at a pole of order m.
ai m
11. Find the singularities of the following functions and classify the singularities.
ni
e2z z
al Ta
(a) f (z) = (b) f (z) =

(z − 1)3 (z + 1)(z + 2)
1 z − sin z
(c) f (z) = (z − 3) · sin (d) f (z) =
z+2 z3
am S

1 1
(e) f (z) = sin (f) f (z) = z
1−z z(e − 1)
nn r
1
D
2
(g) f (z) = (z − i) sin (h) f (z) = e−1/z
z + 2i
12. What kind of singularities do the following function have
1 1
(a) f (z) = at z = 2πi (b) f (z) = at z = π/4
1−ez sin z−cos z
(c) f (z) = tan 1/z at z = 0 (d) f (z) = zcosecz at z = ∞
A
sin(z − a)
(e) f (z) = at z = a (f) f (z) = e1/z at z = 0
z−a
13. Find the residue of f (z) at z = 0, for the following function.
ez 1 − sin z
(a) f (z) = (b) f (z) =
z z2
1−e z 1
(c) f (z) = 3
(d) f (z) =
z z(z − 2)(z + 3)
z+1 z 2 + 2z + 5
(e) f (z) = (f) f (z) =
z − z3 z(z 2 + 1)
14. Calculate the residue of f (z) for each of the following at its isolated singu-
larities.
z2 z sin z zez cos z
(a) 2 2
(b) 3
(c) 2
(d) 3
z +0 (z − π) (z − 1) z
cos z z3 z
(e) (f) (g) 2
z (z + a)2 z + 2z + 5
15. Evaluate the following using Cauchy’s residue theorem.
Z −z
e
(a) dz where C is |z| = 1
rs n
z2
ve lva
C
y
3z 2 + z + 1
Z
(b) dz where C is |z| = 2
it
(z − 1)(z + 3)
(c)
U ilse
C
Z
dz
z 3 (z + 4)
where C is |z| = 3
C
ai m
dz
Z
(d) where C is |z| = 1.
ni
al Ta
sin z
C
z2
Z
(e) dz where C is |z| = 2
z2 + 1
am S
☞ Part - B
nn r
D
4 − 3z
16. Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = about z = 0 and hence
z(1 − z)(2 − z)
obtain the residue of f (z) at z = 0.
z2 + 1
Z
17. Evaluate dz if C is (i) |z − 1| = 1 (ii) |z + 1| = 1. Using Cauchy’s
z2 − 1
A
C
residue theorem.
12z − 7
Z
18. Evaluate dz where C is x2 + y 2 = 4 using Cauchy’s
(z − 1)2 (2z + 3)
C
residue theorem.
19. Using Cauchy’s residue theorem, evaluate the following:

sin πz 2 + f cos πz 2
Z
(a) dz where C is |z| = 3.
(z − 1)(z − 2)
C
3 cos z
Z
(b) where C is |z| = 1.
2i − 3z
C
ez dz
Z
(c) where C is |z| = 5
cosh z
C
Z
(d) ze1/z dz where C is |z| = 5
C
e2z
Z
(e) dz where C is |z| = 3
rs n
z(z 2 + 2z + 2)
ve lva
C
y
dz 1
Z
(f) where C is |z| =
it
z 2 (z + 1) 2
(g)
C
Z U ilse
e2z
(z + 1)2
dz where C is |z| = 2
C
ai m
sin6 z
Z
(h) dz where C is |z| = 2
ni
al Ta
(z − π/6)2
C
ez
Z
(i) dz where C is |z| = 4
(z 2 + π 2 )2
am S
20. Evaluate the following using Cauchy’s residue theorem.

nn r
z+7
Z
(a) dz where C is |z − i| = 3/2
D
z 2 + 2z + 5
C
dz
Z
(b) 3
where C is |z + 2| = 3
z (z + 4)
C
ez
Z
(c) dz where C is |z − i| = 3
A
z2 + π2
C
z2 √
Z
(d) dz where C is |z| = 2.
i(z − 1)(z + 1)2
C
3z 3 + 2
Z
(e) dz where C is |z − 2| = 2
(z − 1)(z 2 + 4)
C
2z 2 + z
Z
(f) dz where C is |z − 1| = 1
z2 − 1
C

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ETBS204-MODULE – V

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

If the limits Sn exists as n → ∞ and each zk → 0 and if this limit is inde-

pendent of the mode of subdivision of C and the choice of α k , then it is defined

if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

A region is a connected set of points. It may consist of interior points or interior

region consists all its boundary points and interior points.

A region R is said to be connected region if any two points of it are connected

A region which is not simply connected is called multiply - connected.

Simply connected Multiply connected Multiply connected

A multiply connected region can be converted to a simply connected region

2. If α be a complex constant, then

Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

where all the integrals are taken in the same sense.

5.3 Cauchy’s Integral Formula (Cauchy’s Fundamen-

simply connected region R and if ‘a’ is any point within C then

= f (a + ρeiθ )dθ taking limit as ρ → 0

Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives of an Analytic Func-

(i) the parabola y = 2x2 from (1, 2) to (2, 8)

(ii) the straight line from (1, 1) to (2, 8) in parametric form is

∴ dy = 7dt and dx = dt and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

(i) the straight line from (2, 0) to (0, 2)

= [(−2x2 + 8x + 2) + i(−2x2 − 6x + 10)]dx

∴ (x + iy)dz = (x2 + ix2 )(dx + i2xdx)

z = a + reiθ and dz = reiθ i dθ

Given |z| = 2, i.e. z = 2eiθ and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2

(i) the line x = 2y

(ii) the real axis upto to 2 and then to 2 + i.

The point z = −1 + 2i lies inside the circle C and the point

Cauchy’s integral formula

Hence by Cauchy’s integral formula.

Hence by Cauchy’s theorem

take n = 2, a = z0 and f (z) = − z. z3

If z0 lies outside C, then by Cauchy’s theorem

Comparing equation (2) with the L.H.S of equation (1) we get

|z| = 1 is the circle whose center is (0, 0) and radius is 1.

(by splitting into partial fractions)

using Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

= 2πif (a) here a = 1 − i , f (z) = 3z 2 + 7z + 1

= 2πi(3(1 − i)2 + 7(1 − i) + 1) = 2π(13 − 14i)

(iv) Now Differentiating f 0 (a) again with respect to a

= 2πi f 00 [3z 2 + 7z + 1]z=1−i

Hence by Cauchy’s theorem dz = 0

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 sin πz 2 + cos πz 2

= −2πi f (1) + 2πi f (2)

(z + 2)(z + 1)2 z+2 z+1 (z + 1)2

= 2πif (−2) − 2πif (−1) + f (−1)

Show that whenZ f (z) is analytic

and by higher derivative formula

By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

1. State Cauchy’s integral theorem.

2. State Cauchy’s integral formula. (AU 2007)

3. State Cauchy’s extended integral theorem for a multiply connected region.

4. State Cauchy’s extended integral formula for a multiply connected region.

5. State Cauchy’s integral formula for the nth derivative of f (z).

6. Define simply and multiply connected regions. (AU 2008)

from (0, 1) to (2, 1)

(i) The curve y = x2 + 1

y = θ(1 − cos θ) from the point θ = 0 to θ = 2π

26. Evaluate the following using Cauchy’s integral formula

value of f (3), f (1 − i) and f 00 (i).

31. If C is Za closed curve described in the positive sense and