Fruit and Tree Crop Production

Environmental Factors Affecting Plant Growth

Plant growth and geographic distribution are greatly affected by the environment. If any
environmental factor is less than ideal, it limits a plant's growth and/or distribution. For
example, only plants adapted to limited amounts of water can live in deserts.

Either directly or indirectly, most plant problems are caused by environmental stress. In
some cases, poor environmental conditions (e.g., too little water) damage a plant
directly. In other cases, environmental stress weakens a plant and makes it more
susceptible to disease or insect attack.

Environmental factors that affect plant growth include light, temperature, water,
humidity, and nutrition. It is important to understand how these factors affect plant
growth and development. With a basic understanding of these factors, you may be able
to manipulate plants to meet your needs, whether for increased leaf, flower, or fruit
production. By recognizing the roles of these factors, you also will be better able to
diagnose plant problems caused by environmental stress.

Light
Three principal characteristics of light affect plant growth: quantity, quality,
and duration.

Quantity
Light quantity refers to the intensity, or concentration, of sunlight. It varies with the
seasons. The maximum amount of light is present in summer, and the minimum in
winter. Up to a point, the more sunlight a plant receives, the greater its capacity for
producing food via photosynthesis.

You can manipulate light quantity to achieve different plant growth patterns. Increase
light by surrounding plants with reflective materials, a white background, or
supplemental lights. Decrease it by shading plants with cheesecloth or woven shade
cloths.

Quality
Light quality refers to the color (wavelength) of light. Sunlight supplies the complete
range of wavelengths and can be broken up by a prism into bands of red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Blue and red light, which plants absorb, has the greatest effect on plant growth. Blue
light is responsible primarily for vegetative (leaf) growth. Red light, when combined with
blue light, encourages flowering. Plants look green to us because they reflect, rather
than absorb, green light.

Knowing which light source to use is important for manipulating plant growth. For
example, fluorescent (cool white) light is high in the blue wavelength. It encourages
leafy growth and is excellent for starting seedlings. Incandescent light is high in the red
or orange range, but generally produces too much heat to be a valuable light source for
plants. Fluorescent grow-lights attempt to imitate sunlight with a mixture of red and blue
wavelengths, but they are costly and generally no better than regular fluorescent lights.

Duration

 
Figure 1: Periodicity of plants. Short-day (long-night) plants require a long period of
uninterrupted darkness to flower. Long-day (short-night) plants require a short period of
uninterrupted darkness to flower.

Duration, or photoperiod, refers to the amount of time a plant is exposed to light.

Photoperiod controls flowering in many plants (Figure 1). Scientists initially thought the
length of light period triggered flowering and other responses within plants. Thus, they
describe plants as short-day or long-day, depending on what conditions they flower
under. We now know that it is not the length of the light period, but rather the length of
uninterrupted darkness, that is critical to floral development.
Plants are classified into three categories: short-day (long-night), long-day (short-night),
or day-neutral, depending on their response to the duration of light or darkness. Short-
day plants form flowers only when day length is less than about 12 hours. Many spring-
and fall-flowering plants, such as chrysanthemum, poinsettia, and Christmas cactus, are
in this category.

In contrast, long-day plants form flowers only when day length exceeds 12 hours. Most
summer flowering plants (e.g., rudbeckia, California poppy, and aster), as well as many
vegetables (beet, radish, lettuce, spinach, and potato), are in this category.

Day-neutral plants form flowers regardless of day length. Examples are tomato, corn,
cucumber, and some strawberry cultivars. Some plants do not fit into any category, but
may respond to combinations of day lengths. Petunias, for example, flower regardless
of day length, but flower earlier and more profusely with long days.

You can easily manipulate photoperiod to stimulate flowering. For example,

chrysanthemums normally flower in the short days of spring or fall, but you can get them
to bloom in midsummer by covering them with a cloth that completely blocks out light for
12 hours each day. After several weeks of this treatment, the artificial dark period no
longer is needed, and the plants will bloom as if it were spring or fall. This method also
is used to make poinsettias flower in time for Christmas.

To bring a long-day plant into flower when day length is less than 12 hours, expose the
plant to supplemental light. After a few weeks, flower buds will form.

Temperature
Temperature influences most plant processes, including photosynthesis, transpiration,
respiration, germination, and flowering. As temperature increases (up to a point),
photosynthesis, transpiration, and respiration increase. When combined with day-
length, temperature also affects the change from vegetative (leafy) to reproductive
(flowering) growth. Depending on the situation and the specific plant, the effect of
temperature can either speed up or slow down this transition.

Germination
The temperature required for germination varies by species. Generally, cool-season
crops (e.g., spinach, radish, and lettuce) germinate best at 55° to 65°F, while warm-
season crops (e.g., tomato, petunia, and lobelia) germinate best at 65° to 75°F.

Flowering
Sometimes horticulturists use temperature in combination with day length to manipulate
flowering. For example, a Christmas cactus forms flowers as a result of short days and
low temperatures (Figure 1). To encourage a Christmas cactus to bloom, place it in a
room with more than 12 hours of darkness each day and a temperature of 50° to 55°F
until flower buds form.

If temperatures are high and days are long, cool-season crops such as spinach will
flower (bolt). However, if temperatures are too cool, fruit will not set on warm-season
crops such as tomato.

Crop quality
Low temperatures reduce energy use and increase sugar storage. Thus, leaving crops
such as ripe winter squash on the vine during cool, fall nights increases their
sweetness.

Adverse temperatures, however, cause stunted growth and poor-quality vegetables. For
example, high temperatures cause bitter lettuce.

Photosynthesis and respiration

Thermoperiod refers to daily temperature change. Plants grow best when daytime
temperature is about 10 to 15 degrees higher than nighttime temperature. Under these
conditions, plants photosynthesize (build up) and respire (break down) during optimum
daytime temperatures and then curtail respiration at night. However, not all plants grow
best under the same range between nighttime and daytime temperatures. For example,
snapdragons grow best at nighttime temperatures of 55°F; poinsettias, at 62°F.

Temperatures higher than needed increase respiration, sometimes above the rate of
photosynthesis. Thus, photosynthates are used faster than they are produced. For
growth to occur, photosynthesis must be greater than respiration.

Daytime temperatures that are too low often produce poor growth by slowing down
photosynthesis. The result is reduced yield (i.e., fruit or grain production).

Breaking dormancy
Some plants that grow in cold regions need a certain number of days of low
temperature (dormancy). Knowing the period of low temperature required by a plant, if
any, is essential in getting it to grow to its potential.

Peaches are a prime example; most varieties require 700 to 1,000 hours between 32°
and 45°F before breaking their rest period and beginning growth. Lilies need 6 weeks of
temperatures at or slightly below 33°F before blooming.

Daffodils can be forced to flower by storing the bulbs at 35° to 40°F in October. The cold
temperature allows the bulbs to mature. When transferred to a greenhouse in midwinter,
they begin to grow, and flowers are ready to cut in 3 to 4 weeks.

Hardiness
Plants are classified as hardy or nonhardy depending on their ability to withstand cold
temperatures. Hardy plants are those that are adapted to the cold temperatures of their
growing environment.

Woody plants in the temperate zone have very sophisticated means for sensing the
progression from fall to winter. Decreasing day length and temperature trigger hormonal
changes that cause leaves to stop photosynthesizing and to ship nutrients to twigs,
buds, stems, and roots. An abscission layer forms where each petiole joins a stem,
and the leaves eventually fall off. Changes within the trunk and stem tissues over a
relatively short period of time "freeze-proof" the plant.

Winter injury to hardy plants generally occurs when temperatures drop too quickly in the
fall before a plant has progressed to full dormancy. In other cases, a plant may break
dormancy in mid- or late winter if the weather is unseasonably warm. If a sudden,
severe cold snap follows the warm spell, otherwise hardy plants can be seriously
damaged.

It is worth noting that the tops of hardy plants are much more cold-tolerant than the
roots. Plants that normally are hardy to 10°F may be killed if they are in containers and
the roots are exposed to 20°F.

Winter injury also may occur because of desiccation (drying out) of plant tissues.
People often forget that plants need water even during winter. When the soil is frozen,
water movement into a plant is severely restricted. On a windy winter day, broadleaf
evergreens can become water-deficient in a few minutes, and the leaves or needles
then turn brown. To minimize the risk of this type of injury, make sure your plants go into
the winter well watered.

Water and Humidity

Most growing plants contain about 90 percent water. Water plays many roles in plants.
It is:

 A primary component in photosynthesis and respiration

 Responsible for turgor pressure in cells (Like air in an inflated balloon, water is
responsible for the fullness and firmness of plant tissue. Turgor is needed to
maintain cell shape and ensure cell growth.)
 A solvent for minerals and carbohydrates moving through the plant
 Responsible for cooling leaves as it evaporates from leaf tissue during
transpiration
 A regulator of stomatal opening and closing, thus controlling transpiration and, to
some degree, photosynthesis
 The source of pressure to move roots through the soil
 The medium in which most biochemical reactions take place

Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor in the air to the amount of water the air
could hold at the current temperature and pressure. Warm air can hold more water
vapor than cold air. Relative humidity (RH) is expressed by the following equation:

RH = water in air ÷ water air could hold (at constant temperature and pressure)

Relative humidity is given as a percent. For example, if a pound of air at 75°F could hold
4 grams of water vapor, and there are only 3 grams of water in the air, then the relative
humidity (RH) is:

3 ÷ 4 = 0.75 = 75%

Water vapor moves from an area of high relative humidity to one of low relative
humidity. The greater the difference in humidity, the faster water moves. This factor is
important because the rate of water movement directly affects a plant's transpiration
rate.

The relative humidity in the air spaces between leaf cells approaches 100 percent.
When a stoma opens, water vapor inside the leaf rushes out into the surrounding air
(Figure 2), and a bubble of high humidity forms around the stoma. By saturating this
small area of air, the bubble reduces the difference in relative humidity between the air
spaces within the leaf and the air adjacent to the leaf. As a result, transpiration slows
down.

If wind blows the humidity bubble away, however, transpiration increases. Thus,
transpiration usually is at its peak on hot, dry, windy days. On the other hand,
transpiration generally is quite slow when temperatures are cool, humidity is high, and
there is no wind.

Hot, dry conditions generally occur during the summer, which partially explains why
plants wilt quickly in the summer. If a constant supply of water is not available to be
absorbed by the roots and moved to the leaves, turgor pressure is lost and leaves go
limp.

Plant Nutrition
Plant nutrition often is confused with fertilization. Plant nutrition refers to a plant's need
for and use of basic chemical elements. Fertilization is the term used when these
materials are added to the environment around a plant. A lot must happen before a
chemical element in a fertilizer can be used by a plant.

Plants need 17 elements for normal growth. Three of them--carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen--are found in air and water. The rest are found in the soil.

Six soil elements are called macronutrients because they are used in relatively large
amounts by plants. They are nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus,
and sulfur.

Plant macronutrients

Leaches
Absorbed from soil/ Signs of Signs of
Element Notes
as Mobility in excess deficiency
plant
Nitrogen (N)NO3-, Leachable, Succulent Reduced growth, In general, the best
(nitrate), especially growth; dark yellowing NH4+:NO3- ratio is
 1:1. Under low sugar
conditions (low light),
high NH4+ can
green color; (chlorosis). Reds cause leaf curl.
weak, spindly and purples may Uptake is inhibited
growth; few intensify in some by high P levels. The
NH4+ NO3-. fruits. May plants. Reduced N:K ratio is
(ammonium Mobile in cause brittle lateral bud extremely important.
) plants. growth, breaks. Indoors, the best N:K
especially under Symptoms ratio is 1:1 unless
high appear first on light is extremely
temperatures. older growth. high. In soils with a
high C:N ratio, more
N should be
supplied.
Rapidly bound
(fixed) on soil (P)
particles. Under acid
Reduced growth.
conditions, fixed with
Color may
Fe, Mg, and Al.
Normally not intensify;
Under alkaline
leachable, browning or
conditions, fixed with
but may purpling of
Shows up as Ca. Important for
H2PO4-, leach from foliage in some
Phosphorus micronutrient young plant and
HPO4- soil high in plants. Thin
(P) deficiency of Zn, seedling growth.
(phosphate) bark or peat. stems, reduced
Fe, or Co. High P interferes
Not readily lateral bud
with micronutrient
mobile in breaks, loss of
absorption and N
plants. lower leaves,
absorption. Used in
reduced
relatively small
flowering.
amounts when
compared to N and
K.
Reduced growth,
shortened inter-
nodes. Marginal N:K balance is
Causes N burn or scorch important. High
Can leach in deficiency in (brown leaf N:low K favors
Potassium sandy soils. plant and may edges), necrotic vegetative growth;
K+
(K) Mobile in affect the (dead) spots in low N:high K
plants. uptake of other leaves. promotes
positive ions. Reduction of reproductive growth
lateral bud (flowers, fruit).
breaks, tendency
to wilt readily.
Magnesium Mg++ Leachable. Interferes with Reduction in Mg commonly is
 deficient in foliage
plants because it is
growth. Marginal leached and not
chlorosis, replaced. Epsom
interveinal salts at a rate of 1
chlorosis (yellow teaspoon per gallon
between the may be used two
Mobile in veins) in some times per year. Mg
(Mg) Ca uptake.
plants. species (may also can be
occur on middle absorbed by leaves
or lower leaves). if sprayed in a weak
Reduction in solution. Dolomitic
seed production, limestone can be
cupped leaves. applied in outdoor
situations to correct
a deficiency.
Ca is important to pH
control and rarely is
High Ca usually Inhibition of bud
Normally not deficient if the
causes high pH, growth, death of
leachable. correct pH is
which then root tips.
Moderately maintained. Water
precipitates Cupping of
limited stress (too much or
Calcium many maturing leaves,
Ca++ mobility in too little) can affect
(Ca) micronutrients weak growth.
plants. Ca relations within
so that they Blossom-end rot
Interferes plants, causing
become of many fruits,
with Mg deficiency in the
unavailable to pits on root
absorption. location where Ca
plants. vegetables.
was needed at the
time of stress.
S often is a carrier or
impurity in fertilizers
General
Sulfur excess and rarely is
Leachable, yellowing of
SO4- usually is in the deficient. It also may
Sulfur (S) not mobile in affected leaves
(sulfate) form of air be absorbed fro the
plants. or the entire
pollution. air and is a by-
plant.
product of
combustion.

Eight other soil elements are used in much smaller amounts and are called
micronutrients or trace elements. They are iron, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, boron,
copper, cobalt, and chlorine.

Plant micronutrients

Element Absorbed Signs of excess Signs of deficiency Notes

 as
Rare except on
Soil high in Ca, Mn, P,
flooded soils. Add Fe in the
or heavy metals (Cu,
Interveinal chlorosis, chelate form. The
Fe++, Fe++ Zn); high pH; poorly
Iron (Fe) primarily on young type of chelate
+ drained soil; oxygen-
tissue, which needed depends
deficient soil; nematode
eventually may turn on soil pH.
attack on roots.
white.
BO3- Failure to set seed,
Blackening or death of
Boron (B) internal breakdown,
tissue between veins.
Borate death of apical buds.
"Little leaf" (reduction in
Shows up as Fe
leaf size), short
deficiency. Also
Zinc (Zn) Zn++ internodes, distorted or
interferes with Mg
puckered leaf margins,
absorption.
interveinal chlorosis.
Can occur at low pH.
New growth small, May be found in
Copper (Cu) Cu++, Cu+ Shows up as Fe
misshapen, wilted. some peat soils.
deficiency.
Reduction in growth, Interveinal chlorosis of
Manganese brown spotting on leaves followed by Found under acid
Mn++
(Mn) leaves. Shows up as brown spots, producing conditions.
Fe deficiency. a checkered effect.
MoO4-
Interveinal chlorosis on
Molybdenu
older or midstem leaves,
m (Mo) (molybdate
twisted leaves (whiptail).
)
Leaves wilt, then
Salt injury, leaf burn.
become bronze, then
Chlorine (Cl) Cl- May increase
chlorotic, then die; club
succulence.
roots.

Most of the nutrients a plant needs are dissolved in water and then absorbed by its
roots. In fact, 98 percent are absorbed from the soil-water solution, and only about 2
percent are actually extracted from soil particles.

Fertilizers
Fertilizers are materials containing plant nutrients that are added to the environment
around a plant. Generally, they are added to the water or soil, but some can be sprayed
on leaves. This method is called foliar fertilization. It should be done carefully with a
dilute solution, because a high fertilizer concentration can injure leaf cells. The nutrient,
however, does need to pass through the thin layer of wax (cutin) on the leaf surface.
Fertilizers are not plant food! Plants produce their own food from water, carbon dioxide,
and solar energy through photosynthesis. This food (sugars and carbohydrates) is
combined with plant nutrients to produce proteins, enzymes, vitamins, and other
elements essential to growth.

Nutrient absorption
Anything that reduces or stops sugar production in leaves can lower nutrient absorption.
Thus, if a plant is under stress because of low light or extreme temperatures, nutrient
deficiency may develop.

A plant's developmental stage or rate of growth also may affect the amount of nutrients
absorbed. Many plants have a rest (dormant) period during part of the year. During this
time, few nutrients are absorbed. Plants also may absorb different nutrients as flower
buds begin to develop than they do during periods of rapid vegetative growth.

Fruit and Tree Crop Production

Importance of Climate, Soil, and Water in Tree Crop
Production

Climate Influences Soils

Climate refers to the temperature and moisture conditions of an area over time. Climate
is the typical pattern of the area over the long term, but weather is the actual daily
condition. Of interest, climate is one of the five soil forming factors and has a significant
influence on the properties of soil. Soils in warmer or wetter climates are more
developed than soils in cooler or drier climates. How developed a soil is can be
determined from looking at the profile. A profile can be found by digging into the ground
and looking at the different layers of soil, also known as horizons. Soils that are more
developed have more horizons and deeper horizons than soils that are less developed.
Wet conditions favor leaching, or moving deeper with water, of clay and other minerals
so that E and B horizons develop. Warm conditions promote the chemical and biological
reactions that develop parent material into soil.
In a dry climate, the A horizon would be very thin because there are few plants to
become organic matter, and the C horizon would still be present, with nutrients still
locked into minerals, because there is not enough water to promote weathering and
leaching of minerals, or development of a B horizon. In a tropical environment, the soil
can become so leached that there are very few nutrients available from soil minerals.
These are some examples of why the soil in certain climates is not as desirable for
agriculture, homes, or other uses.

While weather is a short-term part of climate, certain weather cycles can still affect soil.
For example, soil can be dried out and rearranged during droughty or windy weather. As
the soil is dried out, plant growth is reduced, which reduces the stability of the surface
layer and allows more erosion. An extreme example of this is the process
of desertification. Soils that are losing stable plant communities become unstable
themselves and begin to shift like desert sand dunes. Worldwide, more than 50% of
land degradation can be attributed to desertification.

It is important to implement land management practices that reduce the likelihood of

desertification. Some examples include:

• reducing the number of animals grazing in areas with low vegetation,

• moving animals to new areas more frequently,

• using conservation tillage and no-till practices,

• using low intensity and high diversity crop rotations,

• maintaining perennial vegetation,

• using irrigation properly to increase ground cover, and

• using selective or staggered tree harvest techniques rather than clear-cutting.

Soils Can Influence Climate

Not only does climate influence soil, but soil can influence climate. Global climate
change is a current scientific concern. Increases of greenhouses gases, such as carbon
dioxide and methane, are contributors to climate change. Soil is an important part of the
carbon cycle, and changes in soil management practices can reduce emissions of
carbon-containing gases from soil. Plants use carbon dioxide from the air. When plants
die, soil microorganisms decompose the plants and return the carbon dioxide to the air.
Soil conditions with slower decomposition can reduce the carbon returned to the air.
Some examples of these soil conditions are wetlands, which don’t have enough oxygen
for efficient decomposition, and undisturbed lands, where the plants and roots live for
many years. Reducing disturbance on managed lands by practicing no-till farming,
harvesting forests less frequently, and leaving green space in urban areas can reduce
carbon emissions from those soils as well, as the carbon is then not released back into
the atmosphere.

Soil can also influence climate on a smaller scale. Soils that are wetter or denser hold
heat and stabilize the surroundings from temperature changes more so than drier,
looser soils. The temperature in deserts may increase by more than 60°F during the
course of a day. Natural variation in soil properties can lead to areas with better
moisture and heat storage than their surroundings. Cities, where there are fewer plants
and less exposed soil, often experience what is called a “heat island” which means that
the city is warmer than other nearby areas. The difference in temperature in these heat
islands can be up to 5 degrees during the day and up to 20 degrees at night. These
microclimates can have different plant and animal communities than the surroundings
and are important to creating ecological niches.

Recap
Climate has an important role in soil formation. Observing soils and soil profiles can give
clues to past climates and weather cycles. Some climates have soils that are not as
deep or fertile and require special management for preservation. Soil is an important
part of the global carbon cycle. Different land management practices result in different
amounts of carbon being released to the atmosphere. Understanding this may allow us
to manage for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from soil and therefore manage
soil’s effect on climate.
Fruit and Tree Crop Production
Plant Propagation
Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants. There are two types of
propagation: sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction is the union of the pollen and
egg, drawing from the genes of two parents to create a new, third individual. Sexual
propagation involves the floral parts of a plant. Asexual propagation involves taking a
part of one parent plant and causing it to regenerate itself into a new plant. The resulting
new plant is genetically identical its parent. Asexual propagation involves the vegetative
parts of a plant: stems, roots, or leaves.

The advantages of sexual propagation are that it may be cheaper and quicker than
other methods; it may be the only way to obtain new varieties and hybrid vigor; in
certain species, it is the only viable method for propagation; and it is a way to avoid
transmission of certain diseases. Asexual propagation has advantages, too. It may be
easier and faster in some species; it may be the only way to perpetuate some cultivars;
and it bypasses the juvenile characteristics of certain species.

Sexual Propagation
Sexual propagation involves the union of the pollen (male) with the egg (female) to
produce a seed. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, which
protects the seed; the endosperm, which is a food reserve; and the embryo, which is the
young plant itself. When a seed is mature and put in a favorable environment, it will
germinate (begin active growth). In the following section, seed germination and
transplanting of seeds will be discussed.

Seed
To obtain quality plants, start with good quality seed from a reliable dealer. Select
varieties to provide the size, color, and habit of growth desired. Choose varieties
adapted to your area which will reach maturity before an early frost. Many new
vegetable and flower varieties are hybrids, which cost a little more than open pollinated
types. However, hybrid plants usually have more vigor, more uniformity, and better
production than non-hybrids and sometimes have specific disease resistance or other
unique cultural characteristics.

Although some seeds will keep for several years if stored properly, it is advisable to
purchase only enough seed for the current year’s use. Quality seed will not contain
seed of any other crop, weeds, seeds, or other debris. Printing on the seed packet
usually indicates essential information about the variety, the year for which the seeds
were packaged, and germination percentage you may typically expect, and notes about
any chemical seed treatment. If seeds are obtained well in advance of the actual sowing
date or are stored surplus seeds, keep them in a cool, dry place. Laminated foil packets
help ensure dry storage. Paper packets are best kept in tightly closed containers and
maintained around 40◦F. in a low humidity. The door shelves in a refrigerator work well.

Some gardeners save seed from their own gardens; however, such seed is the result of
random pollination by insects or other natural agents, and may not produce plants
typical of the parents. This is especially true of the many hybrid varieties. See UMaine
Extension Bulletin #2750 for information on how to save your own seed.

Germination
Germination will begin when certain internal requirements have been met. A seed must
have a mature embryo, contain a large enough endosperm to sustain the embryo during
germination, and contain sufficient hormones to initiate the process. In general, do not
expect more than 65% to 80% of new seeds to germinate. From those germinating,
expect about 60% to 75% to produce satisfactory, vigorous, sturdy seedlings. There are
four environmental factors which affect germination: water, oxygen, light, and heat.

Water
The first step in the germination process is the imbibition or absorption of water. Even
though seeds have great absorbing power due to the nature of the seed coat, the
amount of available water in the substrate affects the uptake of water. An adequate,
continuous supply of water is important to ensure germination. Once the germination
process has begun, a dry period can cause the death of the embryo.

Light
Light is known to stimulate or to inhibit germination of some types of seed. The light
reaction involved here is a complex process. Some crops which have a requirement for
light to assist seed germination are ageratum, begonia, browallia, impatiens, lettuce,
and petunia. Conversely, peas, beans, calendula, centaurea, annual phlox, verbena,
and vinca will germinate best in the dark. Other plants are not specific at all. Seed
catalogs and seed packets often list germination or cultural tips for individual varieties.
When sowing light-requiring seed, do as nature does, and leave them on the soil
surface. If they are covered at all, cover them lightly with fine peat moss or fine
vermiculite. These two materials, if not applied too heavily, will permit some light to
reach the seed and will not limit germination. When starting seed in the home,
supplemental light can be provided by fluorescent fixtures suspended 6 to 12 inches
above the seeds for 16 hours a day. High intensity lights will provide more light over the
course of the day and will enhance the quality of seedlings. These lights cost more than
the common shop lights, but are often worth the investment if you plan on growing
plants indoors.

Oxygen
In all viable seed, respiration takes place. The respiration in dormant seed is low, but
some oxygen is required. The respiration rate increases during germination, therefore,
the substrate in which the seeds are placed should be loose and well-aerated. If the
oxygen supply during germination is limited or reduced, germination can be severely
retarded or inhibited.

Temperature
A favorable temperature is another important requirement of germination. It not only
affects the germination percentage but also the rate of germination. Some seeds will
germinate over a wide range of temperatures, whereas others require a narrow range.
Many seeds have minimum, maximum, and optimum temperatures at which they
germinate. For example, tomato seed has a minimum germination temperature of 50
degrees F. and a maximum temperature of 95 degrees, but an optimum germination
temperature of about 80 degrees. Where germination temperatures are listed, they are
usually the optimum temperatures unless otherwise specified. Generally, 65 to 75
degrees F. is best for most plants. This often means the germination flats may have to
be placed in special chambers or on radiators, heating cables, or heating mats to
maintain optimum temperature. The importance of maintaining proper substrate
temperature to achieve maximum germination percentages cannot be over-
emphasized. It’s also very important to note that the recommended temperatures need
to be maintained 24 hours a day.

Methods of Breaking Dormancy

One of the functions of dormancy is to prevent a seed from germinating before it is
surrounded by a favorable environment. In some trees and shrubs, seed dormancy is
difficult to break, even when the environment is ideal. Various treatments are performed
on the seed to break dormancy and begin germination.

Scarification
Seed scarification involves breaking, scratching, or softening the seed coat so that
water can enter and begin the germination process. There are several methods of
scarifying seeds. In acid scarification, seeds are put in a glass container and covered
with concentrated sulfuric acid. The seeds are gently stirred and allowed to soak from
10 minutes to several hours, depending on the hardness of the seed coat. When the
seed coat has become thin, the seeds can be removed, washed, and planted. Another
scarification method is mechanical. Seeds are filed with a metal file, rubbed with
sandpaper, or cracked with a hammer to weaken the seed coat. Hot water scarification
involves putting the seed into hot water (170 to 212 degrees F). The seeds are allowed
to soak in the water, as it cools, for 12 to 24 hours and then planted. A fourth method is
one of warm, moist scarification. In this case, seeds are stored in nonsterile, warm,
damp containers where the seed coat will be broken down by decay over several
months.

Stratification
Seeds of some fall-ripening trees and shrubs of the temperate zone will not germinate
unless chilled underground as they over winter. This so called “after ripening” may be
accomplished artificially by a practice called stratification. The following procedure is
usually successful. Put sand or vermiculite in a clay pot to about 1 inch from the top.
Place the seeds on top of the medium and cover with ½ inch of sand or vermiculite. Wet
the medium thoroughly and allow excess water to drain through the hole in the pot.
Place the pot containing the moist medium and seeds in a plastic bag and seal. Place
the bag in a refrigerator. Periodically check to see that the medium is moist, but not wet.
Additional water will probably not be necessary. After 10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag
from the refrigerator. Take the pot out and set it in a warm place in the house. Water
often enough to keep the medium moist. Soon the seedlings should emerge. When the
young plants are about 3 inches tall, transplant them into pots to grow until time for
setting outside.
Another procedure that is usually successful uses sphagnum moss or peat moss. Wet
the moss thoroughly, then squeeze out the excess water with your hands. Mix seed with
the sphagnum or peat and place in a plastic bag. Seal the bag and put it in a
refrigerator. Check periodically. If there is condensation on the inside of the bag, the
process will probably be successful. After 10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag from the
refrigerator. Plant the seeds in pots to germinate and grow. Handle seeds carefully.
Often the small roots and shoots are emerging at the end of the stratification period.
Care must be taken not to break these off. Temperatures in the range of 35 to 45
degrees F (2 to 70C) are effective. Most refrigerators operate in this range. Seeds of
most fruit and nut trees can be successfully germinated by these procedures. Seeds of
peaches should be removed from the hard pit. Care must be taken when cracking the
pits. Any injury to the seed itself can be an entry path for disease organisms.

Starting Seeds
Substrate (aka Media)
A wide range of materials can be used to start seeds, from plain vermiculite or mixtures
of soilless substrates to the various amended soil mixes. With experience, you will learn
to determine what works best for the seeds that you are starting. When choosing a
substrate its important to keep in mind what the good qualities of a germinating
substrate are. It should be rather fine and uniform, yet well-aerated and loose. It should
be free of insects, disease organisms, and weed seeds. It should also be of low fertility
or total soluble salts and capable of holding and moving moisture by capillary action.
One mixture which supplies these factors is a combination of 1/3 sterilized soil, 1/3 sand
or vermiculite or perlite, and 1/3 peat moss.

The importance of using a sterile medium and container cannot be over-emphasized.

The home gardener can treat a small quantity of soil mixture in an oven. Place the
slightly moist soil in a heat-resistant container in an oven set at about 250 degrees F.
Use a candy or meat thermometer to ensure that the mix reaches a temperature of 180
degrees F. for at least 1/2 hour. Avoid over-heating as this can be extremely damaging
to the soil. Be aware that the heat will release very unpleasant odors in the process of
sterilization. This treatment should prevent damping-off and other plant diseases, as
well as eliminate potential plant pests. Growing containers and implements should be
washed to remove any debris and rinsed in a solution of 1 part chlorine bleach to 9
parts water.

An artificial, soilless mix also provides the desired qualities of a good germination
substrate. The basic ingredients of such a mix are sphagnum peat moss and
vermiculite, both of which are generally free of diseases, weed seeds, and insects. The
ingredients are also readily available, easy to handle, lightweight, and produce uniform
plant growth. “Peat-lite” mixes or similar products are commercially available or can be
made at home using this recipe: 4 quarts of shredded sphagnum peat moss, 4 quarts of
fine vermiculite, 1 tablespoon of superphosphate, and 2 tablespoons of ground
limestone. Mix thoroughly. These mixes have little fertility, so seedlings must be
watered with a diluted fertilizer solution soon after they emerge. Do not use garden soil
by itself to start seedlings; it is not sterile, is too heavy, and will not drain well.

Containers
Flats and trays can be purchased or you can make your own containers for starting
seeds by recycling such things as cottage cheese containers, the bottoms of milk
cartons or bleach containers, and pie pans, as long as good drainage is provided. At
least one company has developed a form for recycling newspaper into pots, and
another has developed a method for the consumer to make and use compressed blocks
of soil mix instead of pots. You can make your own flats from scrap lumber. A
convenient size to handle would be about 12 to 18 inches long and 12 inches wide with
a depth of about 2 inches. Leave cracks of about 1/8-inch between the boards in the
bottom or drill a series of holes to ensure good drainage.

Clay or plastic pots can be used and numerous types of pots made of compressed peat
and other biodegradable materials are also on the market. Multi-cell containers (packs)
where each cell holds a single plant reduce the risk of root injury when transplanting
young plants. Peat pellets, peat or fiber-based blocks, and expanded foam cubes can
also be used for seeding. The downside to sowing seeds in individual cells or pellets is
that they dry out faster than multiple seedlings sown in a flat or larger container.

Seeding
The proper time for sowing seeds for transplants depends upon when plants may safely
be moved out-of-doors in your area. This period may range from 4 to 12 weeks prior to
transplanting, depending upon the speed of germination, the rate of growth, and the
cultural conditions provided. A common mistake is to sow the seeds too early and then
attempt to hold the seedlings back under poor light or improper temperature ranges.
This usually results in tall, weak, spindly plants which do not perform well in the garden.

After selecting a container, fill it to within ¾ inch of the top with moistened substrate. For
very small seeds, at least the top ¼-inch should be a fine, screened mix or a layer of
vermiculite. Gently firm the substrate at the corners and edges with your fingers or a
block of wood to provide a uniform, flat surface.

For medium and large seeds, make furrows 1 to 2 inches apart and 1/8 to ¼-inch deep
across the surface of the container using a narrow board or pot label. By sowing in
rows, good light and air movement results, and if damping-off fungus does appear,
there is less chance of it spreading.

Seedlings in rows are easier to label and handle at transplanting time than those which
have been sown in a broadcast manner. Sow the seeds thinly and uniformly in the rows
by gently tapping the packet of seed as it is moved along the row. Lightly cover the seed
with dry vermiculite or sifted substrate if they require darkness for germination. A
suitable planting depth is usually about twice the diameter of the seed.

Do not plant seeds too deeply. Extremely fine seed such as petunia, begonia, and
snapdragon are not covered, but lightly pressed into the medium or watered in with a
fine mist. If these seeds are broadcast, strive for a uniform stand by sowing half the
seeds in one direction, then sowing the other way with the remaining seed in a crossing
pattern.

Large seeds are frequently sown into some sort of a small container or cell pack which
eliminates the need for early transplanting. Usually 2 or 3 seeds are sown per unit and
later thinned to allow the strongest seedling to grow. A germination test will allow you to
determine how many seeds need to be sown per cell. If seeds have a very low
germination rate (<40%), sow at least 3 seeds per cell or consider tossing out the seed.
For germination rates of 40-80%, sow 2-3 seeds per cell. If you want to be frugal with
your seeds, sow only 1 per cell if your rate is over 80%.

Seed Tape
Most garden stores and seed catalogs offer indoor and outdoor seed tapes. Seed tape
has precisely spaced seeds enclosed in an organic, water-soluble material. When
planted, the tape dissolves and the seeds germinate normally. Seed tapes are
especially convenient for tiny, hard-to-handle seeds. However, tapes are much more
expensive per seed. Seed tapes allow uniform emergence, eliminate overcrowding, and
permit sowing in perfectly straight rows. The tapes can be cut at any point for multiple-
row plantings, and thinning is rarely necessary.

Pregermination
Another method of starting seeds is pregermination. This method involves sprouting the
seeds before they are planted. This reduces the time to germination, as the temperature
and moisture are easy to control. A high percentage of germination is achieved since
environmental factors are optimum. Lay seeds between the folds of a cotton cloth or on
a layer of vermiculite in a shallow pan. Keep moist, in a warm place. When roots begin
to show, place the seeds in containers or plant them directly in the garden. While
transplanting seedlings, be careful not to break off tender roots. Continued attention to
watering is critical. Some seed companies sell carefully dried pregerminated seeds.
They are usually more expensive compared to conventional seeds and their shelf life is
relatively short (approximately a month), but it’s a convenient way to ensure a relatively
high production rate for the seeds being sown.

When planting fresh, pregerminated seeds in a container to transplant in the garden

later, place 1 seed in a 2- to 3-inch container. Plant the seeds at only ½ the
recommended depth. Gently press a little soil over the sprouted seed and then add
about ¼ inch of milled sphagnum or sand to the soil surface. These materials will keep
the surface uniformly moist and are easy for the shoot to push through. Keep in a warm
place and care for them as for any other newly transplanted seedlings.

A convenient way to plant small, delicate, pre-germinated seeds is to suspend them in a

gel. You can make a gel by blending cornstarch with boiling water to a consistency that
is thick enough so the seeds will stay suspended. Be sure to cool thoroughly before
use. Place the gel with seedlings in a plastic bag with a hole in it. Squeeze the gel
through the hole along a pre-marked garden row. Spacing of seeds is determined by the
number of seeds in the gel. If the spacing is too dense, add more gel; if too wide, add
more seeds. The gel will keep the germinating seeds moist until they establish
themselves in the garden soil.

Watering
After the seed has been sown, moisten the planting mix thoroughly. Use a fine mist or
place the containers in a pan or tray which contains about 1 inch of warm water. Avoid
splashing or excessive flooding which might displace small seeds. When the planting
mix is saturated, set the container aside to drain. The soil should be moist but not wet.

Ideally, seed flats should remain sufficiently moist during the germination period without
having to add water. One way to maintain moisture is to slip the whole flat or pot into a
clear plastic bag after the initial watering. The plastic should be at least 1 inch from the
soil. Keep the container out of direct sunlight; otherwise the temperature may rise to the
point where the seeds will be harmed. Many home gardeners cover their flats with
panes of glass instead of using a plastic sleeve. Be sure to remove the plastic bag or
glass cover as soon as the first seedlings appear. Surface watering can then be
practiced if care and good judgment are used.

Lack of uniformity, overwatering, or drying out are problems related to manual watering.
Excellent germination and moisture uniformity can be obtained with a low-pressure
misting system. Four seconds of mist every 6 minutes or 10 seconds every 15 minutes
during the daytime in spring seems to be satisfactory. Bottom heat is an asset with a
mist system. Subirrigation or watering from below may work well, keeping the flats
moist. However, as the flats or pots must sit in water constantly, the soil may absorb too
much water, and the seeds may rot due to lack of oxygen.

Temperature and Light

Several factors for good germination have already been mentioned. The last item, and
by no means the least important, is temperature. Since most seeds will germinate best
at an optimum temperature that is usually higher than most home night temperatures,
special warm areas must often be provided. The use of thermostatically controlled
heating cables is an excellent method of providing constant heat.
After germination and seedling establishment, move the flats to a light, airy, cooler
location, at a 55 to 60 degree F. night temperature and a 65 to 70 degree F. day
reading. This will prevent soft, leggy growth and minimize disease troubles. Some
crops, of course, may germinate or grow best at a different constant temperature and
must be handled separately from the bulk of the plants.

Seedlings must receive bright light after germination. Place them in a window facing
south, if possible. If a large, bright window is not available, place the seedlings under a
fluorescent light. Use two 40-watt, cool-white fluorescent tubes or special plant growth
lamps. Position the plants 6 inches from the tubes and keep the lights on about 16
hours each day. As the seedlings grow, the lights should be raised.

Transplanting and Handling

If the plants have not been seeded in individual containers, they must be transplanted to
give them proper growing space. One of the most common mistakes made is leaving
the seedlings in the seed flat too long. The ideal time to transplant young seedlings is
when they are small and there is little danger from setback. This is usually about the
time the first true leaves appear above or between the cotyledon leaves (the cotyledons
or seed leaves are the first leaves the seedling produces). Don’t let plants get hard and
stunted or tall and leggy.

To transplant, carefully dig up the small plants with a knife or wooden plant label. Let
the group of seedlings fall apart and pick out individual plants. Handle small seedlings
by their leaves, not their delicate stems. Gently ease them apart in small groups which
will make it easier to separate individual plants. Avoid tearing roots in the process.
Punch a hole in the medium into which the seedling will be planted (see below for
information about media). Make it deep enough so the seedling can be put at the same
depth it was growing in the seed flat. Small plants or slow growers should be placed 1
inch apart and rapid-growing, large seedlings about 2 inches apart. After planting, firm
the soil and water gently. Keep newly transplanted seedlings in the shade for a few
days, or place them under fluorescent lights. Keep them away from direct heat sources.
Continue watering and fertilizing as in the seed flats.

Most plants transplant well and can be started indoors, but a few plants are difficult to
transplant. These are generally directly seeded outdoors or sown directly into individual
containers indoors. Examples include peas, beans, carrots, beets, chard, zinnias and
cucurbits, such as melons and squash.

Media for Transplanting

Seedling growing mixes and containers can be purchased or prepared similar to those
mentioned for germinating seed. The medium should contain more plant nutrients than
a germination mix, however. Some commercial soilless mixes have fertilizer already
added. When fertilizing, use a soluble house plant fertilizer, at the dilution
recommended by the manufacturer, about every 2 weeks after the seedlings are
established. Remember that young seedlings are easily damaged by too much fertilizer,
especially if they are under any moisture stress.

Containers for Transplanting

There is a wide variety of containers from which to choose for transplanting seedlings.
These containers should be economical, durable, and make good use of space. The
type selected will depend on the type of plant to be transplanted and individual growing
conditions. Standard pots may be used, but they waste a great deal of space and may
not dry out rapidly enough for the seedling to have sufficient oxygen for proper
development.

There are many types of containers available commercially. Those made out of pressed
peat can be purchased in varying sizes. Individual pots or strips of connected pots fit
closely together, are inexpensive, and can be planted directly in the garden. When
setting out plants grown in peat pots, be sure to cover the pot completely. If the top
edge of the peat pot extends above the soil level, it may act as a wick, and draw water
away from the soil in the pot. To avoid this, tear off the top lip of the pot and then plant
flush with the soil level.

Community packs are containers in which there is room to plant several plants. These
are generally inexpensive. The main disadvantage of a community pack is that the roots
of the individual plants must be broken or cut apart when separating them to put out in
the garden.

Compressed peat pellets, when soaked in water, expand to form compact, individual
pots. They waste no space, don’t fall apart as badly as peat pots, and can be set
directly out in the garden. If you wish to avoid transplanting seedlings altogether,
compressed peat pellets are excellent for direct sowing.

Community packs and cell packs, which are strips of connected individual pots, are also
available in plastic and are frequently used by commercial bedding plant growers, as
they withstand frequent handling. In addition, many homeowners find a variety of
materials from around the house useful for containers. These homemade containers
should be deep enough to provide adequate soil and have plenty of drainage holes in
the bottom.

Hardening Plants
Hardening is the process of altering the quality of plant growth to withstand the change
in environmental conditions which occurs when plants are transferred from a
greenhouse or home to the garden. A severe check in growth may occur if plants
produced in the home are planted outdoors without a transition period. Hardening is
most critical with early crops, when adverse climatic conditions can be expected.
Hardening can be accomplished by gradually lowering temperatures and relative
humidity and reducing water. This procedure results in an accumulation of
carbohydrates and a thickening of cell walls. A change from a soft, succulent type of
growth to a firmer, harder type is desired.

This process should be started at least 2 weeks before planting in the garden. If
possible, plants should be moved to a 45 to 50 degree F. temperature indoors or
outdoors in a shady location. A cold frame is excellent for this purpose. When put
outdoors, plants should be shaded, and then gradually moved into sunlight. Each day,
gradually increase the length of exposure. Don’t put tender seedlings outdoors on windy
days or when temperatures are below 45 degrees F. Reduce the frequency of watering
to slow growth, but don’t allow plants to wilt. Even cold-hardy plants will be hurt if
exposed to freezing temperatures before they are hardened. After proper hardening,
however, they can be planted outdoors and light frosts will not damage them.

The hardening process is intended to slow plant growth. If carried to the extreme of
actually stopping plant growth, significant damage can be done to certain crops. For
example, cauliflower will make thumb size heads and fail to develop further if hardened
too severely. Cucumbers and melons will stop growth if hardened.

Propagation of Ferns by Spores

Though ferns are more easily propagated by other methods, some gardeners like the
challenge of raising ferns from spores. One tested method for small quantities follows:

Put a solid, sterilized brick (bake at 250 degrees F. for 30 minutes) in a pan and add
water to cover the brick. When the brick is wet throughout; squeeze a thin layer of moist
soil and peat (1:1) onto the top of the brick. Pack a second layer (about an inch) on top
of that. Sprinkle spores on top. Cover with plastic (not touching the spores) and put in a
warm place in indirect light. It may take up to a month or more for the spores to
germinate. Keep moist at all times. A prothallus (one generation of the fern) will develop
first from each spore, forming a light green mat. Mist lightly once a week to maintain
high surface moisture; the sperm must be able to swim to the archegonia (female parts).
After about three weeks, fertilization should have occurred. Pull the mat apart with
tweezers in ¼-inch squares and space them ½-inch apart in a flat containing a 2-inch
layer of sand, ¼-inch of charcoal, and about 2 inches of soil/peat mix. Cover with plastic
and keep moist. When fern fronds appear and become crowded, transplant to small
pots. Gradually reduce the humidity until they can survive in the open. Light exposure
may be increased at this time.

Asexual Propagation
Asexual propagation, as mentioned earlier, is the best way to maintain some species,
particularly an individual that best represents that species. Clones are groups of plants
that are identical to their one parent and that can only be propagated asexually. The
Bartlett pear (1770) and the Delicious apple (1870) are two examples of clones that
have been asexually propagated for many years.

The major methods of asexual propagation are cuttings, layering, division, budding and
grafting. Cuttings involve rooting a severed piece of the parent plant; layering involves
rooting a part of the parent and then severing it; and budding and grafting is joining two
plant parts from different varieties.

Cuttings
Many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous, are frequently propagated by
cuttings. A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in
order to regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole new plant.

Take cuttings with a sharp blade to reduce injury to the parent plant. Dip the cutting tool
in rubbing alcohol or a mixture of one part bleach : nine parts water to prevent
transmitting diseases from infected plant parts to healthy ones. Remove flowers and
flower buds from cuttings to allow the cutting to use its energy and stored carbohydrates
for root and shoot formation rather than fruit and seed production. To hasten rooting,
increase the number of roots, or to obtain uniform rooting (except on soft, fleshy stems),
use a rooting hormone, preferably one containing a fungicide. Prevent possible
contamination of the entire supply of rooting hormone by putting some in a separate
container for dipping cuttings.

Insert cuttings into a rooting medium such as coarse sand, vermiculite, soil, water, or a
mixture of peat and perlite. It is important to choose the correct rooting medium to get
optimum rooting in the shortest time. In general, the rooting medium should be sterile,
low in fertility, drain well enough to provide oxygen, and retain enough moisture to
prevent water stress. Moisten the medium before inserting cuttings, and keep it evenly
moist while cuttings are rooting and forming new shoots.

Place stem and leaf cuttings in bright, indirect light. Root cuttings can be kept in the
dark until new shoots appear.

Stem Cuttings
Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings. Some can be taken at any
time of the year, but stem cuttings of many woody plants must be taken in the fall or in
the dormant season.

Tip cuttings: Detach a 2 to 6-inch piece of stem, including the terminal bud. Make the
cut just below a node. Remove lower leaves that would touch or be below the medium.
Dip the stem in rooting hormone if desired. Gently tap the end of the cutting to remove
excess hormone. Insert the cutting deeply enough into the media to support itself. At
least one node must be below the surface.
Medial cuttings: Make the first cut just above a node, and the second cut just above a
node 2 to 6 inches down the stem. Prepare and insert the cutting as you would a tip
cutting. Be sure to position right side up. Axial buds are always above leaves.

Cane cuttings: Cut cane-like stems into sections containing one or two eyes, or nodes.
Dust ends with fungicide or activated charcoal. Allow to dry several hours. Lay
horizontally with about half of the cutting below the media surface, eye facing upward.
Cane cuttings are usually potted when roots and new shoots appear but new shoots
from dracaena and croton are often cut off and re-rooted in sand.

Single Eye: The eye refers to the node. This is used for plants with alternate leaves
when space or stock material are limited. Cut the stem about ½-inch above and ½-inch
below a node. Place cutting horizontally or vertically in the medium.

Double Eye: This is used for plants with opposite leaves when space or stock material
is limited. Cut the stem about 12-inches above and 12-inches below the same node.
Insert the cutting vertically in the medium with the node just touching the surface.

Heel cutting: This method uses stock material with woody stems efficiently. Make a
shield-shaped cut about halfway through the wood around a leaf and axial bud. Insert
the shield horizontally into the medium.

Leaf Cuttings
Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few indoor plants. Leaves of most plants
will either produce a few roots but no plant, or just decay.

Whole leaf with petiole: Detach the leaf and up to 1 ½ inches of petiole. Insert the
lower end of the petiole into the medium. One or more new plants will form at the base
of the petiole. The leaf may be severed from the new plants when they have their own
roots, and the petiole reused.

Whole leaf without petiole: This is used for plants with sessile leaves. Insert the
cutting vertically into the medium. A new plant will form from the axillary bud. The leaf
may be removed when the new plant has its own roots.

Split vein: Detach a leaf from the stock plant. Slit its veins on the lower leaf surface.
Lay the cutting, lower side down, on the medium. New plants will form at each cut. If the
leaf tends to curl up, hold it in place by covering the margins with the rooting medium.

Leaf sections: This method is frequently used with snake plant and fibrous rooted
begonias. Cut begonia leaves into wedges with at least one vein. Lay leaves flat on the
medium. A new plant will arise at the vein. Cut snake plant leaves into 2-inch sections.
Consistently make the lower cut slanted and the upper cut straight so you can tell which
is the top. Insert the cutting vertically. Roots will form fairly soon, and eventually a new
plant will appear at the base of the cutting. These and other succulent cuttings will rot if
kept too moist.

Root Cuttings
Root cuttings are usually taken from 2 to 3 year old plants during their dormant season
when they have a large carbohydrate supply. Root cuttings of some species produce
new shoots, which then form their own root systems, while root cuttings of other plants
develop root systems before producing new shoots.

Plants with large roots: Make a straight top cut. Make a slanted cut 2 to 6 inches
below the first cut. Store cutting about 3 weeks in moist sawdust, peat moss, or sand at
40 degrees F. Remove from storage. Insert the cutting vertically with the top
approximately level with the surface of the rooting medium. This method is often used
outdoors.
Plants with small roots: Take 1 to 2 inch sections of roots. Insert the cuttings
horizontally about 12 inches below the medium surface. This method is usually used
indoors or in a hotbed.

Layering
Stems still attached to their parent plants may form roots where they touch a rooting
medium. Severed from the parent plant, the rooted stem becomes a new plant. This
method of vegetative propagation, called layering, promotes a high success rate
because it prevents the water stress and carbohydrate shortage that plague cuttings.

Some plants layer themselves naturally, but sometimes plant propagators assist the
process. Layering is enhanced by wounding one side of the stem or by bending it very
sharply. The rooting medium should always provide aeration and a constant supply of
moisture.

The following propagation methods can all be considered types of layering, as the new
plants form before they are detached from their parent plants:

Tip layering: Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep. Insert the shoot tip and cover it with soil.
The tip grows downward first, then bends sharply and grows upward. Roots form at the
bend, and the recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip layer and plant it in the
early spring or late fall. Examples: purple and black raspberries, trailing blackberries.

Compound layering: This method works for plants with flexible stems. Bend the stem
to the rooting medium as for simple layering, but alternately cover and expose stem
sections. Wound the lower side of the stem sections to be covered. Examples: heart-
leaf philodendron, pothos.

Mound (stool) layering: Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the ground in the dormant
season. Mound soil over the emerging shoots in the spring to enhance their rooting.
Examples: gooseberries, apple rootstocks.

Air layering: Air layering is used to propagate some indoor plants with thick stems, or
to rejuvenate them when they become leggy. Slit the stem just below a node. Pry the slit
open with a toothpick. Surround the wound with wet unmilled sphagnum moss. Wrap
plastic or foil around the sphagnum moss and tie in place. When roots pervade the
moss, cut the plant off below the root ball. Examples: dumbcane, rubber tree.

Simple layering: Bend the stem to the ground. Cover part of it with soil, leaving the last
6 to 12 inches exposed. Bend the tip into a vertical position and stake in place. The
sharp bend will often induce rooting, but wounding the lower side of the branch or
loosening the bark by twisting the stem may help. Examples: rhododendron,
honeysuckle.

Division
Plants with more than one rooted crown may be divided and the crowns planted
separately. If the stems are not joined, gently pull the plants apart. If the crowns are
united by horizontal stems, cut the stems and roots with a sharp knife to minimize injury.
Divisions of some outdoor plants should be dusted with a fungicide before they are
replanted. Examples: dahlias, iris, rhubarb, day lilies.

Separation
Separation is a term applied to a form of propagation by which plants that produce bulbs
or corms multiply.

Bulbs: New bulbs form beside the originally planted bulb. Separate these bulb clumps
every 3 to 5 years for largest blooms and to increase bulb population. Dig up the clump
after the leaves have withered. Gently pull the bulbs apart and replant them immediately
so their roots can begin to develop. Small, new bulbs may not flower for 2 or 3 years,
but large ones should bloom the first year. Examples: tulip, narcissus.

Corms: A large new corm forms on top of the old corm, and tiny cormels form around
the large corm. After the leaves wither, dig up the corms and allow them to dry in
indirect light for 2 or 3 weeks. Remove the cormels, and then gently separate the new
corm from the old corm. Dust all new corms with a fungicide and store in a cool place
until planting time. Examples: crocus, gladiolus.

Grafting
Grafting and budding are methods of asexual plant propagation that join plant parts so
they will grow as one plant. These techniques are used to propagate cultivars that will
not root well as cuttings or whose own root systems are inadequate. One or more new
cultivars can be added to existing fruit and nut trees by grafting or budding.

The portion of the cultivar that is to be propagated is called the scion. It consists of a
piece of shoot with dormant buds that will produce the stem and branches. The
rootstock, or stock, provides the new plant’s root system and sometimes the lower part
of the stem. The cambium is a layer of cells located between the wood and bark of a
stem from which new bark and wood cells originate. (See Fruit chapter for discussion of
apple rootstock).

Four conditions must be met for grafting to be successful: the scion and rootstock must
be compatible; each must be at the proper physiological stage; the cambial layers of the
scion and stock must meet; and the graft union must be kept moist until the wound has
healed.

Cleft grafting: Cleft grafting is often used to change the cultivar or top growth of a
shoot or a young tree (usually a seedling). It is especially successful if done in the early
spring. Collect scion wood 3/8 to 5/8 inch in diameter. Cut the limb or small tree trunk to
be reworked, perpendicular to its length. Make a 2-inch vertical cut through the center of
the previous cut. Be careful not to tear the bark. Keep this cut wedged apart. Cut the
lower end of each scion piece into a wedge. Prepare two scion pieces 3 to 4 inches
long. Insert the scions at the outer edges of the cut in the stock. Tilt the top of the scion
slightly outward and the bottom slightly inward to be sure the cambial layers of the scion
and stock touch. Remove the wedge propping the slit open and cover all cut surfaces
with grafting wax.

Bark grafting: Unlike most grafting methods, bark grafting can be used on large limbs,
although these are often infected before the wound can completely heal. Collect scion
wood 3/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter when the plant is dormant, and store the wood
wrapped in moist paper in a plastic bag in the refrigerator. Saw off the limb or trunk of
the rootstock at a right angle to itself. In the spring, when the bark is easy to separate
from the wood, make a 12-inch diagonal cut on one side of the scion, and a 1½-inch
diagonal cut on the other side. Leave two buds above the longer cut. Cut through the
bark of the stock, a little wider than the scion. Remove the top third of the bark from this
cut. Insert the scion with the longer cut against the wood. Nail the graft in place with flat-
headed wire nails. Cover all wounds with grafting wax.
Whip or tongue grafting: This method is often used for material 1/4 to ½ inch in
diameter. The scion and rootstock are usually of the same diameter, but the scion may
be narrower than the stock. This strong graft heals quickly and provides excellent
cambial contact. Make one 2½-inch long sloping cut at the top of the rootstock and a
matching cut on the bottom of the scion. On the cut surface, slice downward into the
stock and up into the scion so the pieces will interlock. Fit the pieces together, then tie
and wax the union.

Care of the Graft

Very little success in grafting will be obtained unless proper care is maintained for the
following year or two. If a binding material such as strong cord or nursery tape is used
on the graft, this must be cut shortly after growth starts to prevent girdling. Rubber
budding strips have some advantages over other materials. They expand with growth
and usually do not need to be cut, as they deteriorate and break after a short time. It is
also an excellent idea to inspect the grafts after 2 or 3 weeks to see if the wax has
cracked, and if necessary, rewax the exposed areas. After this, the union will probably
be strong enough and no more waxing will be necessary.

Limbs of the old variety which are not selected for grafting should be cut back at the
time of grafting. The total leaf surface of the old variety should be gradually reduced as
the new one increases until at the end of 1 or 2 years, the new variety has completely
taken over. Completely removing all the limbs of the old variety at the time of grafting
increases the shock to the tree and causes excessive suckering. Also, the scions may
grow too fast, making them susceptible to wind damage.

Budding
Budding, or bud grafting, is the union of one bud and a small piece of bark from the
scion with a rootstock. It is especially useful when scion material is limited. It is also
faster and forms a stronger union than grafting.

Patch budding: Plants with thick bark should be patch budded. This is done while the
plants are actively growing, so their bark slips easily. Remove a rectangular piece of
bark from the rootstock. Cover this wound with a bud and matching piece of bark from
the scion. If the rootstock’s bark is thicker than that of the scion, pare it down to meet
the thinner bark so that when the union is wrapped the patch will be held firmly in place.

Chip budding: This budding method can be used when the bark is not slipping. Slice
downward into the rootstock at a 45 degree angle through 1/4 of the wood. Make a
second cut upward from the first cut, about one inch. Remove a bud and attending chip
of bark and wood from the scion shaped so that it fits the rootstock wound. Fit the bud
chip to the stock and wrap the union.
T-budding: This is the most commonly used budding technique. When the bark is
slipping, make a vertical cut (same axis as the root stock) through the bark of the
rootstock, avoiding any buds on the stock. Make a horizontal cut at the top of the
vertical cut (in a T shape) and loosen the bark by twisting the knife at the intersection.
Remove a shield-shaped piece of the scion, including a bud, bark, and a thin section of
wood. Push the shield under the loosened stock bark. Wrap the union, leaving the bud
exposed.

Care of Buds
Place the bud in the stock in August. Force the bud to develop the following spring by
cutting the stock off 3 to 4 inches above the bud. The new shoot may be tied to the
resulting stub to prevent damage from the wind. After the shoot has made a strong
union with the stock, cut the stub off close to the budded area.

Fruit and Tree Crop Production

What farmers need to consider when selecting planting
materials.
Most farmers fail not because of lack of effort or hard work but because of poor
selection of planting materials. Just like the growth and development of child is
determined by what the kid is fed at initial stages and so does the farm need. If you are
given the wrong medication do you expect to heal or your condition to worsen? This are
some of questions farmers should have in mind after land preparation to know what
materials suits their farms.

Farmers need to know the certified seeds, which have been tested and proven by
certified research institution and have a record of high yields; high germination rate and
above all they should be free from disease and pests. This does not apply in planting
alone but also in animal rearing, one should select the best quality offspring during
insemination.

How suitable is the planting material to the area’s ecological conditions? Is the material
compatible with altitude ,temperature and the amount of rainfall of the given area?
Some farmers borrow ideas from other farmers where certain crop has done well not
knowing ecological conditions do matter a lot and they differ from a given area to
another. Always know your area well so as to get suitable variety for the area.

Germination percentage of a seed directly has a bearing on the amount of seed one
purchases for unit area as well as has a direct influence on the total cost of production .
Germination rate should be above 90% which simply means for every 100 seedlings
planted 90 seeds will germinate. Ensure the planting materials are pure to avoid getting
products with off types since off types products are not accepted in the market 

Fruit and Tree Crop Production

Cultivation

Site selection
The site of a fruit-growing enterprise is as significant in determining its success as the
varieties grown. In fact, variety and site together set a ceiling on the productivity and
profit that can be realized under the best management. In most developed fruit
regions microclimatic conditions (climate at plant height, as influenced by slight
differences in soil, soil covering, and elevation) and soil conditions are the two
components of a site that determine its desirability for a fruit-growing enterprise.
Sometimes (particularly with highly perishable fruits) transportation to market must also
be considered.

Local conditions at a site that expose it to unusual frost hazard are as detrimental to

citrus in Florida as they are to peach trees in New Zealand and apple trees in the south
of England. In regions and sites where temperatures during the season may drop no
more than a few degrees below freezing, artificial frost protection is sometimes used.
This is accomplished by open-flame burning (petroleum bricks, logs, etc.) or heating of
metal objects with oil, gas, propane, electricity, etc. (stones or stacks that radiate heat).
Another technique is the spraying of water on plants (e.g., strawberries) as long as the
temperature is below freezing.

For highest productivity, most fruit trees must root extensively to a depth of three feet
(one metre) or more. Heavy subsoil or other conditions causing imperfect internal
drainage may result in shallow, weak root systems that do not take water and nutrients
efficiently from the soil. In semi-arid and arid regions, accumulation of saline soils in a
subsurface layer sometimes limits rooting of fruit trees, causes abnormal foliar
symptoms, and reduces yields. Tiling and surface ditching help decrease water
accumulation in poorly drained subsoils and reduce wet spots in otherwise satisfactory
sites. Special control of irrigation procedures and periodic leaching may alleviate the
worst salt effects in saline soils. Choice of tolerant species, varieties, and rootstocks
may make fruit growing economical on imperfectly drained or mildly saline sites, though
plants rarely perform as well as they do on sites free from these difficulties. Coconuts,
however, tolerate saline soil conditions near tropical saltwater coasts.

Once selected, a site is cleared, levelled (if needed), and cultivated. Then drainage,
irrigation, and road systems are installed as required. In rolling or sloping terrain, where
contour planting is needed to control erosion and conserve moisture, the locations of
the plant or row positions are determined by the contour terraces and waterways
established. In old lands, nematode or other pest populations make fumigation
necessary before planting. In some problem California soils, giant plows and treaded
tractors turn the soil to depths of three to six feet (one to two metres). In very infertile
sites, or sites where the physical condition of the surface soil is poor, it may be helpful
to grow a succession of leguminous cover crops for a year or more before planting
and/or apply a fertilizer containing major fertilizer elements (nitrogen, potassium,
phosphorus, calcium, sulfur) and all or certain trace elements (iron, manganese, boron,
zinc, copper, molybdenum) and lime, based on a soil test.

Planting and spacing systems

Growth, flowering habits, and light requirements on the one hand, and management
problems on the other, determine the most satisfactory planting plan for a fruit- and nut-
growing enterprise. There is a trend toward use of dwarfing stocks, growth control
chemicals, or closer planting and training, or all of them to get the highest yields and
best operation efficiency possible on a unit of ground.

Low-growing crops such as strawberry and pineapple are usually managed in beds
containing several rows, or in less formal matted rows. In an acre of strawberries,
200,000 or more plants may occupy the matted rows. A pineapple plantation with two-
row beds, having plants one foot (0.3 metre) apart in rows two feet (0.6 metre) apart
totals 15,000 to 18,000 plants per acre (37,000 to 44,000 per hectare). With such dense
populations, intense competition for light, water, and nutrients causes smaller average
fruit size. Nevertheless, the total yield per unit of land is usually greater than it would be
with lower plant numbers.

The spacing of grapevines along a trellis row and of trees planted in hedgerows
involves the same group of problems. Maximum vineyard production frequently results
with vine distances of eight to nine feet (2.4 to 2.7 metres; 600 ± per acre [1,500 per
hectare]). The trend for peach trees and spur-type apple strains is hedgerows 14 feet
(4.2 metres) apart or closer, in rows 18 to 20 feet (5.4 to 6 metres) apart.

With those species and varieties that require cross-pollination by insects, the planting
plan must take those special needs into account. This is a problem with apple, pear,
plum, and sweet cherry orchards. At least two varieties that cross-fertilize successfully
must be planted in association with each other.
Training and pruning
Pruning is the removal of parts of a plant to influence growth and fruitfulness. It is an
important fruit-growing practice. Primary attention is given to form in the first few years
after fruit trees or vines are planted. Form influences strength and longevity of the
mature plant as well as efficiency of other fruit-growing practices; pruning for form is
called training. As the plant approaches maximum fruitfulness and fills its allotted space,
maintenance pruning for various purposes becomes increasingly important.

The grape may be trained following one of two systems: (1) spur system, cutting growth
of the previous season (canes) to short spurs, (2) long-cane system, permitting canes to
remain relatively long. Whether a spur or long-cane system is followed depends on the
flowering habit of the variety. Relatively small trees that respond favourably to severe
annual pruning (e.g., the peach and Kadota fig) are usually trained to create an open-
centred tree with a scaffold of four or five main branches that originate on a short trunk
and branch a number of times to provide fruiting wood. Annual renewal pruning can be
reasonably efficient under these circumstances. Larger trees that do not respond
favourably to heavy annual pruning are trained best to a system that encourages the
main leader branch to grow erect to a height of eight to 10 feet (2.4–3.0 metres), with
four or five main lateral branches at intervals on its sides forming the scaffold that
carries fruiting wood up and out; this is called a modified leader system. The central
leader type of tree, with one main leader up through the centre and many side
branches, is common for pear and apple planted in hedgerows, and possibly for other
fruits and nuts as the close-planted hedgerow system is more widely adopted.

The principal reasons for maintenance pruning are: (1) to permit efficient spraying and
harvesting operations, (2) to maintain satisfactory light exposure for most of the leaves,
and (3) to create a satisfactory balance between flowering and leaf surface.

To reduce hand labour costs, larger commercial fruit growers use machine pruning on
many types of fruits. Peach, apple, pear, and other fruits usually planted in hedgerows
are mowed across the top and sides by machine, then thinned out as needed by a
follow-up crew using pneumatic clippers and hand-powered saws, operating from
hydraulically manipulated scaffolds or lifts of various types.

Soil Management, Irrigation, And

Fertilization
Soil management
Two soil management practices (1) clean cultivation and chemical weed control or both
and (2) permanent sod culture, illustrate contrasting purposes and effects. In clean
cultivation or chemical weed control, the surface soil is stirred periodically throughout
the year or a herbicide is used to kill vegetation that competes for nutrients, water, and
light. Stirring increases the decomposition rate of soil organic matter and thereby
releases nitrogen and other nutrients for use by the fruit crop. It may also provide some
improvement in water penetration. On the other hand, laying bare the soil surface
exposes it to erosion; destruction of organic matter eventually lowers fertility and causes
soil structure to change from loose and friable to tight and compacted. Though sod
culture minimizes the destructive processes and may permit a modest increase in
fertility, the sod itself competes with fruit plants for water and nutrients and may even
compete for light. As a result, permanent sod culture is practical only with tree crops
that are normally rather low in vegetation, such as apple, pear, sweet cherry, nuts, and
mango. Competition from established sod may be detrimental to vigorously growing fruit
plants like grape, peach, and raspberry unless adequate fertilizer and water are
supplied.

Because each of these soil management systems has advantages and disadvantages,
modifying or complementary practices are often used; for example, cover cropping,
mulching, and chemical control of vegetation with or without strip sod in the row
middles. In fact, the trend is toward mowed sod middles with strip chemical control
under the trees and with overhead sprinklers during hot dry weather. Sprinklers not only
provide water but tend to cool the plants and give fruit of better market quality without
aggravating diseases. Cultivation combined with winter cover cropping has been used
widely in grape, peach, cherry, bush fruit, and citrus plantings, as well as with other
species. Mulching is the addition of undecomposed plant materials such as straw, hay,
or processors’ refuse to the soil under the plants. In orchards, mulching materials are
most often applied under trees maintained in permanent sod. Strip in-row chemical
control of vegetation in commercial fruit plantings has almost taken over as an
economical and sound practice.

Irrigation
In semi-arid and arid regions, irrigation is necessary. Probably the maximum demand
occurs in date gardens, because they expose a large leaf surface the year around
under conditions of high evaporation and practically no rainfall. Irrigation in humid
climates is generally being provided increasingly during extended dry periods that occur
at one time or another during most growing seasons. For example, large acreages of
banana are irrigated on coastal lowlands of the torrid tropics where annual rainfall
exceeds 60 inches (1,500 millimetres).

Fertilization
Needs of perennial fruit plants for fertilizers depend on the natural fertility of the soil
supporting them and on their individual requirements. Of the essential elements,
supplemental nitrogen is almost always needed; potassium supplements may be
needed, even in some desert areas. Although strawberry, grape, peach, and a few other
fruits have responded favourably to phosphorus, and although its application has been
recommended, the phosphorus requirement of woody plants is low and deficiency is
rather rare. Calcium deficiency may be more common than realized; lime is often
desirable to reduce soil acidity and because of other indirect benefits. Inadequate
magnesium in the soil has been noted by workers studying a wide range of fruit species.
Of the trace elements, zinc, iron, and boron are most likely to be deficient, but copper,
manganese, and molybdenum deficiencies also are being reported for some fruits in
some regions. Iron deficiency is difficult to control in orchards where soils have high
alkalinity. Granulated fertilizers in modern close-planted commercial orchards are
usually broadcast by machine a month or two before growth starts. Additional nitrogen
sometimes is applied in heavy crop years to apple, pear, and citrus.

Crop Enhancement
Pollination
The stimulus of pollination, fertilization, and seed formation is needed to get good size,
shape, and flavour of most of the fruits. (Banana, pineapple, and some citrus and fig
varieties are exceptions.) Transfer of pollen from the anthers (male) to the stigmas
(female) is accomplished in nature either by insects or by movement in air. It is common
practice to bring beehives into the orchard during bloom. Rainy cold weather during
bloom with little or no sunshine can deter activity of the honey bee (the key insect
pollinator) and reduce fruit set appreciably. This is one of the main problems not fully
solved by fruit researchers. Hand-pollination by daubing collected and preserved pollen
onto the stigma (as is done with date palms) sometimes is practiced for other fruits, but
this approach is not widespread.

Thinning
Removal of flowers or young fruit (thinning) is done to permit the remaining fruits to
grow more rapidly and to prevent development of such a large crop that the plant is
unable to flower and set a commercial crop the following year. Thinning is done by
hand, mechanically, or chemically. With the date, the pistillate flower cluster is reduced
in size at the time of hand-pollination. In the case of certain table grape varieties, some
clusters are cut off. With the Thompson seedless grape, a combination of girdling the
trunk bark and judicious application of gibberellin (growth regulating) sprays at
blossoming gives excellent full bunches.

Young peach fruits are thinned by striking the branches with a padded pole or by
shaking the entire tree for a few seconds with a well-padded motor-driven shaker arm
grasping the trunk. Hand thinning of young apple and peach fruits once was also a
common practice, but because of the expense and difficulty, there has been increasing
use of chemical sprays as a substitute. Two kinds of sprays are used: (1) mildly caustic
sprays applied during bloom, such as Elgetol in arid regions, or (2) sprays of growth-
regulating substances such as 3-CPA (2,3-chlorophenoxy propionamide) applied within
a few weeks after bloom in areas with late frosts.

Pest control and preservation

In many fruit enterprises, pest control is the most expensive and time-consuming
growing practice. Where the concentration of fruit farms in an area warrants it, individual
efforts are complemented by legislative measures including quarantine regulations to
force removal of pest-laden, unattended orchards. Sometimes the most economical
control procedure is biological in nature. There is increased research today to find and
multiply parasites that kill fruit crop pests. Such biological methods are necessary as
political pressures increase for banning DDT and other chemicals. Selection of varieties
that are immune, resistant to attack, or tolerant to specific pests, is a biological control
procedure also widely used. Chemical control procedures, however, are relied on most
heavily. Air-blast spray or mist-application machinery covering 70 acres (28 hectares) of
trees or more in a day is now in common use.

Different Methods for Propagating Fruit Trees from

Cuttings, Etc.

While saving seeds is a great practice and every budding grower should be starting a
personal seed bank, certain plants and trees are better propagated via cuttings. This is
particularly the case with many fruit trees because they won’t produce the same quality
of fruit as their parent plant.

While it can be a good idea to produce a variety of species and encourage the sowing
of wild oats, so to speak, most of the time we want to know the apple trees we are
planting are going to supply a tasty treat. Cuttings, but not seeds, provide us with a
replication of the apples we got from the parent tree, so in this case especially, it makes
sense to use them.

It has become the custom for people to go to a nursery to get young sapling fruit trees,
but that can be very costly while propagating from cuttings is inexpensive, exciting, and
entirely doable. Plus, if we learn to multiply our own supply, we have the ability to share
(or sell) trees, as well as reproduce our favorite trees for larger harvests.

Cuttings
More or less, there are two options for rooting fruit trees from cuttings: softwood
and semi-hardwood. The basic technique is the same in that the cuttings should be
removed with a very sharp, clean knife from a branch of the tree, and they should be at
least 15 centimeters long but no longer than 30.

Any leaves should be removed from the bottom half of the cutting, and any fruit or buds
should be taken off as well. The cut end of the cutting should then be dipped in rooting
hormone and put in a moist rooting medium (info below). The medium should be kept
damp, and the rooting cuttings should be kept at around 21 degrees Celsius.

 Softwood cuttings are generally taken in the spring when new branches are
green and no blossoms have appeared. These are generally flexible but will snap
when bent enough. They also have the tendency to dry out very quickly, so they
should be transferred in moist paper towels until planted. Roots should begin to
form at about a month.

 Semi-hardwood cuttings can be harvested in early summer, when the new

growth is beginning to harden, the green being overtaken by bark. These should
still be a little pliable, and they also dry out quickly. For semi-hardwood cuttings,
roots might not take hold until about six weeks has passed.

 Hardwood cuttings are possible, but they can take up to six months to root, and
they are the least likely to take. They likely will require a greenhouse and
automated misting system. Why bother? But, just for the knowledge, these
cuttings should be taken while the tree is dormant from the ends of higher
branches, where the growth is new.

Once the cuttings have roots that reach about three centimeters, they can be placed
in individual planting pots with sterilized potting soil. They should be planted at the same
depth at which they were rooted, and they should be grown protected from weather
extremes for at least a year.

Rooting Hormones and Rooting Medium

There are many options for natural rooting hormones. Human spit is said to work.
Diluted organic apple cider vinegar (consider about a shallow teaspoon for every liter of
water) has lots of trace elements helpful to plant growth and with protecting from
bacterial issues. Cinnamon is also good at protecting the cuttings from fungal and
bacterial problems, and it’s often used in conjunction with willow water, which
encourages root growth.

As for rooting mediums, these should be light and absorbent, likely not involving soil at
all. We want young, new roots to have enough water and plenty of open loose pathways
to move through. An easy recipe would be equal parts coarse sand, perlite and/or
vermiculite, and Sphagnum peat moss or coconut coir, depending on what’s more
sustainably available.

Root without Cuttings

Another option is to root new trees without cuttings. Instead of removing a portion of
branch, this method leaves the “cutting” on the tree. This is called “air layering”. Air
layering is particularly good for trees that are proving difficult to root.

This accomplished in the spring by selecting a section of branch just below a leaf
nodule and roughly the diameter of a writing pen. Using a very sharp knife, shallowly
slice the branch just half a centimeter below the leaf nodule and then again three
centimeters below that. The goal is to remove just a strip of bark without cutting into the
wood.

Rooting hormone—the same as above—should be applied to the stripped portion of

branch. Then, the prepared area should be encased in either moist Sphagnum moss or
coconut coir, and that should be wrapped in plastic, fastened in place with tape, twine,
or cut rubber bands. The area should be kept moist through the growing season. Some
people like to then cover this in foil to prevent the sunlight from causing issues.

Once the roots have formed, the branch can be cut beneath them, and the rooted
cutting transferred to a pot.

 An important consideration when using this method is whether or not the host
tree was grafted. Some say grafted trees aren’t good candidates for this because
rooted cutting won’t have the same qualities as the root stock. However, one
would have to debate that normal cuttings would have the same issue, wouldn’t
they?

Grafting
Grafting is a really common method, especially in larger commercial outfits, for creating
new fruit trees that are true to their name. These often begin with plants that are grown
from seed or to take advantage of the rootstock of more stable and vigorous native
varieties. A scion of the desired plant is fused with the host plant, providing developed
roots, and a new tree is grown.
Grafting is not the same as growing from cuttings. With cuttings, the roots will form from
the actual piece of wood we take from a mother plant. Using cuttings is also much faster
as there are no seeds to propagate.

Fruit and Tree Crop Production

Tree shelter

A tree shelter, or tree guard, is a type of plastic shelter used to nurture trees in the

early stages of their growth. Tree shelters are also sometimes known as Tuley tubes or
tree tubes.

The purpose of tree shelters is to protect young trees from browsing by herbivores by

forming a physical barrier along with providing a barrier to chemical spray applications.
Additionally, tree tubes accelerate growth by providing a mini-greenhouse environment
that reduces moisture stress, channels growth into the main stem and roots and allows
efficient control of weeds that can rob young seedlings of soil moisture and sunlight.

Tree shelters were invented in Scotland in 1979 by Graham Tuley (Lantagne 1997).
They are particularly popular in the UK in landscape-scale planting schemes and their
use has been established in the United States since 2000. About 1 million shelters were
in use in the United Kingdom in 1983–1984 (Tuley 1985), and 10 million were produced
in 1991 (Potter 1991).

Many variations of tree shelters exist. There is considerable debate among tree shelter
manufacturers as to the ideal colour, size, shape and texture for optimal plant growth.
One style used in northern climates of North America has a height of 5 feet to offer the
best protection from deer browse, with vent holes in the upper portion of the tube to
allow for hardening off of hardwood trees going into the winter months and no vent
holes in the lower portion to shield seedlings from herbicide spray and rodent damage.

Studies have shown the positive effects of Tree shelters. Not only do they prevent
browse from herbivores. They create a mini greenhouse effect that provides stronger
growth. Tree Shelters can provide 100% - 200% additional growth vs unprotected trees.

Fruit and Tree Crop Production

Feeding: fertilizing and watering
Maximum return can be obtained only from soil with an ample supply of elements
necessary for plant growth, combined with sufficient moisture to enable them to be
dissolved and absorbed through the plant hairs.

Treatment with farmyard manure or garden compost can supply the majority of these
requirements. Because manure and compost are scarce in urban areas it is often
necessary to use mineral fertilizers as well as organics. The soil is such a complex
substance that all fertilizers must be applied in moderation and in balance with each
other according to the deficiencies of the soil and the requirements of the particular
crop. Different crops have different fertilizer needs. Manures are generally best dug into
the ground in autumn in a temperate climate but also may be used as mulches in spring
to control weeds. A mulch is a surface layer of organic matter that helps the several
needs of feeding, conserving moisture, and controlling weeds. Black polyethylene
sheeting is now widely used for all the mulching functions except feeding.

Watering of newly placed plants and of all plants during periods of drought is an
essential gardening chore. Deep and thorough watering—not simply sprinkling the soil
surface—can result in greatly improved growth. Water is essential in itself, but it also
makes minerals available to plants in solution, the only form usable by plants. About
one inch of water applied each week to the soil surface will percolate down about six
inches; this is a minimal subsistence amount for many herbaceous garden plants, and
small trees and shrubs require more. Proper watering once a week encourages deep
penetration of roots, which in turn enables plants to survive dry surface conditions.

Fruit and Tree Crop Production

Managing Pests and Plant Diseases
Pests, plant diseases, and weeds can be serious threats to crops. Chemical companies
say the only solution is to spray pesticides regularly. But chemicals may cause more
problems than they solve. Sustainable farming works with nature to keep crops,
pests, diseases, weeds, and soil life in balance. This is called natural pest management
or integrated pest management (IPM).

Natural pest management prevents problems with pests and plant diseases, and keeps
harmful chemicals out of our bodies and environment. It also avoids problems of
chemical dependence and pesticide resistance. (For some immediate methods to
resolve pest problems,

Even if you are willing to use pesticides, it is still important to know if pests are harming
your crops, how much damage is being done, and whether creatures in the fields are
already controlling the pest. Then you can decide if and when to use chemicals, and
what kinds to use.

The best way to control both pests and diseases is to keep plants healthy.
  Build healthy soil. Healthy soil provides a home to friendly insects and helps
prevent many plant diseases.
 Plant resistant varieties. Ask farmers or extension agents about seeds to make
sure the ones you choose are resistant to common pests and diseases.
 Space plants correctly. Planting crops too close together limits the sunshine and
air that reaches the leaves, and allows diseases to thrive. But planting crops
farther apart leaves room for weeds, dries the soil, and may reduce the harvest.
Experiment to see what spacing works best for each crop.
 Plant at the right times. Pests and diseases often respond to the weather, such
as the first rains or the first warm day. Watching how each crop grows and talking
with other farmers about these patterns can help you decide the best time to
plant. Planting earlier than usual can make sure crops are big enough to resist
pests or diseases that come at a certain time. Planting later can cause most of
the pests or diseases to die out for lack of food.
 Plant a variety of crops and change crop patterns. Large areas with only 1 kind of
plant attract pests who like that plant.
 Water from below. Watering from above can cause diseases that live in soil to
splash onto plants. And wet leaves and stems are good places for diseases to
grow. Using drip irrigation or flood irrigation can keep plant leaves and stems
healthy.

Look for pests

 
Watch what insects do to see if they are damaging or helping your crops.

Plant-eating insects are a normal part of farming. They cause little harm to crops as
long as they remain in balance with other types of insects, especially those that eat
pests.
Examine your crops regularly. This will help you understand when to allow friendly
insects to do their work, and when you might need to spray with natural pesticides or
use other pest control methods. When you look for pests and diseases, ask questions
such as:

 Are pieces of the plant being eaten by an insect?

 Is damage increasing? Will it affect the crop yield?
 Are friendly insects keeping pests under control?

Is it a pest, a friend, or harmless?

Sometimes the insects easiest to see are protecting plants by eating the pests. Or, the
plant may be at a stage of growth where it can withstand some pest damage and
remain healthy.

Worms are important for healthy soil. Bees, spiders, and most insects that live in water
(such as in rice paddies) are friends, and help control pests. Also, small wasps or flies
with long, thin tubes at their backside are probably friends. It is best to leave insect
friends alone so they can help your crops.

Watch the insects in your fields to know if they are pests, friends, or harmless. If you are
unsure about some insects, collect them in a container together with some plant parts,
and watch them for several days. If you find insect eggs, watch what they hatch. If tiny
worms or grubs (larva) are released, they may be pests. If they release flying insects,
they are often friendly.

The main ways pests damage crops are by sucking the liquid from them and by eating
them.

 Sap-suckers include aphids, scale insects and mealy bugs, leaf and plant
hoppers, white flies, thrips, mites, and nematodes.
 Plant-eating insects include caterpillars, slugs, snails, plant and pod borers.
 If it is a pest, how can you get rid of it?
 Once you know how the pest damages crops, you can use natural pesticides
made for that kind of pest.

Once you know when the pest appears and how it relates to its environment, you can
use physical methods of pest control. Answers to these questions can help know how to
control a pest: Where does it come from? When does it damage crops? Does it appear
in one form and then change to another form (for instance, caterpillars turn into moths
and butterflies)? Is it food for birds, other insects, or field creatures?

Spray with natural pesticides

Natural pesticides prevent crop damage with much less harm to people and the
environment than chemical sprays. They are easy to make and cost less than
chemicals.

But even natural pesticides must be used with care. Never use more than you need.
Always wash your hands after handling them. Always wash food before eating or selling
it. A natural pesticide may work well in some conditions but not in others. If one kind
does not work, try other kinds.
Natural pesticides for plant-eating insects
1. Garlic, pepper, and chili pepper.
2. Collect the plant you want to use, let it dry, and grind the dried plant to a powder.
3. Soak the powder in water overnight (1 handful of powder to 1 liter of water).
4. Pour the mixture through a screen or cloth to remove solids.
5. Add a little bit of mild soap to help the pesticide stick to plants.
6. Spray or sprinkle the mixture on plants. Test your mixture on 1 or 2 plants first. If
it seems to hurt the plants, it may be too strong. Add more water and test it until it
seems good.
7. Repeat as needed, and after it rains.

Natural pesticides for sap-sucker insects

Sap-sucker insects are killed by coating them with mild soap or oil that blocks their
breathing holes. Spraying plants with mild soapy water or water mixed with vegetable oil
will kill these pests. Do not use detergents or strong soaps because they damage
plants, soil, and insects.

Other natural pesticides

Urine diluted in water and sprayed on plants kills pests. Mix 1 cup of urine with 10 cups
of water. Let it sit in a closed container for 10 days. After 10 days, spray the mixture
onto your crops.

Tobacco kills many pests. Boil 1 cup of tobacco leaves or cigarette butts in 5 liters of
water. Strain out the leaves or butts, add a little soap, and spray it on plants. Do not use
tobacco on tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, and eggplant. It will damage these plants and
will not kill most pests that attack them.

IMPORTANT! Tobacco juice is poison! Avoid getting tobacco juice on skin or clothes.

Avoid breathing the steam while boiling tobacco leaves.

Physical methods of pest control

A bat, a bird, a frog, and a snake.

Watch the animals in your fields to know if they control pests.

There are many ways to control pests, or to encourage predators and parasites, based
on their habits and life cycles. Talk to other farmers to learn about methods they use.
Animals and insects
Many birds, bats, snakes, and insects eat pests and pollinate crops. You can tell what a
bird eats by the type of beak it has and by watching how it acts in your fields. To scare
off birds that are eating crops, some farmers hang shiny things such as shiny paper,
tape from old cassette tapes, and scraps of metal near crops.

Most bats eat mosquitoes. But some bats eat fruit and a few others bite animals. By
watching them eat, or by looking at the remains of their food under the place where they
sleep at night, you can tell if they are eating the fruit off your trees or are eating the
insects that bite you or eat your crops.

Some physical methods of pest control

To control fruit flies, put some rotting fruit in a plastic bottle with fruit-fly-sized holes in it.
Hang it from the fruit tree you want to protect about 6 weeks before the fruit will be ripe
(when the flies start laying their eggs on the fruit). The flies will fly in but will not be able
to get out.
Many small wasps feed on pollen and attack pests. Growing flowering plants that make
lots of pollen will attract these wasps, and the wasps will protect crops from pests.

Tall trees planted around your field can stop locusts or make them pass over your field.
Trees also provide shelter for useful insects.

Ants are fierce predators. If your crops are attacked by grubs, sprinkle sugar water on
the stems or harvested tubers. Ants will come for the sugar water and stay to eat the
grubs!

Many flying insects lay their eggs on crops. The eggs then hatch into grub and
caterpillar pests. Hanging a torch or a lamp above a bucket or lined hole full of water will
attract flying insects, which then fall into the water and drown.

This solves the problem before any eggs can be laid or hatched.

Change crop patterns

Crops in the same plant family can get the same pests and diseases. For example, if
you always plant potatoes in the same field, potato beetles may come to live and breed
in that field. But if every 3 years you plant something they cannot eat, the beetles will
leave or die. The third year crop must not be a relative of potato, like tomato or pepper.
It should be something completely different, like maize. This is called crop rotation. 2
ways to prevent disease and pests are to rotate crops and to plant a variety of crops
together.
Rotate crops
Rotating crops (changing the crops you grow in a particular field) controls diseases and
pests by depriving them of food. It will also improve the soil by adding different nutrients.
For example, rotating grains in one season with beans in the next will make the soil
richer. Grains grow tall and provide organic matter, while beans add nitrogen to the soil.

Plant a variety of crops together

Planting different types of crops provides places for useful insects to live and makes it
harder for pests to find the crop they like to eat. Growing many types of crops also
improves food security, because if one crop fails, there are others to use. Planting
different crops next to each other protects against pests in these ways:

 Some strong smelling herbs and vegetables keep away pests.

 Some flowers attract predators that eat pests.
 Some plants “trap” pests. This is the opposite idea from keeping pests away. If
you plant something that pests like better than your crop, they will stay on the
“trap plant” and leave your crop alone.

Farmers also combine trees with animals and crops to increase the benefits of each of
them.