Elias Hicks

Elias Hicks (March 19, 1748 – February 27, 1830) was a traveling Quaker minister from Long
Island, New York. In his ministry he promoted unorthodox doctrines that led to controversy,
which caused the second major schism within the Religious Society of Friends, the first being
the schism caused by George Keith in 1691. He broke with the Philadelphia Friends Yearly
meeting and established a separate Christian Quaker meeting. His followers were called
"Keithians" or "Christian Quakers."[1] Elias Hicks was the older cousin of the painter Edward
Hicks.
 Elias Hicks

Born March 19, 1748

Hempstead, New York

Died February 27, 1830 (aged 81)

Jericho, New York

Nationality American

Occupation Carpenter, Farmer

Known for Traveling Quaker minister

Spouse(s) Jemima Seaman (married January 2, 1771)

Children 11

Early life

Elias Hicks was born in Hempstead, New York, in 1748, the son of John Hicks (1711–1789)
and Martha Hicks (née Smith; 1709–1759), who were farmers. He was a carpenter by trade
and in his early twenties he became a Quaker like his father.[2]

On January 2, 1771, Hicks married a fellow Quaker, Jemima Seaman, at the Westbury
Meeting House and they had eleven children, only five of whom reached adulthood. Hicks
eventually became a farmer, settling on his wife's parents' farm in Jericho, New York, in what
is now known as the Elias Hicks House.[3] There he and his wife provided, as did other
Jericho Quakers, free board and lodging to any traveler on the Jericho Turnpike rather than
have them seek accommodation in taverns for the night.[4]

In 1778, Hicks helped to build the Friends meeting house in Jericho, which remains a place of
Quaker worship. Hicks preached actively in Quaker meeting, and by 1778 he was
acknowledged as a recorded minister.[2] Hicks was regarded as a gifted speaker with a
strong voice and dramatic flair. He drew large crowds when he was said to be attending
meetings, sometimes in the thousands. In November 1829, the young Walt Whitman heard
Hicks preach at Morrison's Hotel in Brooklyn, and later said, "Always Elias Hicks gives the
service of pointing to the fountain of all naked theology, all religion, all worship, all the truth to
which you are possibly eligible—namely in yourself and your inherent relations. Others talk of
Bibles, saints, churches, exhortations, vicarious atonements—the canons outside of yourself
and apart from man—Elias Hicks points to the religion inside of man's very own nature. This
he incessantly labors to kindle, nourish, educate, bring forward and strengthen."[4]

Anti-slavery activism

Elias Hicks was one of the early Quaker abolitionists. In 1778 on Long Island, he joined with
fellow Quakers who had begun manumitting their slaves as early as March 1776 (James
Titus and Phebe Willets Mott Dodge[5]). The Quakers at Westbury Meeting were amongst the
first in New York to do so[6] and, gradually following their example, all Westbury Quaker slaves
were freed by 1799.

In 1794, Hicks was a founder of the Charity Society of Jerico and Westbury Meetings,
established to give aid to local poor African Americans and provide their children with
education.[7]

In 1811, Hicks wrote Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their Descendents and in it
he linked the moral issue of emancipation to the Quaker Peace Testimony, by stating that
slavery was the product of war. He identified economic reasons for the perpetuation of
slavery:

Q. 10. By what class of the people is the slavery of the Africans and their
descendants supported and encouraged? A. Principally by the
purchasers and consumers of the produce of the slaves' labour; as the
profits arising from the produce of their labour, is the only stimulus or
inducement for making slaves.
and he advocated a consumer boycott of slave-produced goods to remove the economic
reasons for its existence:

Q. 11. What effect would it have on the slave holders and their slaves,
should the people of the United States of America and the inhabitants
of Great Britain, refuse to purchase or make use of any goods that are
the produce of Slavery? A. It would doubtless have a particular effect
on the slave holders, by circumscribing their avarice, and preventing
their heaping up riches, and living in a state of luxury and excess on
the gain of oppression …[8]

Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their Descendents gave the free produce
movement its central argument. This movement promoted an embargo of all goods
produced by slave labor, which were mainly cotton cloth and cane sugar, in favor of produce
from the paid labor of free people. Though the free produce movement was not intended to
be a religious response to slavery, most of the free produce stores were Quaker in origin, as
with the first such store, that of Benjamin Lundy in Baltimore in 1826.[9]

Hicks supported Lundy's scheme to assist the emigration of freed slaves to Haiti and in 1824,
he hosted a meeting on how to facilitate this at his home in Jericho.[10] In the late 1820s, he
argued in favor of raising funds to buy slaves and settle them as free people in the American
Southwest.[11]

Hicks influenced the abolition of slavery in his home state, from the partial abolition of the
1799 Gradual Abolition Act to the 1817 Gradual Manumission in New York State Act which led
to the final emancipation of all remaining slaves within the state on July 4, 1827.

Doctrinal views

Hicks considered obedience to the Inner Light, to be the sole rule of faith and the
foundational principle of Christianity.

Although many accused him of denying the divinity of Christ, the skepticism came because
of the unorthodox views he held. He believed that Jesus fulfilled all the law under the Mosaic
dispensation and after the last ritual (John's Baptism in water), He became clothed with
power from on high to carry out his gospel ministry. He believed the outward manifestation
of Jesus was unique to the Jews and that Jesus taught the imminent end of the age of
Moses along with all physical outward ordinances, types and shadows. He believed Jesus to
be the Christ or Son of God through perfect obedience to the Inner Light, and most commonly
referred to him as our "great pattern", encouraging others that they needed to grow in love
and righteousness as he did to experience the gospel state.

In the year 1829, "Six Queries" were proposed by Thomas Leggett, Jr., of New York, and
answered by Elias Hicks. The last was as follows:

Sixth Query. What relation has the body of Jesus to the Saviour of
man? Dost thou believe that the crucifixion of the outward body of
Jesus Christ was an atonement for our sins?

Hicks Answered. "In reply to the first part of this query, I answer, I
believe, in unison with our ancient Friends, that it was the garment
in which he performed all his mighty works, or as Paul expressed it,
'Know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost, which is
in you,' therefore he charged them not to defile those temples. What
is attributed to that body, I acknowledge and give to that body, in its
place, according as the Scripture attributeth it, which is through and
because of that which dwelt and acted in it.

"But that which sanctified and kept the body pure (and made all
acceptable in him) was the life, holiness, and righteousness of the
Spirit. 'And the same thing that kept his vessel pure, it is the same
thing that cleanseth us."

"In reply to the second part of this query, I would remark that I 'see
no need of directing men to the type for the antitype, neither to the
outward temple, nor yet to Jerusalem, neither to Jesus Christ or his
blood [outwardly], knowing that neither the righteousness of faith,
nor the word of it doth so direct."

"The new and second covenant is dedicated with the blood, the life
of Christ Jesus, which is the alone atonement unto God, by which all
his people are washed, sanctified, cleansed, and redeemed to God."

Hicks also implicitly refuted the concepts of penal substitution, original sin, the Trinity,
predestination, the impossibility of falling from grace, and an external Devil. He never spoke
of eternal Hell but he expressed the importance of the soul's union "now" in preparation for
the "realms of eternity" and how the soul's condemnation is elected through our free agency,
not by God's foreordination.

Hicks was concerned that the present state of the society of friends was settling down in
tradition apart from "that ancient power", and that most other Christian professors, had "gone
back into the law state and instituted mental shadows and forms", instead of worshiping in
spirit and truth through stillness and obedience to the law in the heart. On ministers
worshiping in their own will, preparing sermons, he boldly asserted that, "if you took away
their notes they would be dumb." He was concerned that most religious profession wasn't
founded in experience with the life but was mainly a submission to tradition, superstition, and
the mere "letter that kills".[12]

Concerning the scriptures (which many accused him of denying) at the Philadelphia Yearly
Meeting in 1826, Hicks expressed a view of the harmful tendencies without a knowledge of
the inner light:

Now this seems to be so explained in the writings called the Scriptures,

that we might gain a great deal of profitable instruction, if we would
read them under the regulating influence of the spirit of God. But they
can afford no instruction to those who read them in their own ability;
for, if they depend on their own interpretation, they are as a dead
letter, in so much, that those who profess to consider them the proper
rule of faith and practice, will kill one another for the Scriptures'
sake.[13]

Another sentiment from his writings is as follows:

We find, that although these things are so plainly written in the book
which we call the Bible, yet we feel and know certainly that there is
no power in it to enable us to put in practice what is therein written.
[One would suppose that, to a rational mind, the hearing and
reading of the instructive parables of Jesus would have a tendency to
reform, and turn men about to truth, and lead them on in it. But they
have no such effect.]" In the following paragraph he says: "We may
read of this; but has the letter ever turned any one to the right thing,
unless the light opening it to the understanding has helped him to
put in practice what the letter dictates?
O that the spirit that dwelt in
David might dwell in us; that, from a sense of our impotence and
 weakness, our prayers might ascend like his; 'Lord show me my
secret faults.' And what are these faults that are so various and so
many? Why, some are led sway to the worship of images by being
deceived and turned aside by tradition and books; they worship
other gods beside the true God. [They have been so bound up in the
letter, that they think they must attend to it to the exclusion of
everything else. Here is an abominable idol worship of a thing with
out any life at all, – a dead monument!] Oh! that our minds might be
enlightened, – that our hearts might be opened, – that we might
know the difference between thing and thing. Most of the worship in
Christendom is idolatry, dark and blind idolatry; for all outward
worship is so, – it is a mere worship of images. For if we make an
image merely in imagination, it is an idol.

Hicks rejected of the notion of an outward Devil as the source of evil, but rather emphasized
that it was the human 'passions' or 'propensities'. Hicks stressed that basic urges, including
all sexual passions, were neither implanted by an external evil, but all were aspects of human
nature as created by God. Hicks claimed, in his sermon Let Brotherly Love Continue at the
Byberry Friends Meeting in 1824 that:

He gave us passions—if we may call them passions—in order that we

might seek after those things which we need, and which we had a right
to experience and know.[14]

Hicks taught that all wrongdoing and suffering occurred in the world as the consequence of
"an excess in the indulgence of propensities. Independent of the regulating influence of God's
light."[15]

One of the most intriguing ministers the society of friends has ever encountered, he labored
earnestly to lead them in what he considered the true new covenant dispensation, an invisible
inward covenant and union with God, and saw the tendency that tradition, books, rituals and
even the Bible itself had to hinder that light within. Even at 81 years of age, facing heavy
opposition from orthodox friends, bodily afflictions, and material in circulation to damage his
reputation as a minister, he never wavered in his convictions on placing the sure rule of faith,
the law written on the heart, the only thing sufficient to bring each of the children of men to
the true peace and love of God. Although liberal friends today claim that he is their founder,
many would be uncomfortable with his definition of Christianity: "Nothing more than a
complete mortification of our own will, and a full and final annihilation of all self exaltation."
On the other hand, conservative friends, would be surprised to find in his own journals and
letters, his deep knowledge of scripture and challenging call to true Christianity and self-
denial, as, in his words, "It is only in the valley of humiliation that one can have fellowship with
the oppressed seed."

Hicksite–Orthodox split

This first split in Quakerism was not entirely due to Hicks' ministry and internal divisions. It
was, in part, also a response within Quakerism to the influences of the Second Great
Awakening, the revival of Protestant evangelism that began in the 1790s as a reaction to
religious skepticism, deism, and the liberal theology of Rational Christianity.

However, doctrinal tensions among Friends due to Hicks' teachings had emerged as early as
1808 and as Hicks' influence grew, prominent visiting English evangelical public Friends,
including William Forster and Anna Braithwaite, were prompted to travel to New York State in
the period from 1821 to 1827 to denounce his views.[6][16]

Their presence severely exacerbated the differences among American Quakers, differences
that had been underscored by the 1819 split between the American Unitarians and
Congregationalists.[17] The influence of Anna Braithwaite was especially strong. She visited
the United States between 1823 and 1827[18] and published her Letters and observations
relating to the controversy respecting the doctrines of Elias Hicks in 1824[19] in which she
depicted Hicks as a radical eccentric.[6] Hicks felt obliged to respond and in the same year
published a letter to his ally in Philadelphia Meeting, Dr. Edwin Atlee, in The
Misrepresentations of Anna Braithwaite.[20] This in turn was replied to by Braithwaite in A
Letter from Anna Braithwaite to Elias Hicks, On the Nature of his Doctrines in 1825.[21] Neither
party was persuaded by this exchange.

In 1819, Hicks had devoted much energy into influencing the meeting houses in Philadelphia
and this was followed by years of intense organizational turmoil.[16] Eventually, due to both
external influences and constant internal strife, matters came to a head there in 1826.

After the 1826 Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, at which Hicks' sermon had stressed the
importance of the Inner Light before Scripture, Quaker elders decided to visit each meeting
house in the city to examine the doctrinal soundness of all ministers and elders. This caused
great resentment that culminated at the following Philadelphia Yearly Meeting in 1827. Hicks
was not present[22] when the differences between the meeting houses ended in acrimony and
division, precipitated by the inability of the Meeting to reach consensus on the appointment
of a new clerk[16] required to record its discernment.
Amawalk Friends Meeting House in Yorktown Heights, New York, one of the few built by a Hicksite meeting

Though the initial separation was intended to be temporary, by 1828 there were two
independent Quaker groupings in the city, both claiming to be the Philadelphia Yearly
Meeting. Other yearly meetings split along similar lines during subsequent years, including
those in New York, Baltimore, Ohio, and Indiana.[23] Those who followed Hicks became
termed Hicksites and his critics termed Orthodox Friends, each faction considering itself to
be the rightful expression of the legacy of the founder of the Friends, George Fox.

The split was also based on marked socioeconomic factors with Hicksite Friends being
mostly poor and rural and with Orthodox Friends being mostly urban and middle-class. Many
of the rural country Friends kept to Quaker traditions of "plain speech" and "plain dress", both
long-abandoned by Quakers in the towns and cities.

Both the Orthodox and Hicksite Friends experienced further schisms. The main following of
the Orthodox Friends followed the practices of the English Quaker Joseph John Gurney who
possessed an evangelical position. As time went on, a majority of the meetings endorsed
forms of worship much like those of a traditional Protestant church. Those Orthodox Friends
who did not agree with the practices of the Gurneyites branched off to form the Wilburite,
Conservative, Primitive and Independent yearly meetings. Those Hicksite Friends who did not
agree with the lessened discipline within the Hicksite yearly meetings founded
Congregational, or Progressive groups.[24]

In 1828, the split in American Quakerism also spread to the Quaker community in Canada
that had immigrated there from New York, the New England states and Pennsylvania in the
1790s. This resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in Upper Canada, as in the United
States.

The eventual division between Hicksites and the evangelical Orthodox Friends in the US was
both deep and long-lasting. Full reconciliation between them took decades to achieve, from
the first reunified Monthly Meetings in the 1920s until finally resolved with the reunification of
Baltimore Yearly Meeting in 1968.[25][26]

Later life

On June 24, 1829, at the age of 81, Elias Hicks went on his final traveling ministry to western
and central New York State, arriving home in Jericho on November 11, 1829. There, in
January 1830, he suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed and on February 14, 1830,
he suffered an incapacitating secondary stroke.[27] He died some two weeks later on
February 27, 1830, his dying concern being that no cotton blanket, a product of slavery,
should cover him on his deathbed.[28] Elias Hicks was interred in the Jericho Friends' Burial
Ground as was earlier his wife, Jemima, who predeceased him on March 17, 1829.[29]

References

1. Landsman, Ned C. (1985). Scotland and Its First American Colony, 1683-1765 (first ed.). Princeton:
Princeton University Press. pp. 163–176. ISBN 0-691-04724-3.

2. Timothy L. Hall (2003). American Religious Leaders (https://books.google.com/books?id=-eBX522Jni

wC&pg=PA169) . Infobase Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 9781438108063. Retrieved 2013-03-15.

3. "About the Historic Elias Hicks House" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200312012332/http://www.lif

wg.org/Portals/0/Documents/Hicks%20House.pdf) (PDF). Women's Fund of Long Island. Archived
from the original (http://www.lifwg.org/Portals/0/Documents/Hicks%20House.pdf) (PDF) on 2020-
03-12. Retrieved 2013-02-15.

4. "Elias Hicks, Quaker preacher" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121029061749/http://westburyquaker

s.org/qt/archive/files/EliasHicks.htm) . Long Island Community Foundation. Archived from the
original (http://westburyquakers.org/qt/archive/files/EliasHicks.htm) on 2012-10-29. Retrieved
2013-03-15.

5. Swarthmore Friends Historical Library, Westbury Manumissions RecGrp RG2/NY/W453 3.0 1775–
1798

6. Carol Faulkner (2011). Lucretia Mott's Heresy: Abolition and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century
America (https://books.google.com/books?id=HOvvDbNNfbkC&pg=PA35) . University of
Pennsylvania Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0812205008. Retrieved 2013-02-18.

7. Richard Panchyk (2007). A History of Westbury, Long Island (https://books.google.com/books?id=GD

sjkMsIJ0UC&q=westbury+slaves) . The History Press. pp. 23, 24. ISBN 9781596292130. Retrieved
2013-02-18.
 8. Elias Hicks (1834). Letters of Elias Hicks, Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their
Descendents, (1811) (https://books.google.com/books?id=CQEqAAAAYAAJ&q=slaves+property&p
g=PA9) . Isaac T. Hopper. pp. 11, 12. Retrieved 2013-02-18.

9. Louis L. D'Antuono (1971). The Role of Elias Hicks in the Free-produce Movement Among the Society
of Friends in the United States (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkHbZwEACAAJ) . Hunter
College, Department of History. Retrieved 2013-02-18.

10. Sara Connors Fanning (2008). Haiti and the U.S.: African American Emigration and the Recognition
Debate (https://books.google.com/books?id=45KUZihR_3IC&q=%22elias+hicks+%22+quaker+new+y
ork+1817&pg=PA90) . p. 90. ISBN 9780549636335. Retrieved 2013-02-18.

11. Emma J. Lapsansky-Werner; Margaret Hope Bacon, eds. (2010). Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and
the Colonization Movement in America (https://books.google.com/books?id=9X0rc6E9EGkC&q=%22
benjamin+lundy%22+%22elias+hicks%22&pg=PA6) . Penn State Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780271045719.
Retrieved 2013-02-18.

12. Thomas D. Hamm (1988). The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907
(https://archive.org/details/transformationof00hamm) . Indiana University Press. p. 16 (https://archi
ve.org/details/transformationof00hamm/page/16) . Retrieved 2013-02-15. "dvinity hicks."

13. "The Blood of Jesus A Sermon and Prayer Delivered by ELIAS HICKS, at Darby Meeting, Philadelphia
Yearly Meeting, November 15, 1826" (http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qhoa/hicksdarby.htm) .
Retrieved 2013-02-15.

14. LET BROTHERLY LOVE CONTINUE/STRENGTHENING THE HAND OF THE OPPRESSOR/FALLEN

ANGELS A Sermon Delivered by ELIAS HICKS, at Byberry Friends Meeting, 8th day 12th month, 1824
(http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qhoa/hicks1824.htm) . Retrieved 2013-02-15.

15. Elias Hicks (1825). A series of extemporaneous discourses: delivered in the several meetings of the
Society of Friends in Philadelphia, Germantown, Abington, Byberry, Newtown, Falls, and Trenton (http
s://archive.org/details/seriesofextempo00hick) . Joseph & Edward Parker. p. 166 (https://archive.or
g/details/seriesofextempo00hick/page/166) . Retrieved 2013-02-15.

16. Hugh Barbour (1995). Quaker Crosscurrents:Three Hundred Years of Friends in the New York Yearly
Meetings (https://books.google.com/books?id=q7B25EPMla4C&pg=PA367) . Syracuse University
Press. pp. 123, 124, 125. ISBN 9780815626510. Retrieved 2013-02-21.

17. Thomas C. Kennedy (2001). British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious
Community (https://books.google.com/books?id=iIDIlhlnuCsC&pg=PA22) . Oxford University Press.
p. 23. ISBN 9780198270355. Retrieved 2013-02-21.

18. William Lloyd Garrison (1971). A House Dividing Against Itself, 1836–1840 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=0ojhsW0VgooC&pg=PA658) . Harvard University Press. p. 658. ISBN 9780674526617.
Retrieved 2013-04-16.

19. Anna Braithwaite (1824), Letters and observations relating to the controversy respecting the
doctrines of Elias Hicks (https://books.google.com/books?id=RUIOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA26) , Printed
for the Purchaser, p. 26, retrieved 2013-04-16
20. Elias Hicks (1824). The Misrepresentations of Anna Braithwaite (https://books.google.com/books?id
=LZUfkpdlNtQC&pg=PA1) . Philadelphia. Retrieved 2013-04-16.

21. Anna Braithwaite (1825). A Letter from Anna Braithwaite to Elias Hicks, On the Nature of his
Doctrines (https://books.google.com/books?id=J9cQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2) . Philadelphia. Retrieved
2013-04-16.

22. Elias Hicks (1832). Journal of the life and religious labours of Elias Hicks (https://books.google.com/
books?id=RdcaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18) . I.T. Hopper. Retrieved 2013-02-21.

23. Margery Post Abbott (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers) (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=WlTnzA6kHYwC&pg=PA166) . Scarecrow Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780810870888.
Retrieved 2013-02-21.

24. "A Brief History of the Branches of Friends | Quaker Information Center" (http://www.quakerinfo.org/q
uakerism/branches/history#conservativefriends) . www.quakerinfo.org. Retrieved 2018-05-24.

25. Thomas D. Hamm (2003). The Quakers in America (https://archive.org/details/quakersinamerica000

0hamm) . Columbia University Press. p. 61 (https://archive.org/details/quakersinamerica0000ham
m/page/61) . Retrieved 2013-02-21. "1955."

26. "Historical Sketch", 4. Quietism, Division and Reunion (http://www.bym-rsf.org/who_we_are/history.

html) , Baltimore Yearly Meeting, 2014, retrieved 2014-12-10

27. Henry W Wilbur (1910). THE LIFE AND LABORS OF ELIAS HICKS (https://archive.org/stream/lifelabor
sofelia01wilb/lifelaborsofelia01wilb_djvu.txt) . Philadelphia, Friends' General Conference
Advancement Committee. pp. 220, 221. Retrieved 2013-02-20.

28. Tom Calarco; Cynthia Vogel; Melissa Waddy-Thibodeaux (2010). Places of the Underground Railroad:
A Geographical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=muBtFTkFH_EC&q=elias+hicks) . ABC-
CLIO. p. 153. ISBN 9780313381478. Retrieved 2013-02-21.

29. "Elias Hicks" (https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/11855407) . Find a Grave. February 27, 1830.

Retrieved February 21, 2013.

Gross, David M. American Quaker War Tax Resistance (2008) pp. 208–210 ISBN 1-4382-
6015-6

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Elias Hicks.

Abbott, The Life and Religious Experience of T. Townsend (http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/fami

ly/TTownsend.htm) , Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW)

Anecdotes about Elias Hicks (1888) by Walt Whitman

Elias Hicks, A Doctrinal Epistle, 1824 (https://archive.org/stream/adoctrinalepist00hickgoo

g/adoctrinalepist00hickgoog_djvu.txt)
 Elias Hicks, "Let Love Be Without Dissimulation" (http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qh
oa/hicksevans.htm) , a sermon

Elias Hicks, "Observations on Slavery" (http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qwhp/hicksla

ve.htm)

Elias Hicks, "Peace, Be Still" (http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qhoa/keys.htm) , a

sermon, QH Press

History of Jericho, NY (https://web.archive.org/web/20051102094433/http://www.bestsch

ools.org/community/history.htm) , Best Schools website

Larry Kuenning, "Quaker Theologies in the 19th Century Separations" (https://web.archive.o

rg/web/20120722020310/http://prweb0.voicenet.com/~kuenning/fot/separations.html) ,
1 December 1989, submitted at Westminster Theological Seminary

Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their Descendants and on the Use of the
Produce of Their Labor, by Elias Hicks (https://www.webcitation.org/5vUBHwbnH?url=htt
p://antislavery.eserver.org/tracts/hicksobservations/hicksobservations.html) – from the
Antislavery Literature Project

Pacific Yearly Meeting 2001 Faith and Practice (http://quaker.org/pacific-ym/fp/pymfp2001

pg005.html)

"Elias Hicks Manuscript Collection, Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College" (htt
p://www.swarthmore.edu/library/friends/ead/Hicksmss.xml) . Swarthmore College.
Retrieved 3 May 2016.

Works by Elias Hicks (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/51608) at Project

Gutenberg

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Elias_Hicks&oldid=1036690716"

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