Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Full length article

Microstructure, mechanical properties and biocorrosion behavior of

dissimilar welds of AISI 904L and UNS S32750
K. Devendranath Ramkumar a,∗ , Akash Harendra Dagur a , Ashwin Anil Kartha a ,
Moharil Atharva Subodh a , C. Vishnu a , D. Arun a , M. Giridharan Vijay Kumar a ,
Winston Sunny Abraham a , Ankita Chatterjee b , Jayanthi Abraham b , Johann Abraham a
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore – 632014, India
b
School of Bio-Sciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore – 632014, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This article addresses the joining of 5 mm thick plates of marine grade, super-austenitic (AISI 904L) and
Received 19 June 2017 super-duplex stainless steels (UNS S32750) by pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding using duplex
Received in revised form 29 August 2017 and austenitic stainless steel fillers. Microstructure studies revealed the segregation of Mo-rich phases
Accepted 1 September 2017
in the fusion zone while employing ERNiCrMo-10. Grain coarsening was observed at the heat affected
Available online 18 September 2017
zone (HAZ) of super-duplex stainless steel in both the cases. The study attested that all the tensile fail-
ures experienced in the parent metal, AISI 904L for both the weldments. Charpy V-notch impact studies
Keywords:
demonstrated that the weldments employing ER2553 were experienced better impact toughness than
Super-duplex stainless steel
Super-austenitic stainless steel ERNiCrMo-10 weldments. Further potentiodynamic polarization test in 3.5% NaCl environment was con-
Pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding ducted on the coupons of the weldments. The coupons of the weldments were then tested for accelerated
Microstructure corrosion in salt fog chamber for 300 h in 3.5% NaCl environment. This accelerated corrosion test con-
Microbial- induced corrosion cludes that the parent metal AISI 904L experienced better corrosion resistance than the fusion zones. The
investigation also deals with biocorrosion studies of the dissimilar welds of super-austenitic and super-
duplex stainless steels. Microbial consortium comprising of six bacterial isolates of which four were
Pseudomonas strains P. aeruginosa strain MB1, P. aeruginosa strain MB2, P. fluorescens and P. flavescens,
two belonged to Bacillus strains, B. subtilis and B. cereus, for the first time. The bacterial isolates were
inoculated in the medium with the presence of the metal coupons. The results were obtained after 15
and 30 days interval and compared with the control to determine the rate of biocorrosion which confirms
that there is an accelerated deterioration of the metal coupons by the microbial strains.
© 2017 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Dissimilar welding of super-duplex stainless steel (SDSS) grade
UNS S32750, and super-austenitic stainless steel (SASS), grade
AISI 904L are widely employed in marine and offshore applica-
tions owing to their excellent mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance in the alkaline environment. As individual candidate
materials, both UNS S32750 and AISI 904L are readily weldable.
However, there are some critical issues in the welding of these met-
als. One of the major challenges involved in welding of UNS S32750
is to obtain 50% austenite in the fusion zone and the key factor in
achieving the higher austenite content without deleterious phases
is the heat input and cooling rate [1]. Researchers connoted that
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: deva@vit.ac.in, ramdevendranath@gmail.com (D.R. K.).
on employing low heat inputs and faster cooling rates as observed
in high energy density processes such as electron beam welding
(EBW) or laser beam welding (LBW), the fusion zone was enriched
with higher amounts of ferrite and intense precipitation of Cr2 N [2].
Similarly higher heat inputs and slow cooling rates would cause the
precipitation of brittle intermetallic phases such as ␴ (Sigma) or ␹
(chi). However, this phase will emerge only when they are exposed
to a temperature of 600–1000 ◦ C for extended periods of time
[3–8]. The Cr2 N precipitation deteriorates the corrosion resistance
and the ␴ phase has profound effect in deteriorating the impact
toughness. Devendranath et al. [9] compared the microstructure,
tensile strength and impact toughness of gas tungsten arc (GTA)
welds of UNS S32750 employing ER2553 and ERNiCrMo-4. The out-
comes of the study signified that the weldments employing ER2553
imparted higher tensile strength and impact toughness compared
to ERNiCrMo-4 weldments and EB weldments by the same authors
[10].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2017.09.001
1526-6125/© 2017 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
28 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40
Similarly, AISI 904L receives major attention in the marine appli-
cations owing to their excellent corrosion resistance. The presence
of high Mo content along with the increased levels of Cr, N, and Cu
causes this grade of stainless steel to have excellent resistance to
pitting, crevice, and chloride stress corrosion cracking. The major
problem reported during welding of AISI 904L is the segregation
of Mo in the inter-dendritic regions of the fusion zone, owing to
its lower solubility in ␥ phase. This micro-segregation led to the
depletion of Mo in the dendritic cores and dramatically reduced the
mechanical properties and resistance to localized corrosion attack.
Studies showed that the use of Ni-Mo rich filler circumvents the
problem of segregation to a certain extent [11,12]. Devendranath
et al. [13] investigated the pulsed current GTA welding of AISI 904L
employing four different fillers namely ERNiCrMo-4, ERNiCrMo-
10, ERNiCrMo-14, and ERNiCu-7. The authors attested that both
ERNiCrMo-10 and ERNiCrMo-14 weldments displayed lower seg-
regation and improved corrosion resistance than the base metals.
Mehdi Rahmani et al. [14] investigated the gas tungsten arc
welding of austenitic stainless steel (AISI304L) and super-duplex
stainless steel (UNS S32750) employing ER2594 and ER309L Mo
fillers. Devendranath et al. [15] employed filler-less, activated
flux tungsten inert gas (ATIG) welding for joining 5 mm thick
plates of AISI 316L and UNS S32750 in a single-pass. Further, the
authors reported the joint strength was better than the weak par-
ent metal, AISI 316L. Although the aforementioned research works
have addressed the dissimilar joints of austenitic and super-duplex
stainless steel, limited efforts have been laid to investigate the
microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion studies of
SDSS/SASS combinations, thus far. Zhiliang Zhou and Johan Löth-
man [16] recently performed the studies on GTA welding of 12 mm
thick super-duplex stainless steel 2507 (UNS S32750) to super-
austenitic stainless steel (UNS S31254) using nickel alloy filler
materials ERNiCrMo-13, ERNiCrMo-3 and super-duplex stainless
steel filler, ER2594. The authors observed grain coarsening as well
as unmixed zones at the HAZs of 2507 and 6 Mo stainless steel sides.
The authors recommended the use of ERNiCrMo-13 for joining
these dissimilar grades of stainless steels owing to better mechan-
ical properties and pitting corrosion resistance.
Microbial influenced corrosion (MIC) is one of the serious cor-
rosion problems in the marine structures which results in a huge
economic loss and accounts for 20% of the corrosion damages [17].
As reported by the above mentioned authors, MIC is not being
treated as a distinct type of corrosion form, but rather is the syn-
ergistic contact of microorganisms, that results in biofilms and
metabolic products that enhance corrosion processes. Little and Lee
[18] reported the types in morphology of MIC, as follows; local-
ized pitting, crevice corrosion, under deposit corrosion, cracking,
enhanced erosion corrosion and de-alloying etc. Although duplex
stainless steel exhibit better-pitting corrosion resistance, the stud-
ies showed that DSS are vulnerable to MIC attack [19,20] in the
environments containing sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB), iron
reducing bacteria (IRB), etc. It is strongly believed that these bac-
teria cause localized pitting corrosion on surfaces under biofilm of
DSS [21,22] owing to the presence of nitrogen content. Huabing Li
et al. [23] investigated the corrosion behavior of super-austenitic
stainless steel (S32654) caused by a corrosive marine bacterium
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The authors reported that the corrosion
rate is accelerated by observing the pits after exposure for 14 days.
Although MIC studies have been conducted on the base metals
of the duplex, ferritic, and austenitic stainless steels by the vari-
ous authors, the information available on the MIC performance of
the welded joints is scanty. Anthony et al. [24] investigated the
MIC corrosion behavior of 6 mm welds of 2205 duplex stainless
steel using sulphate reducing bacteria, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans.
Potentiodynamic polarization studies were carried out in 3.5% NaCl
at 30 ◦ C and were pre-exposed in the medium containing SRB for
40 days. Studies showed that austenite phase was found to be more
susceptible to SRB-influenced corrosion.
It can be concluded that although both the candidate metals
offer good weldability, there are issues related to the formation of
deleterious phases and segregation of Mo. It is always desirable
to have more austenite content in the fusion zone while welding
SDSS; however, it is difficult to obtain as it requires proper heat
inputs and moderate cooling rates. As these metallurgical phases
contribute to lowering the corrosion resistance at the fusion zone,
a study is needed to improve the fusion zone microstructure with
higher amounts of austenite and also to reduce Mo depletion from
the dendritic cores. The previous studies have reported the join-
ing of austenitic/super-austenitic and super-duplex combinations,
without having a specific emphasis on the fusion zone microstruc-
ture and its corrosion performance in the marine environment.
One of the welding approaches in lowering the segregation and
improving the grains is to make use of pulsation current in the GTA
welding process. This pulsation causes the periodic changes in the
current, which allows sufficient time for melting and solidification.
Researchers have observed and reported the advantages in terms of
considerable grain refinement, minimized segregation, improved
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
Hence this study is attempted with the use of PCGTA weld-
ing process to join dissimilar marine grade stainless steels namely
AISI 904L and UNS S32750 employing two fillers ER2553 and
ERNiCrMo-10. Microstructure studies are carried out using optical
microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tech-
niques. Mechanical properties of the dissimilar weldments are
ascertained by conducting hardness, tensile and impact tests. Fur-
ther potentiodynamic polarization test using 3.5% NaCl and salt
spray corrosion studies are also carried out to assess the corro-
sion behavior of the weldments. This study also addressed the MIC
studies on the dissimilar welds of SASS and SDSS by exposing it for
15 and 30 days in the medium containing Gram positive bacteria
Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, and Gram negative bacteria Pseu-
domonas flavescens, P. fluorescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain
MB1, Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain MB2. SEM/EDAX analysis was
performed to understand the corrosion behavior of the welds. The
outcomes of the study will be highly beneficial to the marine and
offshore applications employing these dissimilar joints.
2. Experimental procedure
2.1. Base metals and welding
The base metals employed in the study are the hot rolled,
5 mm thick plates of AISI 904L and UNS S32750 and the chemi-
cal composition of the base metals are established using optical
emission spectroscopy (OES) technique. The fillers employed in the
current study are ER2553 and ERNiCrMo-10 of 1.6 mm diameter.
These filler metals are chosen mainly to improve the fusion zone
microstructures with more austenite and to minimize Mo segre-
gation. The nominal chemical composition of the base and filler
metals are represented in Table 1.
The as-received plates were machined to rectangular plates
of 170 mm × 55 mm × 5 mm using wire-cut electrical discharge
machining (WEDM) process. The samples were acid pickled to
make the surfaces free from organic (grease, paint, dirt) and
metallic residual contamination. Before welding, standard V-Butt
configurations (single V-groove with a root gap of 2 mm, size land
of 1 mm and included angle 60◦ ) were employed on the samples.
High purity (99.9% pure) argon gas was used for shielding and back
purging with the flow rates of 15 and 5 lpm respectively. The diame-
ter of the tungsten electrode was 1.6 mm and the tip angle was 60◦ .
These dissimilar plates were mechanically clamped by providing
 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40 29

Table 1
Chemical composition of the base and filler metals.

Chemical Composition (% by weight)

Base or Filler Metal C Si Mn Cr Mo Ni Cu Fe Others

UNS S32750 0.025 0.28 0.86 25.0 3.6 6.55 0.18 Rem. P – 0.037; V – 0.077; Co – 0.05; N-0.28; Nb – 0.05
AISI 904L 0.019 0.37 1.39 20.3 4.1 23.11 1.26 Rem P – 0.017; S – 0.004
ER2553 0.04 1.0 1.5 25.5 3.4 5.5 2.0 Rem P – 0.04; S – 0.03; N – 0.18
ERNiCrMo-10 0.015 0.05 0.55 22.4 14.0 Rem. 0.2 2.5 P – 0.00001; S – 0.001; Co – 0.22; V – 0.01; W – 3.34

Table 2
Process parameters employed in PCGTA welding of UNS S32750 and AISI 904L.

Filler metal Pass Peak Current Background current Voltage Frequency Duty Cycle Heat input Cumulative Heat input
(A) (A) (V) (Hz) (kJ/mm) (kJ/mm)

ER2553 Root 140 80 10.0–11.5 6 50% 0.472 2.458

Filling pass 1 140 80 9.5–11.0 6 50% 0.643
Filling pass 2 140 80 9.5–11.5 6 50% 0.577
Filling pass 3 140 80 9.6–10.6 6 50% 0.486
Cap 140 80 10.0–11.3 6 50% 0.281

ERNiCrMo-10 Root 140 80 9.7–11.3 6 50% 0.528 2.740

Filling pass 1 140 80 9.4–10.5 6 50% 0.750
Filling pass 2 140 80 9.6–10.9 6 50% 0.633
Filling pass 3 140 80 9.6–10.5 6 50% 0.488
Cap 140 80 10.2–11.2 6 50% 0.342

adequate gripping and were held in the fixture utilizing Cu back
plates with grooves, for facilitating the flow of purging gas.
Multi-pass PCGTA welding process was carried out to join these
plates with a frequency of 6 Hz. The peak and background currents
were set to 140 and 80A respectively for all the passes in both the
cases. At the end of every pass, the fusion zone was cleaned using a
wire brush to remove the inter-pass oxides. The process parameters
employed in the study and the heat input developed during the
multi-pass welding of SASS/SDSS are represented in Table 2.
The heat input of the PCGTA welding is calculated using the
formula given below.
Im × V
HI = ␩ ×
S taken across the entire width of the weldments at regular inter-
The mean current, Im can be calculated from the following
expression
(Ib × tb) + (Ip × tp)
Im =
(tb + tp)
Where HI, heat input (kJ/mm); Im, mean current (A); V, Voltage (V);
S, Welding speed (mm/min.); tb, tp are the pulse time durations for
background and peak current (s); Ib, Ip are background and peak
currents respectively (A) and ␩ – arc efficiency which is considered
to be 60% for PCGTAW.
Followed by welding, the welded joints were subjected to
non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques including gamma ray
radiography and dye penetrant test to determine the flaws on the
surface or sub-surface of the weldments. Further, the weldments
were machined to coupons of various dimensions according to the
ASTM standards for conducting the mechanical and corrosion tests.
2.2. Metallurgical characterization of dissimilar weldments
Microstructure studies were performed on the samples of
dimensions of 28 mm × 10 mm × 5 mm, machined perpendicular to
the welding direction, using WEDM. The transverse cross-section
samples cover all the regions vis-à-vis base metals, fusion zone,
and heat affected zones of the weldments. Standard metallographic
procedures were adopted on the samples which include mechani-
cal polishing with emery sheets of various grit sizes and followed
by disc polishing using alumina-distilled water solution to get the
scratch-free, mirror-like surfaces. Both the weldments are elec-
trolytically etched using 10% oxalic acid for 10 s by keeping 6 V
DC supply and a current density of 1.6 A cm−2 . The interface and
fusion zone microstructures of both the weldments were investi-
gated using OM and SEM techniques. Qualitative analysis on the
chemical composition or characterization of the phases was done
using Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy analysis (EDAX).
2.3. Mechanical characterization of dissimilar weldments
Hardness measurements were carried out on the transverse
coupons of the weldments having dimensions similar to the ones
employed in microstructural studies. The hardness readings were
(1)
vals of 0.25 mm using Vickers microhardness tester. A standard test
load of 500 gf was applied for a dwell time of 10 s using a square
pyramidal diamond indenter. Measurements were taken at differ-
ent passes vis-à-vis cap, filling and root etc. to assess the precise
(2)
changes in the hardness values.
Further uniaxial tension tests were performed on the coupons
fabricated according to ASTM: E8/8 M standards. Tensile properties
were estimated by setting the cross-head velocity to 2 mm/min. so
as to induce a lower strain rate of 3.3 × 10−4 s−1 as prescribed for
sub-sized samples by Davis et al. [25]. Tensile properties include
0.2% offset yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and percent-
age elongation were determined for the dissimilar weldments.
Room temperature, Charpy V-notch impact studies were carried
out on the transverse coupons fabricated as recommended by ASTM
E23:12C standard. Notches were made at the center of the fusion
zone (cap zone) so as to confine the impact loading to the notched
regions. The average tensile properties and impact toughness of the
dissimilar weldments were computed by performing three trials in
each test to obtain the repeatability in the results.
2.4. Corrosion studies
2.4.1. Potentiodynamic polarization and salt spray studies
The electrochemical test was performed on the identical sam-
ples of base metals and the fusion zones of the dissimilar weldments
of cross-section area 10 × 10 mm2 fabricated according to ASTM G
59–97 standard. The coupons were polished using emery sheets
of various grit sizes and then disc polished to obtain a mirror-like
30 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40

Fig. 1. Microstructure of the parent metal (a) AISI 904L and (b) UNS 32750.

finish. A potentiostat was employed for the electrochemical tests
including the specimen as working electrode, saturated calomel as
a reference electrode and platinum wire counter electrode. Poten-
tiodynamic polarization studies were carried out on the coupons by
exposing them to a 3.5% NaCl solution at ambient temperature to
determine the corrosion potentials. Further salt spray corrosion test
was conducted on the coupons fabricated according to ASTM B117
standards. The coupons were exposed to 5% aqueous NaCl environ-
ment with an air pressure of 14–18 Psi and a pH of 6.65–6.85, at a
temperature of 35 ◦ C for 300 h. The weight of the samples before
and after exposure in salt spray corrosion was measured.
The corrosion rate (weight loss measurements) is measured
using the formula
 
CRw = 8.76 × 104 × w / (A × D × T )
Where w = weight loss in grams; A = surface area of the specimen
in cm2 ; D = density of the material in g/cm3 ; T = corrosion time in
hours.
The corrosion studies have been repeated for three times for
both potentiodynamic and salt fog tests.
2.4.2. Microbial induced corrosion studies
The coupons of the dissimilar weldments were cut into the
dimensions of 10 mm × 2 mm, which were then polished using
alumina powder to obtain mirror like finish on the surfaces.
Four different coupons of the weldments, such as parent metal,
UNSS32750 (Sample A), weld zone of ER2553 filler (Sample B), par-
ent metal, AISI904L (Sample C) and weld zone of ERNiCrMo-10 filler
(Sample D) were employed in this microbial influenced corrosion
studies by exposing it for 15 and 30 days. The surface sterilization of
the polished coupons was done with 70% ethanol. Trial 1, 4 strains
of Pseudomonas sp. and coupons in MSM broth. Trial 2, 2 strains of
(3) Bacillus sp. and coupons in MSM broth and the trial 3, Pseudomonas
sp. and Bacillus sp. and coupons in MSM broth. A control trial was
maintained with coupons in MSM broth devoid of microbes. All
the three trials were performed on the various coupons of the
weldments. In the natural environment, microbial biofilms are not
 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40 31

Fig. 2. Interface microstructure of PCGTA welds employing ER2553 filler at (a) AISI 904L and (b) UNS S32750 side respectively.

composed of one bacterial species, rather several microbial species were removed after each 15 days to ascertain the constitution
coexist. Hence in the present study, a consortium of microbes was of biofilm on the surface of the coupons. As recommended by
used to understand the biofilm formation and subsequent corro- Rajasekar and Ting [27], SEM-EDAX analysis was also performed
sion on the metal substrate. All the bacterial strains were procured to determine the microbial growth on the metal surface after each
from Microbial Biotechnology Lab, SBST, VIT University. interval.
The growth pattern of the microbial consortium was studied
using 6 bacterial strains which were inoculated in mineral salt
3. Results and discussion
medium (MSM) broth and incubated for 24 h. Post incubation, 1 ml
of the bacterial culture was diluted to 10−1 and inoculated in MSM
3.1. Base metals
broth to check the growth curve after regular time intervals. The
change in growth pattern was observed by estimating the optical
SE microscopy of the base metals of UNS S32750 and AISI 904L
density at 600 nm [26].
are shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 1(a) shows Ni-rich austenitic matrix with
The welded coupons and the parent metals were inoculated
the twin boundaries which are the microscopic features of base
with Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp. Pseudomonas included species
metal AISI 904L. The microstructure of SDSS having the islands
such as P. aeruginosa strain MB1, P. aeruginosa strain MB2, P. fluo-
of ferrite and austenite as observed from Fig. 1(b) having the dif-
rescens and P. flavescens whereas Bacillus comprised of B. subtilis
ferences in elemental compositions and the ferrite count analysis
and B. cereus. 100 ml of sterile mineral salt medium (MSM) broth
attested that the ferrite-austenite ratio of the base metal UNS
was inoculated with 1 ml (108 cells/ml) of the bacterial consortium.
S32750 is 52:48. The ultimate tensile strength of the base metals
The metal coupons were added to the MSM broth and incubated for
was found to be 875 MPa and 655 MPa for SDSS and SASS respec-
30 days. The corrosive environmental condition was maintained by
tively; similarly, the impact toughness at room temperature was
addition of 1% sodium chloride in the medium. A set of coupons
found to be 96 and 67 J respectively.
32 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40
Fig. 3. Interface microstructure of PCGTA welds employing ERNiCrMo-10 filler at
(a) AISI 904L and (b) UNS S32750 side respectively.
3.2. Microstructure examination of the weldments
Interface microstructures of the dissimilar weldments employ-
ing ER2553 filler are shown in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b). It is evident that
there is no significant grain growth observed at the HAZ of AISI 904L
for both the weldments. The presence of higher amounts of Ni in
AISI 904L prevents the grain growth as Ni serves as grain refiner. In
addition to this, the lower thermal conductivity and higher coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion of AISI904L compared to UNS S32750
facilitated for the absence of grain coarsening effect. However,
coarser grains are observed at the interface of UNS S32750 for
both the weldments, which is attributed to the effect of repeated
heating and cooling owing to multi-pass welding. The intense for-
mation of nitrides of Fe and Cr while employing ER2553 filler and
the formation of secondary austenite is observed at the HAZ of UNS
S32750 while employing ERNiCrMo-10 filler respectively [Fig. 3(a)
and (b)]. Scare Mo, Ti-rich phases were observed at the fusion zone
of ER2553 weldments. Fusion zones of the both the weldments
showed different grain growths such as columnar and equiaxed
dendritic grains across the different passes [Figs. 4(a) and 5(a) ]. Fine
equiaxed dendritic grains were observed at the middle and root
pass of these weldments owing to the multi-pass, pulsed current
GTA welding technique. Similar observations are reported by same
authors in the earlier studies with welding of SDSS and austenitic
stainless steel. According to Savage [28], the formation of equiaxed
grains requires such an extensive constitutional supercooling and
if the liquid metal through inoculation contains a significant num-
ber of solid particles on which the atoms in the constitutionally
supercooled liquid metal can be easily arranged in a crystalline
form, it generally results in lower segregation. Further, the author
reported the presence of equiaxed grains in the fusion zone nor-
mally improve hot cracking resistance. Moreover, the use of pulsed
current in the welding technique resulted in both grain detachment
and dendrite fragmentation which likely to form equiaxed grains.
SEM morphology of the fusion zone of ER2553 weldments
[Fig. 4(b)] exhibited clear distinction between the dendritic and
inter-dendritic regions of columnar grains. It is prominent from
the EDS analysis that there is not much variation in the chemi-
cal composition of the elements except Mo content. On the other
hand, SEM morphology showed the presence of intense precipi-
tates (appear as white in color) across the inter-dendritic regions
of the welds employing ERNiCrMo-10 filler [Fig. 5(b)]. It is to be
noticed that the greatest degree of micro-segregation occurs in the
columnar dendrites compared to the equiaxed dendrites. Further,
the EDS point analysis attested that the segregation observed in the
fusion zone are enriched with Mo, Cr and W. Owing to the lower
solubility of Mo in the austenitic (␥) phase, Mo segregates prefer-
entially in the liquid and thus retention of Mo in the inter-dendritic
arm spacing occurs. This is well supported by the findings of other
researchers [11,13,29]. Further, it is to be opined that the high seg-
regation tendency of the alloying elements Mo and W was due to a
large difference in the atomic radius of Ni and atomic radii of these
elements.
3.3. Mechanical characterization of the weldments
3.3.1. Hardness
Vickers microhardness studies were performed on the cross-
sectionally cut samples of the dissimilar weldments and the results
are represented in Table 3. It is observed from the hardness trend
shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b) that the hardness values are varying from
AISI 904L side to UNS S32750 side. A closer examination of the hard-
ness trend revealed that the average hardness value of the fusion
zone employing ER2553 exhibited almost similar value (192 HV)
and that of the base metal, AISI 904L (182 HV) [Fig. 6(a)]. Whereas
the fusion zone employing ERNiCrMo-10 exhibited better hardness
than AISI 904L. However both the fusion zones exhibited lower
hardness than the base metal, UNS S32750. The increase in the
hardness at the fusion zone of ERNiCrMo-10 could be attributed
to the presence of alloying elements Mo, W, Al, and Co. It is well
understood from the EDAX analysis that the concentration of Mo
is higher both in the dendritic and inter-dendritic regions of the
fusion zone employing ERNiCrMo-10. As reported by Abdel Rahman
et al. [30], Mo has a larger atomic size compared to other alloying
elements, which increases the distortion of the matrix lattice and
increases the hardness value at the fusion zone. Further, the use of
pulsed current GTA welding resulted in the formation of refined,
intimate equiaxed grains which bolstered the hardness at the root
pass of both the weldments. Also, the maximum hardness experi-
enced in the investigated welded joint does not exceed 300 HV and
is the mandatory requirement for super-duplex stainless steel as
per NACE Standard MR0103 [31]. Similar results were reported by
Zhiliang Zhou and Johan Löthman [16].
3.3.2. Tensile and impact test
Tensile test was conducted on both the base metals and the
PCGTA welds of UNS S32750 and AISI 904L employing different
fillers and the stress-strain plots are shown in Fig. 7(a). Tensile stud-
ies corroborated that all the tensile failures occurred at the weaker
base metal, AISI 904L [Fig. 7(b)]. The test data signifies that the ten-
sile strengths of the welded joints are greater than one of the base
metals. The average tensile strengths reported by the weldments
are 692 and 698.5 MPa for ER2553 and ERNiCrMo-10 respectively.
The results are well supported with hardness data that the frac-
ture was experienced in the location where the hardness values
are lower. Further, the microstructure also revealed the presence
of fine equiaxed grains which improved the hardness and strength.
 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40 33

Fig. 4. (a) Fusion zone microstructure and (b) SEM/EDAX point analysis at the fusion zone of PCGTA welds of AISI 904L and UNS S32750 employing ER2553.

Fig. 5. (a) Fusion zone microstructure and (b) SEM/EDAX point analysis at the fusion zone of PCGTA welds of AISI 904L and UNS S32750 employing ERNiCrMo-10.

Table 3
Hardness measurement on the PCGTA welds of UNS S32750 and AISI 904L.

Parent Metal – UNS S32750 Parent Metal – AISI 904L Average Hardness value in the fusion zone (HV)

ER2553 ERNiCrMo-10

Cap Middle Root Avg. Cap Middle Root Avg.

280 ± 3 178 ± 3 175 ± 2 197 ± 2 203 ± 3 192 ± 2 227 ± 3 227 ± 3 240 ± 2 231 ± 3

It is to be noticed that plastic strain is induced in the fusion zones dimensions, which coalesced as the weldments failed by ductile
upon tensile loading. SEM fractographic features of the tensile stud- mode [Fig. 8(a) and (b)].
ied samples showed the presence of dimples and voids in various Room temperature Charpy V-notch impact test results showed
that the weldments employing ER2553 exhibited higher impact
34 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40

Fig. 6. Hardness profiles of the PCGTA welds involving AISI 904L and UNS S32750 employing (a) ER2553 and (b) ERNiCrMo-10 fillers.

Table 4
Mechanical properties of the PCGTA weldments of UNS S32750 and AISI 904L.

Mechanical Property Unit Base Metal – UNS S32750 Base Metal – AISI 904L ER2553 ERNiCrMo-10

0.2% Yield Strength MPa 492 ± 4 335 ± 3 382.5 ± 3.2 396.5 ± 3.1
Ultimate Tensile Strength MPa 875 ± 3 655 ± 2.5 692 ± 3.5 698.5 ± 3.2
% Elongation % 39.8 ± 0.8 56.8 ± 1.2 36.2 ± 2.1 33.1 ± 1.8
Fracture Location – – – Parent metal of AISI 904L Parent metal of AISI 904L
Impact toughness J 96 ± 2.0 67 ± 1.2 76 ± 2.4 38 ± 1.8
Physical observation of impact tested sample – – – Broken into two halves V-notch deformation

toughness (76 J) than the ones employing ERNiCrMo-10 (38 J).
However, the impact toughness of the welds is lower than the base
metal, UNS S32750. Upon impact loading, the weldments employ-
ing ER2553 had shown notch deformation, which, in turn, indicated
that the maximum energy has been absorbed by the weldments.
On the other hand, ERNiCrMo-10 weldments broke into two halves
which indicated lesser energy absorption [Fig. 9(a) and (b)]. It is evi-
dent that the impact toughness of ERNiCrMo-10 weldments was
greatly reduced owing to the effect of micro-segregation as wit-
nessed in the SEM/EDAX analysis [Fig. 5]. The fractographic features
of the impact tested samples indicated the presence of infrequent
voids in the ER2553 weldment [Fig. 10(a)]. The presence of Mo-rich
segregates in the fusion zone of ERNiCrMo-10 would serve as crack
nucleating sites and exhibited fracture. This is well understood by
the presence of tearing boundaries with discontinuous cracks as
the fractographic traits which concluded brittle mode of fracture
[Fig. 10(b)]. Table 4 shows the average mechanical properties of
the dissimilar weldments.
3.4. Corrosion studies
3.4.1. Potentiodynamic polarization
The open circuit potential test was conducted for stabilizing
the voltage or potential before the potentiodynamic polarization
studies and the test was running for 1 h. The open circuit potential
values (OCP) recorded was 0.43 V for both the parent metals, AISI
904L and UNS S32750. Similarly the OCP values were found to be
0.14 V and 0.17 V for the fusion zones of ER2553 and ERNiCrMo-
10 fillers. Potentiodynamic polarization curves of various coupons
of the dissimilar weldments exposed in 3.5% NaCl environment is
shown in Fig. 11. It is inferred from the studies that the base metal
AISI 904L exhibited better corrosion resistance than other zones
of the weldment [Table 5]. It is opined that the material exhibits
higher corrosion potential exhibits better corrosion resistance. AISI
904L has almost equal amounts of Ni and Cr with alloying ele-
ments such as Cu, Mo etc. In turn, these elements will form the
oxides of Ni and Cr, and exhibit a passivation layer which pre-
 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40 35

Fig. 7. (a) Stress-strain plots of tensile tested base metals and PGTA welded joints of UNS S32750 and AISI 904L. (b) Photographs showing the tensile tested samples of PCGTA
weldments experienced fracture at the parent metal of AISI 904L for both the weldments.

Table 5
Electrochemical data for the base and weld metals in 3.5% NaCl environment at room temperature.

Specimen ECorr (mV) ICorr (A/cm2 ) Corrosion rate (mpy)

Base Metal – AISI 904L −130 ± 1.2 2.122 × 10−8 0.022 ± 0.002
Base Metal – UNS S32750 −426 ± 1.0 2.875 × 10−6 4.469 ± 0.011
Fusion Zone – ER2553 −423 ± 1.4 3.321 × 10−5 51.42 ± 0.022
Fusion Zone – ERNiCrMo-10 −170 ± 1.2 3.628 × 10−8 0.056 ± 0.017

vents corrosion. Similarly the base metal, UNS S32750 has almost
equal amounts of ferrite and austenite. The ferrite phase contains
a higher amount of Cr and austenitic phase has Ni. Similar findings
are reported by Loto [32]. Similarly both the fusion zones con-
tains substantial amounts of Cr, Ni, and Mo which is well indicated
from the SEM/EDAX analysis. A slight reduction in the corrosion
resistance of fusion zone of ERNiCrMo-10 over the parent metals
can be reasoned out to the segregation of secondary phases in the
interdendritic spacing. The impoverishment in the corrosion resis-
tance of fusion zone of ER2553 weldment could be attributed to the
galvanic coupling established between the discontinuous zones,
which form small anodes where metal dissolution occurs, and the
remainder of the surface where the cathodic reaction takes place
as reported by Sedricks [33]. However in the present study, there
was no current pits observed for any of these samples on increas-
ing the current density. The studies attested that potentiodynamic
polarization test confirmed the reproducibility of the results.
3.4.2. Salt spray test
Salt spray corrosion studies were performed on the coupons of
the dissimilar weldments involving UNS S32750 and AISI 904L for
300 h. No appreciable physical and morphological changes were
observed on the any of these coupons after an exposure of 300 h.
To be more precise, there is no red rust formation on any of
these samples exposed for 300 h. However, slight weight changes
were noticed on the samples before and after the corrosion study.
The studies attested that the parent metal, AISI 904L exhibited
better resistance to corrosion by showing the corrosion rate of
0.0122 mm/year; whereas the corrosion rates of parent metal UNS
S32750, fusion zone of ERNiCrMo-10 and fusion zone of ER2553
are found to be 0.0140, 0.0147 and 0.0197 and mm/year respec-
tively. It is well understood that the higher amounts of Cr and Mo
along with Ni and Cu in AISI 904L improved the corrosion resistance.
The enriched Cr content in the ferrite phase and Ni in the austenite
phase improved the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of UNS
S32750. Similarly, the higher amounts of Ni, Mo, and Cr in the fusion
zone of ERNiCrMo-10 showed better corrosion resistance than the
36 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40

Fig. 8. SEM fractographs of tensile tested dissimilar welds of AISI 904L and UNS Fig. 10. SEM fractographs of impact tested dissimilar welds of AISI 904L and UNS
S32750 employing (a) ER2553 and (b) ERNiCrMo-10 fillers respectively. S32750 employing (a) ER2553 and (b) ERNiCrMo-10 fillers respectively.

fusion zone employing ER2553. Similar observations are reported

by other researchers [34–36]. It is evident from salt fog test that
there were not much differences observed in the weight loss on
repeating the studies.
3.4.3. Microbial corrosion studies
The growth of bacterial cells was studied where the initial opti-
cal density (OD) at zeroth h was nil. The increase in growth was
calculated by measuring the optical densities at regular intervals of
time. The inoculation size was 106 CFU/ml. After 15 min, the OD was
found to be 0.09. The rate of microbial growth from 0 h to 1 h was
considered as the lag phase in the study. After 1 h of incubation,
there was initiation of exponential phase with rapid multiplica-
tion of the microbes, the OD value was 0.297. This was followed by
stationary phase where the OD was found to be stable for 8–10 h.
In the stationary phase, no net growth of the bacterial cells was
observed because during this phase the number of cells increased
became equal to the number of cells died. The consortium of bac-
terial cells reached stationary growth after 8 h and beyond this
point the growth was constant till 10 h and there was a negligi-
ble decrease in growth of the cells during the post incubation for
10 h as depicted in the Fig. 12. The decrease in bacterial cells occurs
due to the depletion of the nutrients present in the medium. Thus,
during the experiment, medium was added in the flasks at regular
intervals of time.

Fig. 9. Photographs showing the impact tested samples of PCGTA weldments employing (a) ER2553 and (b) ERNiCrMo-3 filler.
 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40
Fig. 11. Potentiodynamic polarization plots of dissimilar welds of UNS S32750 and
AISI 904L in 3.5% NaCl environment.
Fig. 12. Growth curve of the bacterial consortium.
SEM is used to infer the morphological changes on the exposed
surfaces before and after the bacterial attack. As observed in the
control image of the parent metal UNS S32750 (A), the surface
was smooth and without any corrosion. However, after 15 days of
incubation of the coupons with the bacteria, the surfaces of all the
specimens had turned rough and colonies of bacteria formed. Clus-
ters of rod shaped identical bacterial cells were found to grow on
the metal surface in all the trials. The morphological trait of the
Fig. 13. SEM/EDAX analysis on (a) Control before prone to Biological induced corrosion; (b) and (c) Biological induced corrosion of UNS S32750 showing the corrosion attack
of bacterial consortium after 15 days and 30 days respectively.
37
rod shaped bacteria is well depicted in the SEM image shown in
Fig. 13. After 15 days of exposure, the bacterial isolates have formed
biofilm and the corrosion is evident with the presence of cavities
and pits on the surface. It can be inferred that in the consortium, the
combination of both Bacillus and Pseudomonas species have caused
extensive damage to the stainless steel substrates by causing pitting
corrosion and entering the cavities and widening the pits when the
exposure time was extended to 30 days [Fig. 14]. Similar reports of
pitting corrosion were observed upon incubating carbon steel with
sulphate reducing bacteria by other researchers [37,38].
The fusion zones of both the weldments were also investigated
for biological induced corrosion behavior. The surface of the fusion
zone employing ER2553 (Sample C) is prone to corrosion attack
by the bacterial strains which are prominent in the SEM images.
The conversion of smooth surface to rough is prominent after a
15 day exposure and cavities are formed within 30 days of expo-
sure. The SEM image shows the presence of clusters of microbes
forming a line along the surface of the fusion zone of ER2553 weld-
ment [Fig. 15]. Similarly, the fusion zone employing ERNiCrMo-10
(Sample D) shows the surface corrosion by the individual bacte-
rial isolates, which is more prominent after 15 days of exposure
[Fig. 16]. However, post 30 days of incubation, the microbes have
further colonized the surface with the formation of biofilm leading
to corrosion as noticed in the previous trials of our study. Several
cracks are visible on the surface which shows that the bacterial
isolates are able to corrode the metal and utilize the surface for
growth.
Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDAX) analysis was also
performed to investigate the elemental changes on the samples
exposed to MIC for 15 and 30 days. EDAX spectroscopy was carried
out before and after the MIC experiments on the same coupons.
It is inferred that the parent metals UNS S32750, AISI 904L and
the fusion zone of ER2553 contained Fe as their major component
along with Cr, Ni, and Mo; whereas the fusion zone employing
ERNiCrMo-10 was found to have more amount of Ni as seen in
Fig. 16. It is well inferred that there is a change in the percent-
age of the elements present before and after the experiment. The
concentration of Fe and Cr in the parent metal of UNS S32750 was
impoverished after exposure to bacterial attack. The Fe content of
the parent metal UNS S32750 was around 65% by weight before
the corrosion trial, which was then reduced to 61% by weight after
the biocorrosion study with microbial consortium. The Cr content
was also decreased from around 24%–21% by weight after 15 and
30 days interval. This clearly indicates that the bacterial isolates
38 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40

Fig. 14. SEM/EDAX analysis on (a) Control before prone to Biological induced corrosion; (b) and (c) Biological induced corrosion of AISI 904L showing the corrosion attack
of bacterial consortium after 15 days and 30 days respectively.

Fig. 15. SEM/EDAX analysis on (a) Control before prone to Biological induced corrosion; (b) and (c) Biological induced corrosion of fusion zone employing ER2553 showing
the corrosion attack of bacterial consortium after 15 days and 30 days respectively.

Fig. 16. SEM/EDAX analysis on (a) Control before prone to Biological induced corrosion; (b) and (c) Biological induced corrosion of fusion zone employing ERNiCrMo-10
showing the corrosion attack of bacterial consortium after 15 days and 30 days respectively.
 D.R. K. et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 30 (2017) 27–40
are capable of utilizing the metal content as their nutrients to form
colonies which further results in corrosion of the metal coupons
[39]. Microbes require prolonged duration for complete consump-
tion of the metallic coupons and thus, the changes observed in Fe
and Cr concentrations before and after the investigation can be con-
sidered significant. The other parent metal, B, and the fillers were
also observed to have decreased content of the elements in certain
cases. In all the scenarios, Pseudomonas sp. was able to utilize Fe
and decrease its concentration in the metal coupons. Thus, it can
be confirmed that Pseudomonas and Bacillus sp. are capable of caus-
ing corrosion of the metal coupons due to the presence of Fe, Cr and
Ni which they are able to use in nutrient depleted conditions [40].
The term, microbiologically induced corrosion refers to the col-
onization of microbes on metal surfaces which finally results in
corrosion of the metal. The rapid growth of microbes on the metal
surface is a natural phenomenon where the microbes adhere to
the surface of the metals and form biofilms. Microbial adhesion
and the consequent biofilm formation are the determining steps in
microbiologically influenced metal deterioration [41]. During the
early stage of the experiment, it was observed that single bacte-
rial cells attach to the metal surface and then starts to multiply to
form colonies. After a certain stage, the metal surface does not act
as the adhering surface but the bacterial cell attaches to the biofilm
itself and increases their growth [42]. Microbes influence corrosion
by altering the electrochemical conditions at the media and metal
interface due to the chloride ions present in the media. Both the iso-
lates Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp. have the ability to produce
organic/inorganic acids, extracellular metabolites, and enzymes to
facilitate corrosion. The surface of metals as observed in the control
SEM images shows grooves present after polishing which helps the
bacterial cells to attach to the metal and thus begin to corrode the
metal. Hence, it can be confirmed that the surface roughness plays
an important role in biofilm formation of bacteria on metals. Bac-
teria are capable of producing exopolysaccharide which have been
reported to have an influence on corrosion rates. Both Pseudomonas
sp. and Bacillus sp. are well-known producers of extracellular poly-
meric substances (EPS) and thus it can be suggested that the EPS
produced by the bacteria, in this case, affects the corrosion rate
of the metal coupons [42]. EPS enhances the adherence of more
bacterial cells on the metal surface [43]. Owing to the multi-pass
welding, the fusion zones exhibited different elemental composi-
tions in the dendritic and interdendritic spacing as witnessed from
the SEM/EDAX analysis [Figs. 4 and 5]; similarly, the parent metal
UNS S32750 has two distinct phases, ferrite (enriched with Cr) and
austenite (enriched with Ni and N). As pointed by William Liu [19],
the bacteria have a strong affinity to stainless steels with high nitro-
gen content and are vulnerable to MIC attack. The presence of the
Pseudomonas sp. biofilm could cause depletions of Fe and Cr on the
coupon surface, which is detrimental to the passivation film and
thus caused MIC in almost all the coupons exposed in the study.
In a nutshell, the present study attested the joining of dis-
similar stainless steel grades, AISI 904L and UNS S32750. For the
first time, microbial induced corrosion studies were performed on
these dissimilar weldments by exposing them for 15 and 30 days.
The outcomes of the study will be highly beneficial to the end
users employing these bimetallic joints since the welded joints are
assessed for their corrosion resistance in the real-time environ-
ments.
4. Conclusions
The following are the major conclusions were deduced from
the current studies on dissimilar welding of super-austenitic and
super-duplex stainless steels.
39
(1) Microsegregation of Mo, Cr, and W-rich phases are observed in
the fusion zone of the weldment employing ERNiCrMo-10
(2) Tensile studies corroborated that the joint strength of both the
weldments is greater than the weaker parent metal, AISI 904L.
Tensile failures were observed at the parent metal, AISI 904L
for both the cases.
(3) Impact toughness was impaired for the weldments employing
ERNiCrMo-10 owing to the effect of micro-segregation.
(4) Both the potentiodynamic polarization and salt spray corrosion
studies attested that the base metal, AISI 904L exhibited better
corrosion resistance compared to other coupons.
(5) All the coupons in both the weldments are vulnerable to micro-
bial influenced corrosion attack.
(6) Consortium of Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp. were found to
induce biological corrosion aggressively on the coupons. This
is a first report on microbial corrosion by Pseudomonas sp. and
Bacillus sp. on weldments involving UNS S32750 and AISI 904L.
(7) The synergetic effect of the isolates producing acids and exo-
enzymes could be attributed to the initial constitution of biofilm
and progressive damage to the metal substrate by corrosion.
(8) Based on the outcomes of the present studies, PCGTA weld-
ing of AISI 904L and UNS S32750 employing ERNiCrMo-10 and
ER2553 are recommended.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mr. Natarajan, Managing Director,
M/s. Delta Wear Tech Engineers, Pvt. Ltd. Chennai for providing the
welding facilities. The authors are also thankful to acknowledge VIT
University for providing the research ambience and all the facilities
required to accomplish the work. The authors wish to convey their
deepest gratitude to Mr. Arul Maximus Rabel, Scientist, Sathyabama
University, Chennai for extending their support.
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