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Social Media Engagement Project Memo

To: Fitness & Recreation Center, Boston University

From: EM777 A1 Masters Collaboratory Project, College of Communication, Boston University

Date: June 2021

Re: Research Findings on BU Students Using Online Fitness Content During the

COVID-19 Pandemic and Expected Fitness Approach When the Pandemic is Over

Introduction

In the current society that is filled with diverse media platforms, people enjoy getting

fitness related information via social media. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic,

people’s exercise and fitness habits have shifted to rely on more remote ways. Within this

situation, our team, students from the Department of Emerging Studies, would like to apply Uses

and Gratifications Theory and Media System Dependency Theory to explore interrelations and

approaches to encourage online fitness content use in response to users’ heavy reliance on media

during the COVID-19 pandemic for Boston University´s Fitness and Recreation Center (FitRec).

Research Questions & Methodology

BU FitRec works hard to provide the most practical and interesting fitness content

through both in-person and online mediums. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, most of

the fitness content moved online in order to provide users with helpful fitness information while

quarantining at home. To explain how the pandemic changed users' interaction with fitness

content, we applied U&G theory and MSD Theory to better examine suitable ways for FitRec to
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interact with their target audience and what content best satisfied the audience’s need for fitness

during the pandemic.

To accomplish the goal, our survey gathered both quantitative and qualitative data from

FitRec's primary clientele: Boston University students. We measured perceived social

interaction, social presence, web irritation, informativeness of the fitness content in users’ most

used platform, exercise behavior during the pandemic, and expected changes after the pandemic

are measured. Additionally, data was collected on variables such as media platforms people used

to get online fitness content before and during the pandemic and exercise frequency. In addition,

we collected qualitative descriptions of 1) reasons for people choosing certain platforms to get

online fitness content during the pandemic, 2) what influencers (if any) they followed for fitness

content and 3) people’s expected changes of fitness approach after the pandemic. This study

recruited 204 participants through the SONA system at Boston University in exchange for class

extra credit. Participants completed an online survey that measured their attitudes towards and

intention to continue using online fitness content to exercise in the future. Social interaction,

social presence, web irritation, informativeness, attitude and continued use intention were

measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree).

Exercise frequency was measured with five statements: “once a month”, “ two to three times a

month”, “ once a week”, “two or three times a week and daily.” For platforms used, we include

YouTube, Instagram, Tik Tok and Peloton.

Key Findings

We explored how different gratifications that BU students sought while using online fitness

content impacted their attitude towards and continued use of the content during the pandemic.

Out of the 204 BU students that participated in our survey, we found that 37 people did not

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exercise more than once a month. These participants were not included in the following

descriptive visualizations nor in the statistical analysis.

People will consider continuing using online fitness content after the pandemic.

Most participants indicated that they will continue to use online fitness content to fulfill

their fitness needs, even with an option of a gym being open. In fact, some BU students indicated

they go to the gym for exercise before the pandemic, but will change their content to virtual

moving forward. For example, one participant said “The pandemic has taught me fitness is

possible anywhere, even from home.” Some already used online fitness content as a way of

exercising before the pandemic and plan to stay the same after the pandemic. One participant

said, “I don't think the pandemic has influenced my exercise routines because I used YouTube

content for fitness before the pandemic in the same way during the pandemic. And I will use the

same way for fitness now that the pandemic is over.”

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Moreover, a fair amount of people indicated that there will be a change in their content due

to the accessibility of more Internet content being available. Some mention the need to have

flexible fitness content to fit into their schedule. For example, “I think I will continue to use

fitness apps ... because I've found out that exercising at home is very time-saving and effective.

Since I'm still a college student, I have a lot of academic work to do. It's quite hard for me to set

aside a long period of time to go to the gym.” Some mention they will return to finding their

fitness content at the gym, but appreciate the accessibility of having online content available for

them when needed. Other BU students mentioned the accessibility of the type of content as a

reason for sticking with online fitness content. The nature of the Internet allows for a variety of

workout types, giving users the opportunity to select a type of exercise they want to complete.

For example, “I have loved working out with online content because I find that there is more

variety. I never went to the gym before, and now I will definitely not go post-pandemic because I

have grown used to my online content.” Overall, there was a large consumption of online fitness

content during the pandemic and such activity will persist even when the pandemic is over.

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Online fitness content that provides useful information tends to be more welcomed.

One of the variables we analyzed was the impact of content informativeness.

Informativeness refers to people seeking useful online fitness information to fulfil their

exercising needs. Our findings indicate that people will have a more positive attitude and be

more willing to continue to use online fitness content if the content is informative. We found that

content type and workout type are two of the themes that BU students choose certain platforms

to maintain their fitness goals during the pandemic. From there, Youtube is listed as the most

commonly used platform for fitness content. The most mentioned reason for using Youtube is

because it provides long and detailed videos that students can follow step by step.

Online fitness content that confuses or irritates people will hamper their use.

As previously described, we also analyzed the impact of web irritation on users’ attitude

towards and continued use of online fitness content. Web irritation refers to the extent that the

web is messy and irritating to consumers. We found that the more web irritation within the

fitness content, the worse the attitude people would have toward it and the less likely they would

be to continue to use the contents. In addition, we discovered that when a user selects online

fitness content, they consider the platform's design. One participant said that some platforms

were more engaging than others because it enabled them to easily choose the length of their

workout. Participants also indicated in their responses that platforms were selected based on the

details in the content being presented. For example, “YouTube has a lot of fitness videos where

the creators explain how to do the exercise, what it helps, and provides either upbeat music or a

timer to stay on track. TikTok is more short form and quick to pick up or save for later. The app's

algorithm has also picked up on my personality and quirks, so it recommends more relevant

content for me.” Moreover, our research results reveal that online fitness content that is free,

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convenient, easy to use and aligned with people’s fitness goals contribute to why people choose

different types of fitness content. Therefore, it is critical for fitness content providers to continue

to find ways to make content easy for the online fitness content they provide.

Content that enables the audience to connect with other people tends to perform better.

The idea of connection is found to greatly influence people when using online fitness

content. We studied two variables to measure social connection: social interaction and social

presence. Social interaction refers to people building up mutual interrelationships with each

other. Social presence refers to establishing connections with others, experiencing others'

presence, and getting awareness of human contact through social media. Although our results

concluded that establishing one on one connections with others would not be important for the

fitness industry to consider when providing online fitness content, fitness content was preferred

when users felt a sense of a larger community present around them. Participants indicated that

they selected online platforms due to the community found on the platform. One example of this

is, “Because my gym was closed, I wanted to feel connected to the fitness community.” Another

example of connection was demonstrated through indicating that they felt a connection to their

friend group by doing the same workout. An example of this is “I chose them because they were

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recommended to me by friends. I was also invited to exercise together with a friend, which is why

I started utilizing the platforms for myself when I exercise on my own time.”

People tend to follow certain influencers when using online platforms for fitness.

In addition to understanding why people used certain platforms for online fitness content,

we also wanted to understand the relevance of influencers in this space. Part of people’s

reasoning for continued use of online fitness content was the influencers themselves. Our

research indicates that out of the 167 BU students, only 66 people did not follow influencers for

fitness content on social media. About 60% of the students indicated that influencers guided their

exercise. There was a trend in which influencers were followed for fitness content. The top 10

influencers are indicated in the graphic below. A common trend across the influencers is all have

visual platforms that allow for video content. Each influencer takes time to either describe or

show the fitness movement to complete. A few of the top reported influencers also provide a

long term fitness schedule broken down into either two weeks, one month, or more time.

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Recommendations

1. Post informative videos of different types of exercises

● Provide different categories of exercise such as aerobic exercise, strength training,

stretching, balance exercises for the users to choose. BU FitRec should continue to focus

on having a diverse array of fitness activities showcased on their social media profiles.

● The video length should vary so that it could fit users’ respective schedules better. Users

should have the option to view a short piece of content if they are busy or engage in

something longer if they have more time.

● Fitness content that can be followed at home is needed and needs to be easy to do without

complex fitness equipment.

● The tutorials need to be detailed and the trainers should explain the rationale behind each

exercise. For example, this may include which muscles the exercise helps to workout.

2. Create a feeling of community by using an approachable tone and interacting in the

comments section.

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● BU FitRec should have a voice on social media that is friendly rather than that of an

academic authority. This will encourage a more wholesome sense of community and

welcomeness.

● Try to post content which could influence users to share their stories or to have a

discussion.

● When users comment on BU FitRec's content, the account should respond to users to

create the interaction, increasing users' willingness to comment and engage.

● Reply to the questions about FitRec or Fitness when the users ask at the comment or

message direct to FitRec.

3. Provide different kinds of content on different platforms.

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● Pay more attention to the YouTube channel, which is the major platform that BU students

are watching fitness content. Youtube, Instagram, and Tiktok are the top three preferences

for users to get fitness content.

● The videos on Youtube should be long, which are longer than 10 minutes, as BU students

go to Youtube for more lengthy content. The content posted on Tiktok would need to be

shorter than 2 minutes, as that is all the platform affords for. Some content that may fit

within the Tiktok space would be quick exercises, nutritional facts, and meals to eat.

Conclusion

In general, our study’s findings produced recommendations for BU FitRec to interact with

their target audience and provide appropriate content that will best satisfy the audience’s need for

fitness beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. Our strategies are rooted from an extensive amount of

literature review and statistically sound data analysis results. Results and recommendations

emerged from this study will not only allow FitRec to continue to build a strong presence on

Instagram, but also consider other online mediums that may attract BU students as they search

for fitness content online.

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 Understanding fitness social media content in a pandemic
Presented by: Dannie Annecston, Mandy Chou, Dongpeng Huang, Jessica Li, Alexis Shore

Introduction Method Discussion

Quantitative Qualitative
Central Question: What is the best type Recruited 204 participants at a Measured in 7point likert scale Three open answered questions asked
of social media content for BU fitrec to use? larger northeastern university Users will use
Perceived Social Interaction online fitness
Social Presence Reasons for choosing certain content post
Participants completed an
Theory online survey for class credit
Web Irritation platforms during the pandemic pandemic.
Informativeness
U&G Explains HOW do users gratify Attitude Expected changes of fitness
their needs. Split into three grat- Both Quantitative and Continued Use Intention approach after the pandemic
ifications; Content, Process, Qualitavie answers were
Measured in 5 statement scale Users prefer fitness
and Social. collected Influencers followed for content
content with useful
Exercise Frequency information and
easy to use.
MSD Explains WHY users go to
certain mediums to fulfill their Results
goals during a time of societal Quantitative Results Qualitative Results
Two hierarchical regression analysis to assess attitude and Users tend to
crisis. A thematic analysis was completed by coding all open
continued use intention. ended answers in themes. follow influencers
Variance in Attitude when using online
Choosing Platform:
platforms.
(1) Content Type, 35.92%
Hypothesis (2) Convenience, 20.35%
(3) Easy to use, 16.76%
Informativeness will positively impact (H1) (4) Workout Type, 14.97%
attitude toward and (H2) continued use of
(5) Connection, 10.77% Recommendation
online fitness content.
Make fitness content...
Web irritation will negatively impact (H3) atti-
tude toward and (H4) continued use of online Variance in Continued Use Intention Change after Pandemic: Easy to use and understand.
fitness content. (1) Continue Virtual, 37.12%
(2) Back to Gym, 28.74% that builds a community by connecting
Social interaction will positively impact (H5) users to other users.
(3) Stay the Same, 17.96%
attitude toward and (H6) continued use of
online fitness content. (4) Accessibility, 11.97%
Informative videos of different types of
H7: Social presence will have a positive exercises.
relationship with continued use of the online
Top 5 Influencers:
fitness content. Diverse across different social platforms.
Used Same Platforms Before and During Pandemic (1) Chloe Ting, 25.15% Short, informative TikTok videos
RQ: How will social presence impact user’s (2) Pamela Reif, 18.56% Long, guided YouTube videos
attitude toward online fitness content? 93.75% 87.88% (3) Madfit, 5.98%
(4) Sami Clarke, 5.59%
H8: Individuals were more likely to depend
on a technology they were familiar with for 90.00% 98.18% (5) Natacha Ocean, 2.99%
online fitness content during the COVID-19
pandemic. H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H7, RQ, and H8 were supported. H6 was not supported.
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Innovation in the Fitness Community:

Managing Fitness Needs in a Post Pandemic World

Dannie Annecston, Mandy Chou, Dongpeng Huang, Jessica Li

PhD Lead:Alexis Shore

College of Communication, Boston University

EM 777: Masters Collaboratory Project

Dr. Kelsey Prena & Dr. Chris Su

June 10, 2021

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Abstract

Due to COVID-19 and the closing of the gyms nationwide, the home has become the

place for many people to fulfill their fitness goals. Without the fitness instructor at home, people

rely heavily on online fitness content. This study intends to understand which gratifications are

satisfied using online fitness content, based on Uses and Gratification theory and Media System

Theory.

We sought to understand if U&G- and MSD-based variables including informativeness,

web irritation, social interaction, and social presence had an effect on people’s attitude towards

and continued use of online fitness content. An online survey was distributed to college students

at a large northeastern university (N = 134) collecting both quantitative and qualitative data. The

results demonstrate that while low web irritation and high social presence led to a significantly

increased attitude and continued use intention (p<.05), social interaction had no significant

relationship with people’s attitudes and continued use (p>.05). And higher informativeness

would significantly result in better attitudes (p<.05), while not significantly impacting continued

use of online fitness content (p>.05). This study would have important implications in providing

best online fitness content for people that are highly informative and social presence oriented,

while with low web irritation.

keywords: online fitness content, social media, COVID-19, Uses and Gratification

Theory, Media System Dependency Theory

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As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the fitness industry has become saturated with

virtual content for improving health at home (Lufkin, 2020; Garrison, 2020). Consistent fitness

habits were altered in response to the nationwide gym closures (Ries, 2020). The fitness

community on social media is continuously growing on platforms such as Instagram (Stollfuß,

2020), Youtube (Sokolova & Perez, 2020), Facebook (Zuo et al., 2021) and Twitter (Stanford &

Salles, 2021). Social content is commonly shared under the context of “fitspiration” (Sokolova &

Perez, 2020), which is used as a way to encourage individuals to live a healthy lifestyle

(Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015). Fitness educators adapted to the changing landscape of their

industry during the COVID-19 pandemic to meet the needs of users through innovation (Hayes,

2020); particularly, through social media platforms (Zuo et al., 2021). A gap in the literature

exists in understanding the gratification gained from using social media platforms for fitness

content during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study intends to understand how people used

online fitness platforms to gratify their needs for fitness during COVID-19. Through uses and

gratification theory (U&G) and media systems dependency theory (MSD), this study unravels

what needs are driving people toward different social media platforms for fitness content in a

post-pandemic world. By understanding current gratifications and shifts in dependencies that are

currently sought in the fitness community, we can acknowledge the most beneficial form of

content to meet user needs in communication and how to continue connecting with users on their

fitness journey.

Uses and Gratification Theory

While U&G theory originated to explain why audiences engage with certain types of

media outlets, such as radio shows and newspapers (as cited by Ruggiero, 2000), it has evolved

to examine the psychological and behavioral effects of communication by analyzing the

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audience's needs and motivation for interacting with media (Li et al., 2018). U&G theory

contends that audiences use media to fulfill different gratifications, and that the audience has

control over their usage (Li et al., 2018). Due to the complexity of human needs and behaviors as

well as the changes of the media environment, U&G theory has been continuously developed

and improved. Recent U&G studies have focused on social media (Bailey et al., 2020)

particularly to inform marketing strategies (Whiting & Williams, 2013). Traditionally,

gratifications have been split into content and process gratifications (Cutler & Danowski;

Swanson, 1992). Though, the Internet brings a new type of gratification: social gratification,

which is particularly relevant to the study of social media (Stafford et al., 2004).

In the context of online mediums, attitude is defined as a user’s predisposition to respond

to the content favorably or unfavorably (Chen & Wells, 1999). In the context of this study,

attitude toward online fitness content is the user's predisposition when using online fitness

content. At the same time, continued use is another reflection of users’ adaptation and evaluation

of how their inclinations to use online fitness are affected. Continued use of online content in this

research is defined as the individual's willingness to continue to use current online fitness content

(Park et al., 2021). This study attempts to examine how different gratifications affect attitude

toward online fitness content and the continuous use of online fitness content. We examine these

variables as separate dependent variables because attitude and continuous use stand for two

different aspects of outcomes in users. Attitude is able to represent how users feel about the

overall quality of online fitness content during the time using it, while continuous use displays

users’ long-term tendency whether to maintain using the online fitness content or not even after

the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Content gratifications indicate users' pleasure from using the content provided by the

media (Stafford et al., 2004). Stafford et al. (2004) found that the users’ site choices are caused

by their need for content, and that this plays an important role in Internet use (Stafford et al.,

2004). Informativeness, which is the extent to which online media provides useful information

(Chen & Wells, 1999), exemplifies a content gratification (Luo, 2002). Within the context of this

study, informativeness is conceptualized as users seeking online fitness information (for

example, learning new fitness routines). Much empirical work has found that

information-seeking is positively correlated with both Internet use (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000)

and attitude toward a website (Ahn. 2010). While these results are not entirely consistent across

cultural differences (Kim et al., 2011), the current study will control for this by focusing on

participants attending an American university.

Beyond attitudes towards online fitness content, studies have found that information was

a key motivation for users to continue to use mobile applications (Hur et al., 2007; Hwang et al.,

2020). Ko et al. (2005) suggests that users who have a high motivation for informativeness and

feel the media content satisfies their needs are more likely to revisit that content. The literature

consistently points to informativeness as a positive predictor of continued use intention under

U&G theory.

Beyond content gratifications, U&G also emphasizes the importance of process

gratifications, which results from the process of using the medium (Cutler & Danowski 1980)

such as surfing or searching the Internet (Stafford et al., 2004). A common factor within

achieving process gratification is irritation, which is defined as the extent that the web is messy

and irritating to consumers (Eighmey & McCord, 1998). Lim and Ting’s (2012) showed that web

irritation in online platforms will negatively influence user attitude toward the platform.
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According to Luo (2002), web irritation is one of the most critical and influential dimensions of

attitude toward websites. Web irritation will ultimately cause displeasure and annoyance for

users（Lim & Ting, 2012). This means web irritation could be the strong factor that influences

users' attitude towards online fitness content.

In addition to content and process gratifications, social gratifications arise when the users

view the Internet as a social environment (Stafford et al., 2004). Interaction with other users

through sharing content makes social media particularly appropriate for providing social

gratifications (Diddi & La Rose, 2006; Dunne et al., 2010). Hossain et al. (2019) argues that

social gratifications can be measured in two dimensions: social interaction and social presence.

Previous literature found that social interaction was an important motive for social media

use (Whiting & Williams, 2013). Generally, social interaction is a strong factor of using versatile

and prevailing social media like Facebook (Smock et al., 2011) and Instagram (Lee et al., 2015).

Overall, Teodoro & Naaman (2013) mention that information obtained from users via social

media platforms can feel more personable and “real”, allowing for a more positive online

experience.

Another social gratification of interest to this study is social presence. Social presence is

defined as the degree of how the media is able to provide users with the ability to establish

connection with others, experience others' presence, and have an awareness of human contact

(Xu et al., 2012, Lee et al., 2007). Users can follow, interact or even “supervise” each other to

boost fitness motivations (Teodoro & Naaman, 2013). While participants’ fitness goals and

progress are personal feats, their followers as the perceived audience will encourage them to

continuously practice desired activities (Teodoro & Naaman, 2013). In this way, individuals

understand the scope of their audience and will consequently use social media to update how
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they behave to “fit in” within the lines of acceptable behaviors and practices, or norms (Boyd,

2007). Therefore, social presence may influence users’ continued use of social media.

Media Systems Dependency Theory

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, U&G theory is not enough to explain the fulfilling of

users' needs for online fitness content during this period. Media systems dependency theory

(MSD) theory can provide a framework to further understand the users’ needs as they relate to

the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. MSD proposes that people will rely more on the media for

information under uncertainty and societal disturbances (Ball-Rokeach & DeFieur, 1976). The

central concept of MSD theory is that the resources within a media system determines an

individual’s ability to attain their goals (Ball-Rokeach, 1985). MSD theory can be analyzed at the

macro level (e.g., system level), middle level, and micro level (e.g., individual) (Ball-Rokeach et

al., 1990). MSD theory is needed to help explain the changes in users' gratifications because of

the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

While U&G theory is rooted in the question how do users gratify their needs, MSD

theory is based on why the users go to certain mediums to fulfill their goals (Grant et al., 1991).

In other words, U&G theory focuses on individuals without considering the interrelationship

between them and the larger social environment. MSD theory explains these motivations in the

context of certain media platforms and the current society. Thus, integration of U&G and MSD

theory can better examine suitable ways for fitness brands to interact with their target audience

and what content best satisfies the audience’s need for fitness under the COVID-19 crisis.

Media dependency occurs most when a conflict or change of the society is present

(Ball-Rokeach & DeFieur, 1976). Previous studies show that a crisis heightens the use of media
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because people desperately need information to tackle the turbulence in the unstable society

(Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976; Lowrey, 2004; Hu & Zhang, 2014). MSD theory has been used

to examine people’s dependencies on the media after the September 11th terrorist attacks in the

United States (Lowrey, 2004) and the H1N1 crisis in China (Hu & Zhang, 2014) People will lean

on familiar media platforms to get information when a crisis occurs (Lowrey, 2004; Mazer et al.

2015).

Hypotheses and Research Questions

Based on the literature reviewed above, this study establishes hypotheses and research

questions to explain how the pandemic changed users' interaction with fitness content.

Attitude shows the users' favorably or unfavorably predisposition towards the content

(Chen & Wells, 1999), meanwhile continued use reflects users’ adaptation and willingness to

continue using the content (Park et al., 2021). Previous research around content gratifications on

social media define informativeness as a key gratification that needs to be met to positively

influence attitude and continued use (Luo, 2002). Finding useful online fitness information is

vital for people’s predisposition when using online fitness content and their willingness to

continue to use current online fitness content. This literature can be applied to the online fitness

community, as we expect the following:

Informativeness will positively impact (H1) attitude toward and (H2) continued use of

online fitness content.

This study also proposes that web irritation will negatively impact users’ attitude and

continued use of online fitness content (Luo, 2002). Thus, we can hypothesize:

Web irritation will negatively impact (H3) attitude toward and (H4) continued use of

online fitness content.

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The literature on social gratifications show users will use social media for fitness content

more consistently and frequently when there are interactive features embedded (Smock et al.,

2011). Moreover, users will have a more positive attitude towards online fitness content when

they find social interaction features appealing and comfortable (Ko et al, 2005). Therefore we

hypothesize the following:

H5: Social interaction will positively impact (H5) attitude toward and (H6) continued

use of online fitness content.

In addition to social interaction, the social presence literature indicates more mutual

interactivity in the online community can encourage users to use online fitness content more

consistently (Xu et al., 2012). Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

H7: Social presence will have a positive relationship with continued use of the online

fitness content.

Hassanein & Head’s study (2007) shows that social presence would cause positive

consumer attitudes towards websites that sell physical products. However, previous literature

does not show the relationship between social presence and user’s attitudes towards social media

content. Therefore, we raise the research question:

RQ: How will social presence impact user’s attitude toward online fitness content?

Apart from predicting the fulfillment of people’s different gratifications using factors

drawn from U&G theory, users’ gratification seeking behavior is found to be unavoidably

influenced by the social environment that surrounds it, especially during social disturbances and

crisis (Ball-Rokeach & DeFieur, 1976). A number of empirical researchers found that users

would rely more on the media systems to get information during social crises and seek
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information more on media that they are familiar with (Hu & Zhang, 2014; Lowrey, 2004; Mazer

et al. 2015). Therefore this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H8: Individuals were more likely to depend on a technology they were familiar with for

online fitness content during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Method

Participants

This study recruited 204 participants through the SONA system at a large northeastern

university in exchange for class extra credit. Some participants were removed if they indicated at

the start of the survey that they did not exercise more than once a month, leaving us with our

final sample (N = 167). The sample included those who identified as males (n=26), females

(n=138), non-binary (n=2), and prefer not to say (n= 1). Participants' age ranged from 18 and 28,

mostly from 19 to 22 (n=133). Participants’ education levels range from high school (n = 29),

some college (n = 90), bachelor’s degree (n = 33), to graduate degree (n = 15). Participants were

from diverse racial groups: African American (n=1), Asian/Pacific Islander (n=71), Caucasian

(n=73), Hispanic (n=8), Middle Eastern(n=2), Mixed race (n=10) and prefer not to say (n = 2).

Procedure

Participants completed an online survey that measured their attitudes towards and

intention to continue using online fitness content to exercise in the future. The survey measured

perceived social interaction, social presence, web irritation,informativeness of the fitness content

in their most used platform, exercise behavior during the pandemic, and expected changes after

the pandemic are measured. Additionally, data was collected on variables such as media
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platforms people use to get online fitness content before and during the pandemic and exercise

frequency. In addition, we collected qualitative descriptions of reasons for people choosing

certain platforms to get online fitness content during the pandemic, and people’s expected

changes of fitness approach after the pandemic..

Measures

Social interaction: Social interaction was measured using three out of six items that apply to the

context of online fitness most from Kim and Kim (2019): “I will exchange this fitness content

with my friends and family”, “I use this content to communicate with distant friends'', and “I use

this fitness content to keep in touch with people I don’t have enough time to see in person” (α =

.76, M= 10.71, SD = 4.13). All the questions were based on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1

(Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree).

Social presence: The social presence was operationalized by an existing verified scale adopted

from Gefen and Straub (2003) and was further used by Xu et al. (2012), including statements

such as “There is a sense of human contact within this fitness content”, “There is a sense of

sociability in this fitness content” and “There is a sense of human sensitivity in this fitness

content” on a 7-point Likert scale 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree) (α = .92, M=

22.54, SD = 6.80).

Web irritation: To measure how users view the web irritation of online fitness content, Lim &

Ting’s (2012) 5-item web irritation scale was adapted and reduced to four items, again measuring

on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). Higher values

corresponded to ease of use, with statements such as “I feel that the online fitness content that I

use most is confusing”, “I find the online fitness content that I use most is messy” and “I am
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often irritated by unwanted pop-ups in the online fitness content that I use most” (α = .78, M=

11.28, SD = 4.83).

Informativeness: The measure for informativeness was adapted from Lim & Ting (2012). It is a

7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) that includes

statements such as: “It is important that my fitness content is able to give me information that is

of interest to me”, “Accurate information in my fitness content improves my exercise

effectiveness” and “Information in my fitness content that is useful in aiding my exercise

decisions is appreciated” (α = .89, M= 28.43, SD = 4.80).

Attitude: The scale for attitudes was adapted from Lim and Ting (2012). It was measured on a

7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) and asked

respondents to indicate the extent to which they agreed with statements like “I am comfortable to

exercise using online fitness content”, “I like to achieve my fitness goals through online fitness

content” and “I like to find fitness information from fitness content” (α = .83, M= 25.74, SD =

5.50).

Continued use intention: The 5-item continued use intention scale was similarly adapted from

Lim and Ting (2012). It included statements like “It is likely that I will continue to use online

fitness content to exercise in the future”, “I would likely continue to access an online fitness

content to meet my needs” and “I plan to continue to do more exercises via following online

fitness content” (α = .89, M= 26.85, SD = 5.98). Participants were asked to indicate how much

they agreed with such statements on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to

7 (Strongly agree).
 13

Exercise Frequency: Exercise frequency measures how often people are exercising. Exercise

frequency was controlled in this study because people’s attitudes and intention to use online

fitness content would be varied greatly across how often they exercise (Welker et al., 2019).

Only people who exercise were selected because people who didn't exercise were likely to not

view fitness content online either (Sokolova & Perez, 2021). Exercise frequency was measured

using scales from Lindwall and Hassmén (2004) with five statements: “once a month”, “ two to

three times a month”, “ once a week”, “two or three times a week and daily.”

Platforms Used: The platform that people get fitness content is controlled because different

platforms have different affordances and with different gratifications associated. This paper

focuses on the four main platforms that people get fitness content: Youtube (Nyenhuis et al.,

2020), Instagram (Sokolova & Perez, 2021), TikTok ( Stollfuß, 2020), and Peloton (Su et al.,

2020). Participants are asked to select which of the four platforms have they used most for online

fitness during the pandemic.

Results

Quantitative Results

Multicollinearity between variables was below five for all two separate hierarchical

regressions using the variance inflation factor (VIF; Belsley, Kuh & Welsch, 1980). Means of

each study variable for each participant are calculated. After testing for mahalanobis distances,

two outliers were removed from the data.

To analyze our hypotheses (H1, H3, H5) and research question one (RQ1), we ran a

hierarchical regression analysis (See Appendix A). Our control variable, exercise frequency, was

entered into the first model to consider its effect on people’s attitude toward online fitness

content. Informativeness, web irritation, social interaction and social presence was entered into
 14

the second model (H1, H3, H5, RQ1, respectively). The first model did not indicate a significant

relationship between exercise frequency and attitude to online fitness content, F(1, 165) = 2.462,

adjusted R2 = .009, p = .119. This suggests that people’s exercise frequency doesn’t influence

their attitude towards online fitness content.

To interpret the results of hypotheses related to attitude, the second model added these

relevant independent variables. Once included, the model increased the variance in attitude by

34% more than exercise frequency alone, F (5, 161), adjusted R2 = .334, p = .000.

H1: The second model indicated that informativeness was a significant positive predictor

of attitude, p = .000; for every one standardized unit increase in informativeness, attitude toward

online fitness content increased by .332 standardized units. H1 was supported.

H3: The second model indicated that web irritation was a significant negative predictor of

attitude, p = .005; for every one standardized unit increase in web irritation, attitude toward

online fitness content decreased by .199 standardized units. H3 was supported.

H5: The second model indicated that social interaction was a significant positive

predictor of attitude, p = .012; for every one standardized unit increase in web irritation, attitude

toward online fitness content increased by .184 standardized units. H5 was supported.

RQ: Results from the second model indicated that social presence was a significant

positive predictor of attitude, p = .002; for every one standardized unit increase in social

presence, attitude toward online fitness content increased by .229 standardized units.

To analyze our hypotheses (H2, H4, H6, H7), we ran a separate hierarchical regression

analysis to assess continued use intention. Our control variable, exercise frequency, was entered

into the first model to consider its effect on people’s continued use of online fitness content.

Informativeness, web irritation, social interaction and social presence was entered into the
 15

second model (H2, H4, H6, H7, respectively). The first model did not indicate a significant

relationship between exercise frequency and continued use intention, F(1, 165) = 1.375, adjusted

R2 = .002, p = .243. This suggests that people’s exercise frequency doesn’t influence their

continued use of online fitness content.

To interpret the results of hypotheses related to continued use intention, the second model

added the relevant independent variables. Once included, the model increased the variance in

continued use intention by 18% more than exercise frequency, F (5, 161), adjusted R2 =.163, p =

.000.

H2: The second model indicated that informativeness was a significant positive predictor

of continued use intention, p = .040; for every one standardized unit increase in social presence,

continued use intention increased by .160 standardized units. H2 was supported.

H4: The second model indicated that web irritation was a significant negative predictor of

continued use intention, p = .002; for every one standardized unit increase in web irritation,

continued use intention decreased by .250 standardized units. H4 was supported. H6: Social

interaction did not have a significant impact on continued use intention, β = .084, p = .302. H6

was not supported.

H7: The second model indicated that social presence was a significant positive predictor

of continued use intention, p = .017; for every one standardized unit increase in social presence,

continued use intention increased by .197 standardized units. H7 was supported.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people tended to stick to the media platform that they

used before to get online fitness content: Youtube (98.18%), Instagram (87.88%), Peloton

(90.00%), TikTok (93.75%), and other media platforms (81.25%). Thus, H8 was supported.

Qualitative Results
 16

In addition to the aforementioned quantitative findings, we also analyzed participants'

qualitative responses to gauge a richer understanding of their fitness patterns during the

COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. Six themes were identified from the answers for why

participants chose certain platforms (see Appendix B) that addresses part of our research into

MSD theory. (1) Content Type (N = 60, 35.928%), (2) Convenience (N = 34, 20.359%), (3) Easy

to use (N = 28, 16.766%), (4) Workout Type (N = 25, 14.970%), and (5) Connection (N = 18,

10.778%).

The first theme that emerged was content type, indicating participants went to certain

online platforms due to the type of content they received on different platforms. Participant

responses were coded as this theme when expressing their preference for similar messages

across all fitness content presented on that platform. For example, one participant said “Youtube

was convenient and something I used in the past. Tik toks were short and easy to follow, plus no

ads and could do it on my own time.” Selecting online fitness content is also related to the

platform that content is presented on, with consideration to the platform's design. For example,

one participant said “Some platforms are more engaging than others. Also being able to choose

the length of my workout is very important.”. Participant responses coded into this theme also

indicate in their responses that platforms were selected based on the details in the content being

presented. For example, “YouTube has a lot of fitness videos where the creators explain how to

do the exercise, what it helps, and provides either upbeat music or a timer to stay on track.

TikTok is more short form and quick to pick up or save for later. The app's algorithm has also

picked up on my personality and quirks, so it recommends more relevant content for me.”

The second theme that emerged from participant responses was convenience. For

example, one participant chose their platform “...because those are the platforms I use for my
 17

daily life ” Another portion of participant’s responses coded in this category indicated that one

part of the content being convenient was because it was free. Since free content is more

accessible on the internet, participants felt it was easier to include in their lifestyle. One

participant said, “I like how YouTube has a variety of styles of workout as well as instructors.

Also YouTube is free and accessible.”.

Participants indicated that the third main theme for picking their fitness content platform

was easy to use. One participant noted, “Ease of use. Large amount [sic] of content makers on

the platforms I listed. Well-researched information if you know where to look.”.

The third theme on how users chose different platforms for fitness content that emerged

was workout type. Participants would select an online platform if its fitness content aligned with

their fitness goals. For example, one participant said “I used YouTube for exercises like HIIT

workouts, so I could follow along with a timer. I used Instagram for strength training, as

influencers could include multiple videos in one post, each one displaying a specific exercise for

dumbbells, bodyweight, etc.”

The last theme to present itself was the idea of connection. Participants indicated that

they selected online platforms due to the community found on the platform. One example of this

is “Because my gym was closed, I wanted to feel connected to the fitness community”. Another

example of connection was demonstrated through indicating that they felt a connection to their

friend group by doing the same workout. An example of this is “I chose them because they were

recommended to me by friends. I was also invited to exercise together with a friend, which is

why I started utilizing the platforms for myself when I exercise on my own time”.

Four themes were identified from the answers for the survey question “how do you

expect your experience with fitness during the pandemic influences how you will approach
 18

fitness once the pandemic is over?” (see Appendix B) that addresses MSD theory. (1) Continue

with virtual (N = 62, 37.126%), (2) Back to the gym (N = 48, 28.743%), (3) Stay the same (N =

30, 17.964%), and (4) Accessibility of content (N = 20, 11.976%). Each theme is presented with

response extracts and a description of the theme.

Most participants indicated that they will continue to use online fitness content to fulfill

their fitness needs, even with an option of a gym being open. This theme applied to participants

that indicated they received their fitness content in a different form than virtual before the

pandemic, but will change their content to virtual moving forward. For example, one participant

said “The pandemic has taught me fitness is possible anywhere even from home”.

The second theme distinguishes that there will be a change in participants' online fitness

content due to plans of returning to a gym environment when gyms open. For example, “It will

be similar but I will go back in person to gyms and workout classes”. Exercising in a gym can

also provide a means for motivation and community. Responses hinted at the need of in person

connection versus the use of online fitness content for fitness motivation. For example, one

participant said “I miss being in a room with other people working out. Something about the

energy and common goal to get through the workout is what I want in an exercise class”.

Another group of participants answered that they would stay the same on how they

receive their fitness content after the pandemic. Participants also clarified that fitness content

consumed during the pandemic was the same content consumed before the pandemic. They also

indicated the same content will be consumed after the pandemic. For example, one participant

said, “I don't think the pandemic has influenced my exercise routines because I used YouTube

content for fitness before the pandemic in the same way during the pandemic. And I will use the

same way for fitness”.

 19

The fourth theme identified is accessibility of content. In a contradiction to the participant

group saying their content will stay the same, another group indicated that there will be a change

in their content due to the accessibility of more Internet content being available. This theme is

identified due to participants mentioning the need to have flexible fitness content to fit into their

schedule. For example, “I think I will continue to use fitness Apps ... because I've found out that

exercising at home is very time-saving and effective. Since I'm still a college student, I have a lot

of academic work to do. It's quite hard for me to set aside a long period of time to go to the

gym.”. Another part of participants coded into this theme mentioned they will return to finding

their fitness content through a gym atmosphere, but appreciate the accessibility of having online

content available for them when needed. The last part of the coded participants in this theme also

mentioned the accessibility of the type of content as a reason for sticking with online fitness

content. The nature of the internet allows for a variety of workout types, allowing for users to

select a type of exercise they want to complete. For example, “I have loved working out with

online content because I find that there is more variety. I never went to the gym before, and now

I will definitely not go post-pandemic because I have grown used to my online content.”.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to understand how the pandemic affected users'

consumption of fitness content. U&G theory examines the psychological and behavioral effects

of mass communication by analyzing the audience's needs and motivation for interacting with

media (Katz et al., 1973). This study argues that three gratifications are prevalent to the fitness

community: content, process, and social gratification. Literature on these gratifications supports

social presence (Cheung et al., 2011), social interaction (Smock et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2015),

web irritation (Stafford et al., 2004), and informativeness (Hwang et al., 2020; Lim & Ting,
 20

2012) as being main variables for increased social media usage. MSD theory provides a

framework to further understand the needs of users post pandemic. Through an online survey, we

were able to make conclusions around how different factors influenced participants' attitudes

towards and intention to continue using online fitness content to exercise in the future.

In our results, informativeness and web irritation have significant effects on users'

consumption of online fitness content. Informativeness is the strongest predictor of users’

attitudes towards online fitness content and, as such, fitness content providers should ensure that

the content can be informative to their users and enhance their positive attitude. This is also

consistent with previous literature that informativeness impacts people’s attitude toward a media

platform (Ahn. 2010) and their continued use intention (Hur et al., 2007; Hwang et al., 2020; Ko

et al., 2005). The qualitative results further supports this finding, since participants indicated they

selected online fitness content due to the details in the content type. In addition, we found that

web irritation is the strongest predictor of users’ continued use of online fitness content.

Participants further indicated in open ended questions that they would choose platforms for

fitness content based on the platform design itself. Therefore, it is critical for fitness content

providers to continue to find ways to make content easy and informative for the online fitness

content they provide.

Our results also have some interesting theoretical implications for the U&G theory and

MSD theory. Our results demonstrate that U&G theory is suitable for describing people’s getting

online fitness content behavior even during a pandemic. Additionally, individuals depend more

on a technology they were familiar with for online fitness content during the COVID-19
 21

pandemic that extends the MSD theory to a pandemic environment in the United States. The

theoretical implications of this research would also call for further research in people’s getting

online fitness content behavior after the pandemic is over.

Limitation and Future Research

While the research reported provides insight into users’ fulfilling fitness needs through

social media, this study is subject to several limitations. First, this study used a convenience

sampling method. Participants are recruited from the same university and all at college age. Also,

younger people are more prolific users of social media than older people (Lenhart et al.,

2010).Future research should replicate this model with different participants of varying ages to

increase the power of this study's conceptual model and theory building. Second, most of the

participants in this study’s survey are female. Thus the sample may not be representative of all

people that use online fitness content. Third, the consumers perceive different motivations and

gratifications on different platforms (Stanley, 2015; Ma, 2016). Future studies could research the

differences in gratification between social media platforms. By knowing the types of gratification

fulfilment differences per platform, there can be a general understanding of how content will differ

between platforms and what type of content will do best on each platform. Fourth, this survey is

based on a self-reporting basis, which is not as reliable as measuring actual behavior.

Conclusion

This study explores how people adapt to online fitness mode during the COVID-19

period and how these users treat online fitness content by applying U&G theory with MSD

theory into the analysis. This study is among the first to apply U&G theory with MSD theory to

understand the effects of COVID-19 in a post pandemic society. The results show promise in
 22

understanding users' gratifications with online fitness content that can be applied to fitness

brands and organizations. By this studying applying both quantitative and qualitative data, our

results paint a rich narrative for how to approach online fitness content in the future.
 23

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Appendix A

Appendix B

1. Do you exercise once a month or more?

2. Approximately how often do you exercise?
3. Which of the following platforms have you used for online fitness during the pandemic?
4. Which of the following platforms did you use for online fitness before the pandemic?
5. Which of the following platforms have you used most for online fitness during the
pandemic?
6. I will exchange this fitness content with my friends and family
7. I use this content to communicate with distant friends
8. I use this fitness content to keep in touch with people I don’t have enough time to see in
person
9. There is a sense of human contact within this fitness content
10. There is a sense of personalness in this fitness content
11. There is a sense of sociability in this fitness content
12. There is a sense of human warmth in this fitness content
13. There is a sense of human sensitivity in this fitness content
14. I feel that the online fitness content that I use most is confusing.
15. I find the online fitness content that I use most is messy.
16. I am often irritated by unwanted pop-ups in the online fitness content that I use most.
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17. I need to spend loads of time to learn how to manipulate features on the online fitness
platform that I use most.
18. It is important that my fitness content is able to give me information that is of interest to
me.
19. Accurate information in my fitness content improves my exercise effectiveness.
20. Timely information in my fitness content improves my exercise performance.
21. Information in my fitness content that is useful in aiding my exercise decisions is
appreciated.
22. Information in my fitness content that makes it easier for me to compare exercise choices
when following the online fitness content is desirable.
23. I am comfortable to exercise using online fitness content.
24. I like to achieve my fitness goals through online fitness content.
25. I like to find fitness information from fitness content.
26. I feel happy when I access the fitness content.
27. I feel that reading the fitness content is a good idea.
28. It is likely that I will continue to use online fitness content to exercise in the future.
29. I intend to continue looking for fitness content on the Internet in the future.
30. I would likely continue to access an online fitness content to meet my needs.
31. I plan to continue to do more exercises via following online fitness content.
32. When I need to perform a particular exercise, I would continue to search for an online
fitness content associated with that exercise.
33. Reflecting on your answers above, why did you choose certain platforms to maintain
your fitness goals during the pandemic?
34. Did you follow any influencers in particular to get fitness content during the pandemic?
Please list them below.
35. How do you expect your experience with fitness during the pandemic influences how you
will approach fitness once the pandemic is over?
36. How would you describe your gender?
37. What is your age?
38. Please indicate the race or races with which you identify
39. Please indicate your highest level of education