Special Sense :The Ear

The Ear: Hearing and Balance

 The three parts of the ear are the inner, outer, and
middle ear
 The outer and middle ear are involved with hearing
 The inner ear functions in both hearing and
equilibrium
 Receptors for hearing and balance:
 Respond to separate stimuli
 Are activated independently
The Ear: Hearing and Balance

Figure 15.25a
Outer Ear

 The auricle (pinna) is composed of:

 The helix (rim)
 The lobule (earlobe)
 External auditory canal
 Short, curved tube filled with ceruminous glands
 Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
 Thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in
response to sound
 Transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossicles
 Boundary between outer and middle ears
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
 A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity
 Flanked laterally by the eardrum
 Flanked medially by the oval and round windows

 Epitympanic recess (Attic) – superior portion of the

middle ear
 Pharyngotympanic tube (tuba Eustachii/tuba
Auditiva) – connects the middle ear to the
nasopharynx
 Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the
external air pressure
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)

Figure 15.25b
Ear Ossicles

 The tympanic cavity

contains three small bones:
the malleus, incus, and
stapes
 Transmit vibratory
motion of the eardrum to
the oval window
 Dampened by the tensor
tympani and stapedius
muscles
Inner Ear

 Bony labyrinth (Labyrinthus osseus)

 Tortuous channels worming their way through the temporal
bone
 Contains the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semicircular
canals
 Filled with perilymph
 Membranous labyrinth (Labyrinthus membranaceus)
 Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth
 Filled with a potassium-rich fluid (endolymph)
Inner Ear

Figure 15.27
The Vestibule

 The central egg-shaped cavity of the bony labyrinth

 Suspended in its perilymph are two sacs: the
saccule and utricle
 The saccule extends into the cochlea
 The utricle extends into the semicircular canals
 These sacs:
 House equilibrium receptors called maculae
 Respond to gravity and changes in the position of
the head
The Vestibule

Figure 15.27
The Semicircular Canals

 Three canals that each define two-thirds of a circle

and lie in the three planes of space
 Membranous semicircular ducts line each canal and
communicate with the utricle
 The ampulla is the swollen end of each canal and it
houses equilibrium receptors in a region called the
crista ampullaris
 These receptors respond to angular movements of
the head
The Semicircular Canals

Figure 15.27
 The Cochlea

 A spiral, conical, bony chamber that:

 Extends from the anterior vestibule
 Coils around a bony pillar called the modiolus
 Contains the cochlear duct, which ends at the
cochlear apex
 Contains the organ of Corti (hearing receptor)
 The Cochlea
 The cochlea is divided into three chambers:
 Scala vestibuli
 Scala media
 Scala tympani

 The scala tympani terminates at the round window

(fenestra cochlea/ fenestra rotundum)
 The scalas tympani and vestibuli:
 Are filled with perilymph
 Are continuous with each other via the helicotrema
 The scala media is filled with endolymph
The Cochlea

 The “floor” of the cochlear duct is composed of:

 The bony spiral lamina
 The basilar membrane, which supports the organ of
Corti

 The cochlear branch of nerve VIII runs from the

organ of Corti to the brain
The Cochlea

Figure 15.28
Properties of Sound
 Sound is:
 A pressure disturbance (alternating areas of high
and low pressure) originating from a vibrating
object
 Composed of areas of rarefaction and
compression
 Represented by a sine wave in wavelength,
frequency, and amplitude
 Frequency – the number of waves that pass a given
point in a given time
 Pitch (“Nada”) – perception of different
frequencies (we hear from 20–20,000 Hz)
Properties of Sound
 Amplitude – intensity of a sound measured in
decibels (dB)
 Loudness – subjective interpretation of sound
intensity

Figure 15.29
 Transmission of Sound to the Inner Ear
The route of sound to the inner ear follows this pathway:
 Outer ear – pinna, auditory canal, eardrum
 Middle ear – malleus, incus, and stapes to the oval window
(fenestra vestibuli/ fenestra ovale)
 Inner ear – scalas vestibuli and tympani to the cochlear duct
 Stimulation of the organ of Corti
 Generation of impulses in the cochlear nerve
Sound and Mechanisms of Hearing

 Sound vibrations beat against the eardrum

 The eardrum pushes against the ossicles, which
presses fluid in the inner ear against the oval and
round windows
 This movement sets up shearing forces that pull on
hair cells
 Moving hair cells stimulates the cochlear nerve that
sends impulses to the brain
Fluid movement in cochlea

 Fluid movement within the perilymph set up by

vibration of the oval window follows two pathways:
 Through the scala vestibuli, around the heliocotrema,
and through the scala tympani, causing the round
window to vibrate. This pathway just dissipates
sound energy
 A “shortcut” from the scala vestibuli through the
basilar membrane to the scala tympani. This pathway
triggers activation of the receptors for sound by
bending the hairs of hair cells as the organ of Corti on
top of the vibrating basilar membrane is displaced in
relation to the overlying tectorial membrane
Fluid movement in cochlea
Resonance of the Basilar Membrane

 Sound waves of low frequency (inaudible):

 Travel around the helicotrema
 Do not excite hair cells

 Audible sound waves:

 Penetrate through the cochlear duct
 Vibrate the basilar membrane
 Excite specific hair cells according to frequency of
the sound
Basilar membrane (partly uncoiled)

Different regions of the basilar membrane vibrate maximally

at different frequencies.
Basilar membrane (completely uncoiled)

 The narrow, stiff end of the basilar membrane nearest the oval
window vibrates best with high-frequency pitches.
 The wide, flexible end of the basilar membrane near the
helicotrema vibrates best with low-frequency pitches
Resonance of the Basilar Membrane

Figure 15.32
The Organ of Corti

 Is composed of supporting cells and outer and inner

hair cells
 Afferent fibers of the cochlear nerve attach to
the base of hair cells
 The stereocilia (hairs):
 Protrude into the endolymph
 Touch the tectorial membrane
 Excitation of Hair Cells in the Organ of Corti

 Bending cilia:
 Opens mechanically gated
ion channels
 Causes a graded potential
and the release of a
neurotransmitter
 The neurotransmitter causes
cochlear fibers to transmit
impulses to the brain, where
sound is perceived
Deflection of the basilar membrane

 The stereocilia (hairs) from the hair cells of the basilar

membrane contact the overlying tectorial membrane. These
hairs are bent when the basilar membrane is deflected in
relation to the stationary tectorial membrane.
 This bending of the inner hair cells’ hairs opens mechanically
gated channels, leading to ion movements that result in a
receptor potential.
The role of stereocilia in sound transduction
The role of tip links in the responses of hair cells

 When a stereocilium is pushed toward a taller stereocilium, the tip

link is stretched and opens an ion channel in its taller neighbor.
The channel next is moved down the taller stereocilium by a
molecular motor, so the tension on the tip link is released.
 When hairs return to their resting position, the motor moves back
up the stereocilium.
Pathway for sound
transduction
Auditory Pathway to the Brain

 Impulses from the cochlea pass via the spiral

ganglion to the cochlear nuclei
 From there, impulses are sent to the:
 Superior olivary nucleus
 Inferior colliculus (auditory reflex center)

 From there, impulses pass to the auditory cortex

 Auditory pathways decussate so that both cortices
receive input from both ears
Simplified Auditory Pathways

Figure 15.34
Auditory Processing

 Pitch is perceived by:

 The primary auditory cortex
 Cochlear nuclei

 Loudness is perceived by:

 Varying thresholds of cochlear cells
 The number of cells stimulated

 Localization is perceived by superior olivary nuclei

that determine sound
Deafness

 Conduction deafness – something hampers sound

conduction to the fluids of the inner ear (e.g., impacted
earwax, perforated eardrum, osteosclerosis of the ossicles)
 Sensorineural deafness – results from damage to the neural
structures at any point from the cochlear hair cells to the
auditory cortical cells
 Meniere’s syndrome – labyrinth disorder that affects the
cochlea and the semicircular canals, causing vertigo, nausea,
and vomiting
Mechanisms of Equilibrium and Orientation

 Vestibular apparatus – equilibrium receptors in the

semicircular canals and vestibule
 Maintains our orientation and balance in space
 Vestibular receptors monitor static equilibrium
 Semicircular canal receptors monitor dynamic
equilibrium
 Anatomy of Maculae
 Maculae are the sensory receptors
for static equilibrium
 Contain supporting cells and
hair cells
 Each hair cell has stereocilia and
kinocilium embedded in the
otolithic membrane
 Otolithic membrane – jellylike
mass studded with tiny CaCO3
stones called otoliths
 Utricular hairs respond to
horizontal movement
 Saccular hairs respond to vertical
movement
Effect of Gravity on Utricular Receptor Cells

 Otolithic movement in the direction of the kinocilia:

 Depolarizes vestibular nerve fibers
 Increases the number of action potentials generated

 Movement in the opposite direction:

 Hyperpolarizes vestibular nerve fibers
 Reduces the rate of impulse propagation

 From this information, the brain is informed of the

changing position of the head
Effect of Gravity on Utricular Receptor Cells

Figure 15.36
Role of the otolith organs
otoliths
 The hairs (kinocilium and
stereocilia) of the receptor stereocilia
hair cells protrude into an
overlying gelatinous sheet, kinocilium
whose movement displaces
the hairs  changes in hair
cell potential.
 The otoliths (“ear stones”):
crystals of calcium carbonate
suspended within the
gelatinous layer, making it
heavier  giving more
inertia than the surrounding
fluid
Role of the otolith organs – tilt the head

 Tilt the head in any direction other than vertical (other than
straight up and down)  the hairs are bent in the direction of
the tilt because of the gravitational force exerted on the top-
heavy gelatinous layer  produces depolarizing or
hyperpolarizing receptor potentials depending on the tilt of the
head.
 The CNS thus receives different patterns of neural activity
depending on head position with respect to gravity.
Role of the otolith organs - walking

 As walk forward is started , the top-heavy

otolith membrane at first lags behind the
endolymph and hair cells because of its
greater inertia. The hairs are thus bent to the
rear, in the opposite direction of the forward
movement of the head.
 When walking pace is maintain, the
gelatinous layer soon catches up and moves at
the same rate as your head so that the hairs are
no longer bent.
 When walking is stopped, the otolith sheet
continues to move forward briefly as the head
slows and stops, bending the hairs toward the
front.
Crista Ampullaris and Dynamic Equilibrium

 The crista ampullaris (or crista):

 Is the receptor for dynamic equilibrium
 Is located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal
 Responds to angular movements

 Each crista has support cells and hair cells that

extend into a gel-like mass called the cupula
 Dendrites of vestibular nerve fibers encircle the base
of the hair cells
Crista Ampullaris and Dynamic Equilibrium

Figure 15.37b
Activating Crista Ampullaris Receptors

 Cristae respond to changes in velocity of rotatory

movements of the head
 Directional bending of hair cells in the cristae
causes:
 Depolarizations, and rapid impulses reach the brain
at a faster rate
 Hyperpolarizations, and fewer impulses reach the
brain
 The result is that the brain is informed of rotational
movements of the head
Rotary Head Movement

Figure 15.37d
Input and output of the vestibular nuclei
Balance and Orientation Pathways

 There are three modes

of input for balance
and orientation
 Vestibular receptors
 Visual receptors
 Somatic receptors

 These receptors allow

our body to respond
reflexively
Figure 15.38
Auditory and vestibular pathways