Mathematical Logic

Pooja B

iNurture Education Solutions

September 1, 2017

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 1 Introduction

2 Types of Compound statements

3 Open Sentences:

4 Quantifiers
Negation of a quantified statement

5 Rules of Inference:

6 Methods of Proof:

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 Introduction

Proposition
A declarative sentence, which is either true or false, but not both, is called a statement
or a proposition.

Truth Value
The truthfulness or falsity of a statement is called its truth value.

Note
1 Any proposition is either true or false. The truthfulness or falsity of a proposition
must be universally accepted under any given context.
2 Questions, exclamations and opinions are not propositions.
3 The propositions are denoted using letters like p, q, . . . .
4 If a proposition p is true, then its truth value is denoted as T and if it is false, its
truth value is denoted as F.

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 Introduction

Example
1 The sun rises in the east. Its truth value is T.
2 8 is greater than 12. Its truth value is F.
3 13 is divisible by 9. Its truth value is F.

Non-example
1 May I come in?
2 Will you please lend me your pen?
3 Wish you good luck in the exam.

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 Introduction

Logical connectives
Two or more propositions can be connected using words like ’and’, ’or’, ’if...then’, ’if
and only if’ etc. They are called logical connectives.

Compound statement
A proposition which contains one or more logical connectives is called a compound
statement. The individual sentences are called components.

Example
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Here the logical connective is ’and’, and
the components are ’the sun rises in the east’ and ’the sun sets in the west’.

Note
The truth value of a compound statement, depends on the truth value of its
components. For different combinations of truth values of the components, the
compound sentence has different possibilities of truth values.

Simple statement
A proposition which is not a compound statement is called a simple statement.

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 Types of Compound statements

Types of Compound statements

Conjunction
A compound statement with two components connected by the logical connective ’and’,
is called a conjunction. It is denoted as p ∧ q. The components p and q are called
conjuncts.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Note
A conjunction is true only when both the conjuncts are true, and is false for every other
case.

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 Types of Compound statements

Disjunction
A compound statement with two components connected by the logical connective ’or’, is
called a disjunction. It is denoted as p ∨ q. The components p and q are called disjuncts.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Note
A disjunction is false only when both the disjuncts are false, and is true for every other
case.

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 Types of Compound statements

Negation
If p is a proposition, then the proposition, ’not p’ is called the negation of p, and it is
denoted by ∼ p.

p ∼p
T T
T F

Note
The truth value of the negation of a proposition, is the opposite of the truth value of
the proposition.

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 Types of Compound statements

Implication or Conditional Proposition

If p and q are two statements, then the proposition 0 if p then q 0 is called the
implication or a conditional proposition and it is denoted by p ⇒ q. Here p is called
antecedent and q is called consequent.

p q p⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Note
1 The truth value of a conditional statement is false only when the antecedent is
true, but the consequent is false. For every other case, the truth value is true.
2 We say that p is the sufficient condition and q is the necessary condition.

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 Types of Compound statements

Double Implication or Biconditional Proposition

If p and q are two statements, then the proposition p if and only if q 0 is called the
double implication or a biconditional proposition and it is denoted by p ⇔ q. Here p is
called antecedent and q is called consequent.

p q p⇔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Note
1 The truth value of a biconditional proposition is true when both the components
have the same truth value, and false when both the components have different
truth value.
2 The bicondition statement p ⇔ q can be broken down into two conditional
statements as (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

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 Types of Compound statements

Tautology
A compound proposition is called a tautology if its truth value is true for all possible
combinations of the truth values of its components.

Contradiction
A compound proposition is called a contradiction if its truth value is false for all possible
combinations of the truth values of its components.

Logical Equivalence
Two compound propositions involving same components is said to be logically
equivalent if their truth values are same for each different combinations of the truth
values of their components involved in them.

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 Types of Compound statements

Some logical identities

1 Idempotent laws: 1 p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )
1 p∨p ≡p 2 p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
2 p∧p ≡p 5 De’Morgan’s laws:
2 Commutative laws: 1 ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡∼ p ∧ ∼ q
1 p∨q ≡q∨p 2 ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p ∨ ∼ q
2 p∧q ≡q∧p 6 Law of double negation:
3 Associative laws: ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p

1 p ∨ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r 7 ∼ (p ⇒ q) ≡ p∧ ∼ q
2 p ∧ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r 8 p ⇒ q ≡∼ p ∨ q
4 Distributive laws: 9 p ⇒ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (p ⇒ r )

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 Open Sentences:

Open Sentence
A sentence p depending on a variable x, denoted as p(x), is called an open sentence, on
a set S, if p(a) is a proposition for every a ∈ S. The set S is called the replacement set
of the open sentence.

Example
1 p(x) : x + 3 > 8, with R[p(x)] = Z. Here for x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, p(x) is false, and for
x = 6, 7, 8, . . . , p(x) is true. Hence p(x) is an open sentence.
2 p(x) : x + 3 > 8, with R[p(x)] = C. Since two complex numbers cannot be
compared, p(x) not a proposition for any x. Hence p(x) is not an open sentence.

True set
The elements of the replacement set, R[p(x)] of an open sentence p(x), for which the
proposition is true, is called a true set of p(x). It is denoted as
T [p(x)] = {a ∈ R[p(x)] : p(a) is true}.

Compound Open Sentence

Let p(x) and q(x) be two open sentences, with same replacement set S. An open
sentence with one or more logical connectives is called a compound open sentence.

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 Open Sentences:

To find the truth set of a proposition:

Problem:
Find the truth set of the open sentence p(x) :

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 Quantifiers

Quantifiers
Sentences which give an idea of quantity, are called quantifiers.

Example

Some numbers are even There exists an even prime number

All triangles are right-angled triangle Every matrix has an inverse

Universal Quantifier
The phrases ’for all’, ’for every’, ’for each’, ’for any’, are called Universal quantifiers. It
is denoted by the symbol ∀. A sentence with a universal quantifier is written as ∀x; p(x),
and is read as for all x, such that p(x).

Existential Quantifier
The phrases ’for some’, ’there exists one’, ’there exists atleast one’, are called Existential
quantifiers. It is denoted by the symbol ∃. A sentence with an existential quantifier is
written as ∃x; p(x), and is read as there exists x, such that p(x).

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 Quantifiers

Quantified Open Statement

An open sentence containing a quantifier is called a quantified open sentence
or a quantified predicate.

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 Quantifiers

To find the truth value of a quantified open statement

1 ∀x, p(x) is true if T [p(x)] = R[p(x)]
2 ∀x, p(x) is false if T [p(x)] 6= R[p(x)]
3 ∃ x, p(x) is true if T [p(x)] 6= ∅
4 ∃ x, p(x) is false if T [p(x)] = ∅

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 Quantifiers Negation of a quantified statement

To negate a quantified statement

1 To write the negation of a quantified statement involving a universal
quantifier, replace the universal quantifier by the existential quantifier and
the open sentence by its negation.

∼ [(∀x)p(x)] ≡ (∃x) ∼ p(x)

2 To write the negation of a quantified statement involving an existential

quantifier, replace the existential quantifier by the universal quantifier and
the open sentence by its negation.

∼ [(∃x)p(x)] ≡ (∀x) ∼ p(x)

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 Rules of Inference:

Proof
A proof is an argument which shows that the statement p ⇒ q is logically true.

Rules of Inference
To prove a statement, we use certain properties of logic and propositions, and
they are called rules of inference.

Rule of Detachment: If p is true and p ⇒ q is true, then q is true.

Rule of Syllogism: If p ⇔ q and q ⇔ r are true , then p ⇔ r is true.
Modus Tollendo Poneus: If p ∨ q is true and ∼ p is true, then q is true.
Rule of substitution of variables: If ∀x ∈ S, p(x) is true and a ∈ S then p(a) is
true.
Rule of substitution of Propositions: A proposition maybe replaced by any
equivalent proposition.

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 Methods of Proof:

1 The implication q ⇒ p is called the converse of p ⇒ q.

2 The implication ∼ q ⇒∼ p is called the inverse of p ⇒ q.
3 The implication ∼ p ⇒∼ q is called the contrapositive of p ⇒ q.

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 Methods of Proof:

Mathematical theorems are mostly stated as conditional statements (p ⇒ q) or

biconditional statements (p ⇔ q). The biconditional statements also can be
reduced to two conditional statements, as seen previously. Hence we work
exclusively with conditional statements p ⇒ q. Here p is called the premises or
hypothesis and q is called the conclusion. The different methods to prove a
given conditional statement are listed below:
1 Direct proof:
2 Indirect proof:
3 Proof by producing a counter example:

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