Lateral Earth Pressures and RETAINING WALLS

are usually built to hold back soil mass

Retaining Walls Types

Reinforcement
Reinforcement

Assistant Prof. Berrak Teymur

1. Gravity 2. Semi-Gravity 3. Cantilever
Headers Filled with soil
Strectcher
Counterfort

5. Crib Wall

Face of wall
4. Counterfort

Design

„ Basic soil parameters;

„ Unit weight of soil
„ Angle of friction
„ Cohesion

„ Then the lateral pressure distribution will be known.

„ There are 2 phases in the design of a retaining wall;
„ The retaining wall is checked for stability: overturning,
sliding and bearing capacity failures.
„ Each component of the retaining wall is checked for
adequate strength and the steel reinforcement.

Empirical relationships related to the design of walls (Azizi, 2000)

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 Lateral Earth Pressure „ If the water table is located at depth z<H, the at-rest
pressure diagram will be as shown.
At Rest
q q
K0 q
σ h = K 0σ v′ + u K0 q
γ´=γsat-γw
γ 1
σv K0: coefficient of at- γ At z=0, σ´h=K0σ´v=K0q
c
z H1 c At z=H1,
φ 2 rest earth pressure z K0 (q+γH1)
H P1 φ
σh P0 GWT σ´h=K0σ´v=K0(q+γH1)
H
P2 γsat At z=H2,
c u
H/2 H2 σ´h=K0σ´v=K0(q+γH1+γ'H2)
z' φ σ′h
H/3
K0 (q+γH)
1 K0 (q+γH1+γH2) γwH2
The total force: P0 = P1 + P2 = qK0 H + H 2 K0γ where K 0 = 1 − sin φ
2
 H   H  for normally 1 1 1
P 1 
 2


+ P 2 
 3

 consolidated soil P0 = K 0 qH1 + K 0 H12γ + K 0 (q + H1γ ) H 2 + K 0 H 22γ '+ γ ω H 22
z ′ = 2 2 2
P 0

Rankine Active Earth Pressure „ Relating the principal stresses for a Mohr’s circle that
touches the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope;

Wall movement to left

 φ  φ
∆x 45+φ/2 45+φ/2 σ 1 = σ 3 tan 2  45 +  + 2c tan 45 + 
 2  2
σv
γ σ1=σv and σ3=σa
z z c
 φ  φ
H
φ Thus σ v = σ a tan 2  45 +  + 2c tan 45 + 
σh  2  2
σa=σvKa-2c Ka
The Mohr’s circle will touch the
Rotation of wall Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope where Ka=tan2(45-φ/2); Rankine active pressure coefficient
about this point representing the failure condition in However the active earth pressure condition will be reached only if the wall is
the soil mass. σh=σa, where σa is the allowed to ‘yield’ sufficiently.
Rankine active pressure. The amount of outward displacement of the wall necessary is about 0.001H to
The Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is defined by; 0.004H for granular soil backfills and about 0.01H to 0.04H for cohesive
τ = c + σ tanφ backfills.

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 „ The active force per unit length of the wall, Pa will be
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure inclined at an angle of δ to the normal to the back face
of the wall.
β is the angle, the
1
back face of the
retaining wall Pa = K aγH 2

makes with the 2

horizontal.
α is the angle that
the backfill makes
β-δ with the
Pa horizontal.
δ is the angle of
W
friction between
R the soil and the H: height of wall
θ1-φ wall.
The value of the wall friction angle, δ is between φ/2
and 2φ/3.

Rankine Passive Earth Pressure Rankine Passive Earth Pressure

Direction of wall movement

∆x The horizontal stress σh at

45-φ/2
this point is referred to as
the Rankine passive
σv γ 45-φ/2
z pressure,
z c The magnitude of the wall
H σh φ σp=σvKp+2c Kp movements, ∆x required Soil Type
Dense sand
∆x (for passive condition)
0.005H
to develop failure under
where Kp=tan2(45+φ/2); Loose sand 0.01H
passive conditions are;
Rankine passive earth Stiff clay 0.01H
pressure coefficient Soft clay 0.05H
Rotation of wall
about this point

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 Rankine Active and Passive Earth Pressure for
Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure Inclined Granular Backfill
sin 2 ( β − φ ) α
1 Kp =
Pp = γH 2 K p  sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ + α ) 
2

2 sin β sin( β + δ ) 1 −
2
 γ 1
 sin( β + δ ) sin( β + α ) 
c=0 Pa = γH 2 K a σ a = γzK a
φ 2
Kp: Coulomb’s passive pressure z

Pa K = cos α − cos α − cos φ cos α

coefficient σa 2 2

α a
Range of Wall H cos α + cos α − cos φ
2 2

Friction Angle
Backfill material δ(º) 1
H/3 α Pp = γH 2 K p
Gravel 27-30 2
Coarse sand 20-28
Fine sand 15-25 cos α + cos 2 α − cos 2 φ
Kp = cos α
Stiff clay 15-20 cos α − cos 2 α − cos 2 φ
Silty clay 12-16

Retaining Wall Stability

Application of Lateral Earth Pressure Theories 1) Safety Against Overturning (Rotational stability) :
to Design
Cantilever α α
Gravity
Consider forces WC, WS, PV, PH
Ws
PV
PA Take moment w.r.t ‘C’ (TOE)
Ws
Ws H’ H’ Wc
H PA H PA
WC WC
clockwise : resisting (MR) (WC,
PH
H/3 α
H/3
α WS, PV) a.clockwise
:overturning (MO) (PH)
C
B
if not increase the base ‘B’ ;use
piles ;increase wall dimensions.
‰Fs=2 (for cohesive backfill) and 1.5 (for granular backfill)

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Retaining Wall Stability
2) Safety Against Base Sliding :
1
If base key : Pp = γ 2 D1 2 K p + 2 c 2 D1 K p
2
use reduced c2 and φ2 (φdesign=(0,5~0,67) φ2 , cdesign= =(0,5~0,67) c2)
Driving Force : PH if not increase B ; provide key ;stronger backfill (import soil ∴
Ignore : PV expansive) ; install tiedown anchors
Resisting force :R
Ws Install tieback anchors
PV
R = c2 B + (Σ V ) tan φ 2 + Pp Wc PA Use stronger
α
c2 B + ( Σ V ) tan φ 2 + Pp backfill
Fs = ≥ 1 .5 PH
PA cos α D
D1 c1,φ1,γ1
Extend heel
R c2,φ2,γ2 Provide key
B Install tiedown anchors(if φ large)

3) Bearing capacity failure. Fs=3=qu/qmax 4) Deep Seated Shear Failure :

Base Pressures :

qall : allowable bearing capacity of

foundation soil
Sum of vertical
Ws PV forces
Wc PA ΣM R − ΣM D
Wc+Ws+Pv x=
ΣV
PH ΣV e Possible failure
B surface
e= −x Weak soil
2 CONVENTIONAL
ANALYSIS
A A ΣV 6e
qmax = (1 ± )
B x min B *1 B
qmin B/2
qmax 5) CHECK FOR SETTLEMENTS (Conventional) :
B 6) REINFORCEMENT DESIGN (Structural Design) :
qmin > 0 (no tension)
qmax < qall

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 Gravity Retaining-Wall Design for
Comments Relating to Stability Earthquake Conditions
Coulomb’s active earth pressure theory can be extended to
„ The lateral force of the backfill will depend on (Casagrande, take into account the forces caused by an earthquake.
1973); α horizontal EQ acc .comp .
kh =
„ Effect of temperature (freeze and thaw), acc .due to gravity , g
kvW γ
„ Groundwater fluctuation, c=0 vertical EQ acc .comp .
khW φ kv =
„ Readjustment of the soil particles due to creep and g
H
prolonged rainfall, W φ P = 1 γH 2 (1 − k ) K
~0,6H δ AE v
„ Tidal changes, 0,5H Pae 2 AE

β sin 2 (φ + β − θ )
„ Heavy wave action, K AE = 2
 sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ − θ − α ) 
„ Traffic vibration,  k  cosθ sin 2 β sin(β − θ − δ ) 1 + 
θ = tan−1  h   sin(β − δ − θ ) sin(α + β ) 
„ Earthquakes. 1− kv 

Drainage from the Backfill of the Retaining Sheet Pile Walls

Wall

¾are widely used for both large and small waterfront

structures.
¾used for
¾Beach erosion protection
¾Stabilizing ground slopes
¾Shoring walls of trenches and other excavations
and for cofferdams.

Bowles, 1997

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 Sheet Pile Walls Sheet Pile Walls

Types: Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet Piles can be categorised as:
„Wooden
„Precast concrete
a) Cantilever -Used for small retaining height (20 ft ≅ 6 m above dredge line)
b) Anchored Permanent : sands, gravels
„Steel
Construction Methods: Temporary : other soils
1. Backfilled structure -Stability of cantilever sheet pile wall : due to passive
2. Dredged structure resistance developed below the lower soil surface

Sheet pile connections:

a) Thumb and finger type b) Ball and socket type

Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls Anchored Sheet Pile Walls

Failure Additional support to sheet pile walls can be given by backs
mode h Active
Active (anchored) near the top of the wall (Used in deep excavation &
water front construction ).
Dredge
Passive d
line 0 0 R Tie Rod
A
0 (steel cables)
Active Passive Passive h
*fixing moment at 0 Design Idealisation

Net Passive Resistance below ‘0’ : given with ‘R’ .

Bending
⇒ design : Σ Mc= 0 → determine ‘d’.
d Moment
Then ‘d’ is increased arbitrarily by %20 to allow for simplification Passive Active
Diagram
of procedure . (1.2d : embedment)
Σ Fh= 0 → determine R
( Check Pp ≥ R / over 0,2d ) Note: depth of tension crack < depth of tie.

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Anchored Sheet Pile Walls
Sheet Piles with Anchors
When there is a deep excavation

DESIGN PROCEDURE: Anchor

A A
1- Calculate Active & Passive Pressures in terms of
h
(unknown) depth of embedment , ‘d’ .
2- Usually Fs=2 is applied to passive pressures
3- Take ΣMA =0 ; obtain cubic equation in terms of
‘d’. Solve for ‘d’. Increase d by 20% in quay walls.
Passive
Active
Passive
Active R
4- Take ΣFh=0 ; solve for T.
d 0 0
5- Plot moment diagram & determine maximum Active Passive

bending moment. Determine required cross section.

Moment Diagram

Note: Solved with equivalent beam method.

Types of anchor used in sheet pile walls are:

1. Anchor plates and beams 2. Tie backs 3. Vertical anchor piles
4. Anchor beams supported by batter (compression and tension) piles

Das, 1995 Das, 1995

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 TERZAGHI & PECK (1967) EMPIRICAL PRESSURE DIAGRAMS
Braced Cuts (Braced Excavations) 0,25 H
Systems to support the sides of excavations 0,25 H
To support walls of deep or shallow narrow trenches. γ
Top view
Side view H φ (sand) 1 2 0,50 H 3
wales
0,75 H
cu (clay)
struts
0,25 H
0.65 KA γ H 4c
K A = 1− m
Sheet medium to dense 0.2 γ H to 0.4 γ H γ H KA γH
piling SAND Stiff CLAY soft to medium CLAY
EARTH PRESSURES AGAINST BRACING SYSTEMS
TERZAGHI & PECK (1967) EMPIRICAL PRESSURE DIAGRAMS
Braced Cuts: Earth Pressure function of Wall Displacement:
1) 0,65 Times Rankine Active

2) N:stability number N= γH
Fixed Bracing systems
if N < 4 (elastic equilibrium)
Represented by
empirical pressure cu
envelopes 3) N > 4 plastic equilibrium at the bottom ( N=γH/cu > 4)
ACTIVE m is usually 1,0 , but m=0,4 for soft NC clays.
(Retaining walls)
4) N > 7 Heaving

Strut Loads:
A=A
B=B1+B2 REINFORCED EARTH
A A C=C1+C2
B B1 B2 D=D
HINGES C C1 C2
to make the D D A,B,C,D Strut Loads
system Reinforced earth is a construction material comprising
determinant
soil that has been strengthened by tensile elements
Braced Cuts such as metal rods and/or strips, nonbiodegradable
Wall construction & anchorage installation in stages.
fabrics (geotextiles), geogrids.
1 2 3 4 5
The beneficial effects of soil reinforcement derive from
a) soil’s increased tensile strength and
anchor
b) the shear resistance developed from the friction at the
R/C wall
soil-reinforcement interfaces.

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 REINFORCED EARTH
REINFORCED EARTH Two types of geogrids: a) Biaxial and b) Uniaxial

Geotextiles have four primary uses in foundation

engineering:
1. Drainage
2. Filtration
3. Separation
1.Longitudinal rib
4. Reinforcement – increases the load-bearing
capacity of the soil 2.Transverse bar
3.Transverse rib
4. Junction

REINFORCED EARTH
Facing Coarse grained REINFORCED EARTH
(flexible) soil (drained)
Reinforcement
(tensile stresses) 0,3H
A
Fill *steel : life 120 years z
PASSIVE Zone ACTIVE Zone At-rest
*other materials; 0,5H
RESISTANCE
-aluminium alloys
-plastics H
Footing -geotextiles C
FACING : *Pre-cast concrete units (limited relative movement) Lv Le
*U-shaped steel sections arranged horizontally
COST : *more economic than concrete cantilever retaining wall Active
FAILURE : *Tensile failure of one element leads to progressive collapse of the entire
structure
*Local slipping leads to redistribution of tensile stress and gradual Max. tensile stress curve Lateral Earth Pressure p
B
deformation of structure (not necessarily collapse) ≅Probable failure surface

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