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FORENSIC BALLISTICS

BALLISTICS
- the science of the motion of projectiles and the condition that affects their motion
- science of firearms identification

ORIGIN OF THE WORD “BALLISTICS”

- derived from two Greek words: BALLO, BALLEIN, which means “to throw”
- derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called BALLISTA

COL. CALVIN H GODDARD M.D.

- the “father of modern ballistics”

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- branch of science which actually involves the investigation and identification of firearms by
means of ammunition fired through them
- study of the motion of projectiles as applied to law

PROJECTILE
- refers to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1) INTERIOR OR INTERNAL BALLISTICS
o treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside the firearm which extends from
the breach to the muzzle
2) EXTERIOR OR EXTERNAL BALLISTICS
o treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle
a) muzzle blast – the noise created at muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of
the expanding gas and its contact with the air
b) muzzle energy – energy generated at the muzzle point
c) trajectory – the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until
it hits the target; the actual curve path taken by a bullet during its flight from the gun
muzzle to the target
d) range – the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target
1. accurate range – the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control
of his shots
2. maximum range – the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm; the farthest distance the bullet could travel
e) velocity – the rate of speed of the bullet during its flight per unit of time usually expressed
as feet per second (ft/sec)
f) pull of gravity – downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its
weight
g) air resistance – that force of the air encountered by the bullet in its flight
3) TERMINAL BALLISTICS
- that branch of ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target
a) terminal accuracy – the size of the bullet grouping on the target
b) terminal energy – the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target; same as
striking energy
c) terminal velocity – the speed of the bullet upon striking the target
d) terminal penetration – the depth of entry of the bullet on the target
4) FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- the product of the application of ballistics to law

SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1) FIELD INVESTIGATION
- the job of the field investigator
- includes recognition, collection, markings, prevention, packing and transmittal of ballistics
exhibit
2) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BALLISTICS EXHIBIT
- job performed by a firearm identification examiner
- includes markings of evidence, test-firing evidences, photomicrography, and preparation of
reports
3) LEGAL PROCEEDING
- the most critical part in the field of firearm identification
- the firearm examiner goes to court to testify as an expert witness
TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
- an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of expansive force of gases
coming from the burning gun powder
LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
- “… includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly
weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot shell or other missile may be discharged of by means
of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also include air rifles except such as being of
small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof.”
- provided by Sec 877, Revised Administrative Code and Sec 290, National Internal Revenue
Code
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CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
1) according to interior barrel construction:
a) smooth-bore firearm – those that do not have rifling inside their gun barrel
b) rifled-bore firearm – those that have rifling inside their gun barrel
2) according to the caliber of the projectile propelled:
a) artillery – those type that propel projectile with more than one inch diameter
b) small arms – those that propel projectile with less than one inch diameter; can be handled,
moved and operated by one man
1. machine guns – designed to fire, automatically or semiautomatically, more
than one shot without manual reloading, by a single press of the trigger
2. shoulder arms – normally fired from the shoulder
3. hand arms – designed or intended to be fired using one hand, either the right
or the left
3) according to mechanical construction:
a) single shot firearm – those designed to fire only one shot every loading
b) repeating arm – those designed to fire several loads in one loading
c) automatic – those designed with continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and while
the trigger is pressed
d) slide action type – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under/over
forearms of the gun
e) bolt action type – reloading takes place by manipulating the bolt back and forth
f) lever type (break type) – loading takes place by lever action of the firearms

LOW-POWERED FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec

HIGH-POWERED FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec

HIGH-INTENSITY FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of over 2500 ft/sec

AUTOMATIC
- when the mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed

SEMI-AUTOMATIC (SELF-LOADING)
- when the mechanism ejects the fired shell and put on new one in the chamber and prepares the
gun to be fired

LEGAL DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION

- a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball,
bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION

- a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer; single
round

ORIGIN OF THE WORD CARTRIDGE

- derived from the word, CHARTA, the Latin for paper
- derived from the word, CARTOUCHE, French for rolling paper

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
1) BULLET
- the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of the expansive force of
gases coming from burning gunpowder
2) CARTRIDGE CASE
- the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder
- also called shell or casing
3) GUNPOWDER
- the powder charge which when ignited by the primer flash is converted into heated gas under
high pressure and propels the bullet or shots charge through the barrel and to the target
- also called propellant or powder charge
4) PRIMER
- the metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound which
when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES
1) according to location of primer:

a) PIN FIRE – the ignition cap is concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting
upon it; the pin protrudes radially through the side and the gun chamber has a notch for
the pin to stand when loaded and it will be struck by a falling hammer; no longer in use
b) RIM FIRE – the priming mixture is located at the rim of the case; this can be fired only if
the cartridge is struck by the hammer or firing pin on the rim of the case
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c) CENTER FIRE – the primer cup is centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and
the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the
anvil

2) according to rim diameter:

a) RIMMED CASE TYPE – the case has a well-defined upstanding rim around the base or
simply a cartridge with a rim diameter greater than the body diameter of the shell

b) SEMI-RIMMED TYPE – the rim diameter is slightly greater than the body diameter of the
case

c) RIMLESS TYPE – the rim diameter is equal to the body diameter of the case

d) REBATED TYPE – has a rimless pattern but which has rim diameter smaller than the
body diameter of the case

e) BELTED TYPE – with prominent raise belt around its body just in front of the extraction
groove

3) according to caliber:

THREE SYSTEMS OF MEASURING CALIBER

a) English system – expressed in thousandths of an inch ( cal. 380)
b) American system – expressed in hundredths of an inch ( cal. 38 )
c) European or continental system – expressed in millimeter

CALIBER
- the bore diameter measured between two opposite lands

BULLET
- metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm
- also called projectile, slugs
- derived from the French word, BOULETTE, which means small ball

GENERAL TYPES OF BULLETS

1) LEAD TYPE
- composed of lead metal

2) JACKETED TYPE
- consist of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of
the barrel

TYPES OF BULLET ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECT ON TARGETS

1) BALL TYPE
- intended for anti-personnel and general use

2) ARMOUR PIERCING
- designed to penetrate light steel armour

3) EXPLOSIVE
- small arms bullet containing a charge of explosive which will detonate on impact

4) INCENDIARY
- used to cause fire in a target

5) TRACER BULLET
- capable of leaving visible marks or traces while in flight, giving the gunner the chance to
observe the strike of the shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss

CARTRIDGE CASE
- the metallic or non-metallic tubular container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and
primer
- the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing
and this remains at the scene of the crime
- also called shell, casing
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
1) BASE
- the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp containing the caliber,
manufacturer, and in some cases, the date, trade name and batch number

2) RIM
- the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to chamber
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3) EXTRACTING GROOVES
- the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from
the chamber

4) PRIMER POCKET
- the part which provides the means for the primer to be put in the central position

5) BODY
- the cylindrical part of the shell which houses the gunpowder

6) SHOULDER
- supports the neck of the cartridge

7) CANNELURE
- the cylindrical groove formed in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the
shell to the chamber as well as prevent the bullet from being pushed down to the powder
charge

8) NECK
- the part actually occupied by the bullet

9) CRIMP
- the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed to hold the bullet and prevent it from
being pulled out from the shell

10) VENT OR FLASH HOLE

- the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket serving as the passage way for the priming mixture
to impart an ignition to the propellant charge

PRIMER
- the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive
chemical compound that would easily ignite or burst into flames when struck by the firing pin
- also known as the percussion cup

PARTS OF THE PRIMER

1) PRIMER CUP
o the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil

2) PRIMING MIXTURE
o the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing
pin

3) ANVIL
o that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing
pin causing friction that would initiate ignition

4) DISC
o a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from
moisture attack

GUN POWDER
- that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of
the expansive force of gas when burned
- also called propellant or powder charge

TYPES OF GUN POWDER

1) BLACK POWDER
- the oldest of the propellants
- composition is the following:
potassium nitrate = 75%
sulphur = 10%
charcoal = 15%

2) SMOKELESS POWDER
- the most powerful of propellants

FIREARMS CHARACTERISTICS
1) CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
- those properties or attributes of firearms which can be determined even before the
manufacture of the gun
- these are factory specifications
- these serve as basis for identifying a certain group or class of firearms
- examples of which are bore diameter or caliber, number of lands or grooves, width of lands,
width of grooves, direction of twist, pitch of riflings and depth of grooves

2) INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
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- those characteristic markings peculiar and not found in all other firearms
- these serve as basis in identifying a particular firearm
- these are determinable only after the manufacture

BORE DIAMETER (CALIBER)

- the diameter in which the bore was reamed
- the distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore

NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES

- the number of lands and grooves are always the same

LANDS – the elevated portions

GROOVES – the depressed portions

DIRECTION OF TWIST
- the rifling inside the gun barrel may twist either to the right or to the left
- the twist of the rifling cause the bullet to “rotate” as it passes through the bore, for the bullet to
have gyroscopic stability during its flight from muzzle to target

PITCH OF RIFLINGS
- the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves
- the distance advanced by the riflings in one complete turn

RIFLINGS
- consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore
- the purpose is to impart a motion of rotation to a bullet during its passage inside the barrel in
order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight and so that it will travel nose-on towards the
target

STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF A BARREL

1) DRILLING
o boring of deep-hole
2) REAMING
o the removal of the scars and scratches left by the drilling process
3) RIFLING
o making of the helical grooves or riflings
4) LAPPING
o polishing operation; the removal of large imperfections on the inside surface of the barrel

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

1) LAND MARKS
- marks made by the lands of the barrel
2) GROOVE MARKS
- marks made by the grooves of the barrel
3) SKID MARKS
- marks generally found on bullets fired from a revolver
4) STRIPPING MARKS
- marks found on bullets fired from a loose-fit barrel riflings of which are already worn out
5) SHAVING MARKS
- marks found on bullets fired from a revolver
6) SLIPPAGE MARKS
- marks found on fired bullets passing through either an oily or oversized barrel

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS

1) FIRING PIN MARKS
- marks found at the base portion of the cartridge case made by the firing pin
2) BREECH FACE MARKS
- marks found at the base portion of the cartridge case caused by the backward movement of
the breech face
3) EXTRACTOR MARKS
- marks found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case caused by its withdrawal from
the chamber
4) EJECTOR MARKS
- marks found on a cartridge case fired from an automatic firearm
5) SHEARING MARK
- mark found in the primer near the firing pin mark
6) CHAMBER MARK
- mark found around the body of the fired cartridge case caused by the irregularities of nips
inside the walls of the chamber

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1) analytical or torsion balance
o instrument used for determining weight of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired
2) bullet comparison microscope
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o an optical instrument consisting of two compound microscope with a single microscope

field or monocular eyepiece capable of viewing two objects side by side
3) bullet recovery box
o an instrument used for test firing
o used in collecting test bullets safely and without damage
4) chronograph
o an instrument designed to measure velocity of the bullet
5) caliper
o used to measure caliber of firearms, bullets and shells
6) helixometer
o used to examine the bore of the firearm, more specifically the pitch of rifling
7) onoscope
o used to examine the inner surface of the barrel in determining the irregularities inside the
bore
8) stereoscopic microscope
o used for preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells as to determine the
relative class characteristics

THE SEVEN PROBLEMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1) Given a fired bullet, to determine the caliber, type, and make of the firearm from which it was
fired
2) Given a fired shell, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from which it was
fired
3) Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was
fired from the suspected firearm
4) Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired shell was
fired from the suspected firearm
5) Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm
6) Given two or more fired shells, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm
7) Given a suspected firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not
HANDLING OF EVIDENCE

DON’T M-A-C THE EVIDENCE:

M – utilate; A – lter the nature, and C – contaminate

MARKING OF EVIDENCE

A. FIRED BULLETS
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
- marks should be made at its nose or ogive or at the base, with the use of any pointed
instrument
- never use the letter “X”

B. FIRED SHELLS
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
- marks may be made in any of the following parts:
1. inside, near the open mouth
2. outside, near the open mouth
3. on the body of the shell
- never place the marks at the base
- never use the letter “X”

C. SUSPECTED FIREARM
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials
- markings should be made on all of the three main and inseparable parts:
1. barrel
2. cylinder ( if revolver) or slide ( in pistol)
3. frame
- a tag should be made with the following information:
1. type of firearm
2. make or model
3. caliber
4. serial number ( very important)
5. date of recovery
6. name of victim (if known)
7. name of suspect (if known)
8. other features of value
- always put your markings on the parts that can never be replaced
- never use the letter “X”