What is Ballistics?

It is the science of motion of projectile and the condition governing that motion. The word "Ballistics"
was originated from the Greek word "Ballo" or "Ballein".

Ballo or Ballein

means to throw and from a Roman war machine called "Ballista"

Ballista-

a gigantic bow or catapult used throw missiles and large objects such as stones at a particular distance
to deter animal or enemy forces. From those words the term Ballistics was derived to indicate the
science of moving projectile.

What is a Projectile ?

It is the metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a fiream..

What is Motion?

In relation to ballistics, it refers to the movement or

mobility of the projectille from one point to another.

Types of motion (DTR)

.Direct- the forward motion of the bullet inside the barel as a result of gas expansion.

.Translation-

the straight motion of the bullet where

there is no rotation.. It includes the bouncing of bullet after hitting a hard object.

.Rotary-

the spinning motion of the bullet as a result

of the riflings.
What is gyroscopic acton?

It is the stillness of the rotating motion and attained its highest momentum for stability in flight and
penetrating power

What is yaw?

It is the unstable motion of the projectile.

What is KEY HOLE SHOT?

   The tumbling of a bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of spinning on its axis

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS (TIE)

Terminal Balistics

Interior Ballistics

External Ballistics

INTERIOR/INTERNAL BALLISTICS

   The branch of ballistics which is concemed with the properties of the projectile or bullet while still
inside the barrel of the gun and this extends from the breech to the muzzle

This involves the following (FICE-PERVE)

a. Firing pin hitting the primer

b. ignition of the priming mixture

c. Combustion of the gunpowde

d. Expansion of the heated gas

e. Pressure developed

f. Energy generated

g. Recoil of the gun

h.Velocity of the bullet inside barrel

i. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

EXTERIOR/EXTERNAL BALLISTICS

   This branch of ballistics is concerned with the movements and attributes of the bullet after it has left
the muzzle of the gun, which involves the following: (BERT-VAPP)

a. Muzzle Blast- the sudden noise or sound

created at muzzle point of the gun by reason of the sudden escape of the expanding gas as it comes in
contact with the air in the

Surrounding atmosphere

b. Muzzle Energy - the energy generated at

muzzle point

c. Range- the straight distance between muzzle and target.

   -Effective range

the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots, meaning he can place his shots at a
desired spot

   -Maximum range-

the farthest distance that a bullet can be

propelled from the fiream.

d. Trajectory- the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the muzzle of the gun.

e. Velocty- rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

f. Air resistance the power or capacity of the bulet to resist air during its flight from the

muzzle of the gun.

g. Pull of gravity- that is when the bullet plunge or dive itself after attaining its effective range.

h.Penetration- the depth to which the bullet has entered its target or object hit.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS

  This branch of ballistics is concemed with the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target, and
this involves the following: (PAVE)

Terminal Penetration

that depth of bullet penetration on the target or object hit

.Terminal Accuracy-

that size of the bullet group on the target.

Terminal Velocity

velocity of the projectile when it strikes the

target.

Teminal Energy

that energy of the projectile

when it strikes the target. It is otherwise refered as the striking force or energy

Terminal Balistics

is the study of bullet penetration in solid and liquids. It can be subdivided into

1. Penetration Potential,

which is the capacity of a bullet to penetrate various materials

2. Wound ballistics, which is the effect the bullet has on living tissue.

WOUND BALLISTICS

It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW) - an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of
the body.

Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon:

,•Contact- gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.

•Close discharge - 6 inches to 2 ft.

•Distance Discharge - over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

Gunshot Wound Characteristics (BSMT)

•Blackening caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close ranges.

•Scorching - caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed; also
known as burning or charring.

•Muzzle Pattern - indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases; edges are found
ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.

•Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt powder particles into
the surface of the target.

Other GSW Characteristics:

•Pink Coloration - caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.

•Dirt Ring - deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the wound. Existence of
this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury.

•Contusion - caused by the impact of the projectile(reddish dark to bluish black - varies somewhat with
the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of unifom in thickness.

•Foreign Materials - Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms injury but they
also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm

SHOTS BALLISTICS

it deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets. When a shot shell is fired from a shotgun,
the pellets leave the barrel and begin to spread or scatter. the farther the pellets travel, the greater the
spread of shot. Shotgun barels have a choke to control the spread or shot pattern
- Choke - it is the degree of narrowing at the muzzle end of the shotgun barrel

- Shot pattern- It is the spread of shot pellets after they hit a non-moving target

- Shot Spread - is determined by a constriction or narrowing at the muzzle called "a choke.

Gauge - The term used to designate bore diameter of a shotgun, gauge is the number of lead balls with
diameters equal to the diameter of the bore that, when combined

weigh one pound.

FORENSIC BALLISTIC

Technically, it is the Science of firearms identification which scientifically examines

ballistics exhibits such as: (BSFA)

1. Fired Bullets;

2. Fired Shells;

3. Firearms; and

4. Allied matters, used in crime.

Today, it is frequently used synonymously in the

press and in the Police Parlance to Firearms ldentification.

SOME PIONEERS IN FIREARMS DEVELOPMENT

1. Col Calvin H. Goddard  -Father of Modern

Ballistics

2. Horace Smith- Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson and pioneered the making of the breech-

loading rifles

3. Daniel B. Wesson- An associate or partner of Smith in revolver making

4. John M. Browning- Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breach-loading single shot rifle

5. John T. Thompson - Pioneered the making of Thompson submachine gun

6. David "Carbine" Williams - Maker of the first known carbine

7. Alexander John Forsyth -  Father of the percussion ignition system

8. Elisha King Root- Designed the machinery for making Colt fireams

9. Eliphalet Remington - One of the first rifle maker

10. John Mahlon Marlin- Founder of Marlin Firearms Companyy

11. James Wolfe Ripley - Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 rifle-musket

12. Samuel Colt- Produced the first practical revolver

13. Henry Derringer - famous for his pocket pistols. He gave his name to a whole clas of fireams

rifles and pistols

14. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi-automatic US rifle, caliber.30, M1

15. Oliver F. Winchester

One of the earliest rifles and pistols maker

16. Fedor Tokarev- Designed the service pistol of the Soviet forces.

17. Oscar Mossberg - The maker of high-quality 22 rifle, sporting rifles and pump action shotguns.

18. George Luger- He did lasting design work in Connection with 9mm parabellum cartridge.

19. Mikhael Kalashnikov - designed the AK47, an assault rifle in 1947

20. Charles Dochester and George Sullivan- formed the Armalite business in 1950, the producer of Colt
M16

21. Eugene Stoner - a talented ex-marine, who became the chief engineer and designer of the

Armalite Firearms business company.

SOME IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313- Gunpowder as a propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first used as a propellant as a
projectile.  Such used has been recorded as

early as 1313.

1350

Small arms- gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14th century that
portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand held hot wire or lighted

match
1498

Rifings. The first reference to riffed barrels appeared. Although its important as an aid to accuracy was
recognized by some, it was many

years after before rifling was generally used.

1575-

Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining bot powder and ball were developed. This greatly speeded loading
and reduced the hazards of

carying looses

powder.

1807-

Percussion System. The discovery of Forsyth in1807 that certain compounds detonated by a blast would
be used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all-later percussion and cartridge

development.

1835-

Samuel Colt patented the first practical revolvers in which the cylinder was rotated by cocking the

hammer.

1836-

Pinfire cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836 was probably the first self-exploding cartridge to
come into general used.

1845-

Rimfire cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a bullet breech cap" which was in reality the first

rimfire cartridge.

1858-

Centerfire cartridge. The Morse cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid
development of the centerfire cartridge

1884-

Automatic machinegun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the

piece of load and fire the next charge

1885-

Smokeless powder. In France, Vielle developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant
which not only lacked the smoke characteristic of black powder, but also more powerful.

What Is a FIREARM?

• A firearm is a mechanical device that uses pressure from a burning powder to force a projectile
through and out of a metal tube

•Legally speaking. "Firearms" or "Arms are herein used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns
revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may
discharge off by means of gunpowder or other explosives, The term also includes air rifles except such as
being of small caliber and limitéd range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290
National Internal Revenue Code)

CLASSES OF FIREARM

A. According to Gun Barrel Internal Construction

(SR)

-Smooth-bore firearms- fire arms that have no rifling (land and grooves) inside their gun barrel

- Rifled bore Firearms- Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel

B. According to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled (AS)

-Artillery- Those types of firearm that propel projectiles more than one inch in diameter

-Small Arms- Propel Projectiles less than 1 inch in diameter, Can be operated by one man.
A. According to Mechanical Construction (SBR-ALS)

-Single Shot- type of firearms designed to fire only one shot for e very loading.

- Bolt Action Type- Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.

- Repeating Arms- Fire several shots in one loading Automatic Loading- Automatic Loading Type- After
the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.

-Lever Type (Break Type) - Loading takes place by lever action of the Fiream.

- Slide Action Type (Trombone)- Loading takes

place by back and forth manipulation of the under forearm of the gun.

B. According to USE

- Military Firearms

- Pocket and Home Defense fire arms

C. UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE

- HOMEMADE- Those types of fire arm that is unique in mechanism and construction like Paltik

- AIR GUNS - These are firearms which use pneumatic pressure to fire a projectile

TYPES OF SMALL ARMS

ACCORDING TO BARREL LENGTH (LS)

-Long-barreled weapons- designed for long-range shooting

Ex. shoulder firearms and  high-caliber machineguns

- Short-barreled guns - accurate only at relatively short ranget

Ex. pistols, revolvers and submachine guns

ACCORDING TO GENERAL USE AND DESIGN (H SMS)

Handguns

Shoulder firearms

Machine guns
Sub machine gun

HANDGUNS (PR)

- Pistols - small portable fireams that can be held, aimed, and fired with one hand.

a. Single-shot pistols

b. Semi-automatic pistol

-Revolvers - have rotating cylinder containing chambers designed to position a cartridge ready for firing

a. According to mechanical construction (BES)

-Break-top type (lever action)

loading is done by breaking the top to expose the chamber.

-Ejection-rod type - a rod is ejected in order to expose the chamber.

- Swing-out type - loading can be done by swinging out the cylinder.

b. According to mechanical firing action (SD)

- Single-action, it needs manual cocking of the hammer

- Double-action, squeezing the trigger

automatically cocks the hammer

SHOULDER WEAPONS

- Muskets

- Rifles

- Carbines

- Shotguns

MACHINE GUN

-Gatling gun

-Maxim gun
SUBMACHINE GUNS

- A light, hand-held automatic weapon firing pistol

ammunition.

BASIC PARTS OF FIREARM AND FUNCTIONS.

1. ACTION - The heart of the fiream- the moving parts that load, fire, and eject the shells or cartridges.

2. BARREL - initiates the path of the bullet.

3. BOLT- Disengage center pin to allow opening of cylinder and blocks hammer.

4. BREECH- The part of the barrel at the opposite end of the muzzle

5. BREECH-BLOCK - Also known as the bolt, it is the steel block that closed the breech against the force
of the charge during firing; the face of this block which comes in contact with the base of the cartridge is
the breech-face

6. CHAMBER- The part of the bore into which a cartridge is placed; the enlarged space at the breech of
the barrel where the cartridge is fed

7. EJECTOR - it pushes the spent shell away from the firearm.

8. EXTRACTOR - Pulls the empty shells from the cylinder simultaneously.

9. FRAME- Houses the internal parts

10. HAMMER - Strikes the blow that initiates or ignites primer

11. MAIN SPRING - Provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism.

12. SAFETY - The gun mechanism that prevents the firearm from firing; it may be a button, moveable
pin,

lever, thumb hammer or sliding plate

13. STOCK- Serves as the handle of the firearm. It can be composed of one or two pieces and is usually
made of wood or a synthetic material.

14. STRIKER - Alternative term for the firing pin when that firing is axially mounted and spring propelled
inside thebolt

15. TRIGGER - Actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon.

16. TRIGGER GUARD - Guards the trigger from unnecessary action to avoid accidental firing.

17. YOKE - Connecting pivot between the frame and cylinder.

What is AMMUNITION?

Technically, the term cartridge is used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge
case propellant, and primer.

  Legally speaking, ammunition refers to any loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers, and pistols from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of
gunpowder or other explosives.The term also includes ammunition for air rifles. (Section290 of the
National Internal Revenue Code; Section 877 of the Revised Administrative Code)

Shell - ammunition for large caliber guns

Cartridge- ammunition for rifles and handguns

FOUR MAJOR COMPONENT OF A STANDARD CARTRIDGE (CarB-ProP)

1. Cartridge Case - it is also called shell, this is the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder.

2. Bullet it is also called slug, this is the projectile propelled from a firearm

3. Propellant - this is the powder charge intended to be

burned thus generating an energy that will launch the bullet.

4. Primer - it is also called percussion, this is composed

of the metal cup and priming mixture which is highly sensitive.

SPECIFIC PARTS OF A CASED CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE

- Head stamp

- Primer cup

- Priming mixture

- Anvil

- Flash hole - vent

- Rim

- Extractor groove true only to pistol and rifle cartridges

- Brass case

- Shoulder- true only to rifle cartridges

- Neck-true only to rifle cartridge -Crimp

- Cannelure - lubricant grooves

- Metal jacket

- Lead core

-Nose / tip

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITION

BASED ON GENERAL USE (DDBL)

- Dummy- carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually made of steel and discreetly dimensioned to be
used by weapons instructors, inspectors and repairmen when checking if weapons are functional.

- Drill ammo - completely inert and without an explosive propellant. It is used in military training to
practice loading and manipulation of firearms.

- Blank ammo- a cartridge without a bullet. lt may contain gunpowder and priming mixture thus
designed to produce gunshot to indicate firing. This is used for theatrical perfomance and military
training.

- Live ammo- the real ammunition since it is composed of a complete unit of unfired cartridge.

ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS WHERE THEY ARE LOADED (PRC-RS)

- Pistol ammo - for pistols, carbines and most submachine guns, this type of ammunition has extractor's
groove instead of a rimmed base.

- Rifle ammo - for hunting rifles, sniping rifles, assault

rifles, machine guns, and some submachine guns, this type of cartridge has a bottle-neck Shape. It has
longer case for large powder capacity and increased power.

- Case-less ammo- a special type of ammo. The gunpowder serves as casing of the bullet.The entire
cartridge is coated with varnish or similar material to protect it from moisture and moderate shocks. -
Case-less ammo can be used in hand guns and rifles.

- Revolver ammo - for revolvers, this type of ammunition has a rimmed base and a straight case which
allows the bullet to be rammed the chamber of the revolving cylinder.

- Shot shell -  for shotguns. The case of this ammunition is generally made of plastic with a metallic base.
It usually contains several pellets, although special types of shotgun ammo may be loaded with single
slugs.
ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMER (PRC)

- Pin-fire cartidge -  primer cup is concealed inside the cartridge case. A pin is resting upon the primer.
The pin protrudes at the side of the cartridge. The gun chamber has a notch for the pin to stand when

loaded in the squeezing the trigger.

- Rim-fire cartridge- the priming mixture is located at the hollow portion of the rim of the cartridge case.
It can be fired if the firing pin strikes the bottom of the cartridge at the rim area. This cartridge type can
be identified easily by the smooth base of the. At present, rim-fire cartridge is exclusively used by .22
cal. revolvers.

- Center-fire cartridge - cartridge mostly used today. The primer cup is centrally placed at the base of the
cartridge. The priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing on the primer cup which is

supported by the anvil.

ACCORDING TO RIM (RR-SBR)

- Rimmed cartridge- the design of catridges for revolvers, shotguns, and some rifles. The cartridge has a
rimmed base - that is the rim diameter is obviously wider than the case diameter, and it has

no extracting groove.

- Rimless cartridge - The type of cartridge which is true to pistol and rifle ammunition. The cartridge

case and the rim have equal diameter.

- Semi-rimmed  -  the rim is slightly wider than the case.

- Belted cartridge - The type of cartridge originally designed for machineguns. The extractor's groove is
strengthened with another layer of metal to prevent the machine gun's extractor from damaging the
cartridge case.

- Rebated cartridges - A rare type of cartridges because the rim has smaller diameter than the

cartridge case.

ACCORDING TO POWER

- Low-power cartridge- a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of less than 1,850

fps

- High-power cartridge -  a cartridge that fires a projectile with muzzle velocity between 1,925 and

2,500 fps

- High-intensity cartridge - the projectile fired from this cartridge has muzzle velocity of more than

2,500 fps
What is a MAGNUM AMMUNITION?

  Magnum may refer to the powder charge or the case design. As compared to regular ammunition,
magnum ammunition has more powder charge than the former.

THE CARTRIDGE CASE

- The tubular metallic or non-metallic container that holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer.

- Cartridge case for small arms ammunition is also called shell and casing.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE (HCG)

- To Hold the bullet, gunpowder and primer thus assembling them as one unit;

- To serve as waterproof Container for the gunpowder, and

- To act as Gas seal' at the breech end of the barrel during firing.

STRUCTURE OF CARTRIDGE CASE

- Standard cartridges of center-fire ammunitions have a shell that is usually made of brass - 70%copper
and 30% zinc.

THE PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

- Rim - serves to limit the forward travel of cartridge into the chamber and the clearance between the
head are supporting

- Primer Pocket- used to hold the primer in central position, to prevent gas from escaping to the rear of
the cartridge, and to provide solid support of primer anvil.

- Vent - it is also called flash hole, this part provides a passage of heat and flame from the primer pocket
towards the gunpowder chamber.

- Body- This is the 'cork that plugs the breech to prevent gas from escaping at the rear of the gun barrel.
For bottleneck

shaped cartridges, the cork includes the shoulder and the neck.

- Neck- part that is occupied by the bullet, which is true for rifle and machinegun cartridges
- Cannelure - composed of serrated grooves found at the interior surface of the neck which has a dual
function: to serve as lubricant groove and to prevent the bullet from being pushed or pulled.

- Crimp -this acts as the lip since it is found at the periphery of the mouth of the cartridge case. It has
also two functions: to aid in holding the bullet in place and to resist the initial forward motion of the
bullet while the gunpowder undergoes combustion.

- Shoulder - supports the neck of the shell which is true to rifle and machinegun cartridges.

- Base- the bottom part of the case that contains the primer rim and head stamp

- Head stamp - the bottom surface of the shell that contains engraved data such as the manufacturer's
ID, caliber and year of manufacture.

-Extracting groove - the circular groove near the base of the

shell designed for automatic withdrawal after each firing.

TYPES OF SHELLS/CARTRIDGE CASE

ACCORDING TO SHAPE (SBT)

- Straight case true to pistol and revolver ammunition. This is the casing of all rimmed cartridges for
revolvers and all center-fire pistol ammo that are now manufactured.

- Bottleneck case - always true to rifle ammunition. This is the casing of most modern center-fire rifle
ammos. This is the type of shell that provided the greatest power capacity commensurate with overall
case length.

-Tapered case- an obsolete type of case. It is very rare but presently being used in magnum jet cartridge
of caliber .22 firearms.

ACCORDING TO RIM (RR-SBR)

- Rimmed case - designed for cartridges of revolvers, shotguns and some single shot rifles. This the
earliest type of shell. The diameter of the cartridge base is wider than the diameter of the body

-  Rimless case - has a base with the same diameter as that of the body.  This case design allows smooth
feeding from magazine to the chamber. The case length and shoulder allow proper head spacing.

- Sémi-rimmed case - designed to combine the advantages of the rimmed and rimless casing. However,
it never became popular.

- Belted case -attempts to combine the smooth feeding characteristics of the rimless case with the
consistent head spacing of the rimmed hell. Most common usage is in the magnum rifles cases. The
belted case was designed to provide positive head spacing and allow magazine feeding.
- Rebated case -developed to allow a firearm to fire a new cartridge with a bigger caliber using existing
bolt of standard design but smaller caliber. In other words, the rebated shell a body with a wider
diameter compared to its rim.

THE PRIMER

   A small metallic ignition cup at the center of the base, When the striker hits the base of the cartridge ,
a distinctive mark is placed by the gun on the primer

PARTS OF THE PRIMER (PAD-PP)

- Primer cup - This is the container of the priming mixture. It is composed of brass and copper or any
other gilding metal.

- Anvil- it is a thin but rigid metal strip where the priming mixture is crushed once the firing pin strikes
the primer cup.

- Disc- This is small piece of paper or disc of tin foil which is pressed over the priming mixture. Its dual
purpose is to hold the priming mixture in place and to exclude moisture that might degrade the quality
of the priming mixture.

- Priming mixture - this is the chemical component of the primer

- Primer pocket - It simply refers to the space at the center bottom of the shell where the primer cup,
priming mixture and anvil occupy.

THE PRIMING MIXTURE

The primer is a volatile (highly sensitive) chemical

in powdered form contained in the primer cup. Once its volume is compressed, it automatically
undergoes rapid combustion.

The priming mixture is usually made of lead styphnate, barium nitrate, and antimony sulfide Lead,
barium and antimony elements are typical in primers of center-fire cartridges.

Two classes of modern priming mixture:

Corrosive primer - primarily composed of potassium chlorate. If this is ignited, it produces potassium
chloride which draws out moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the corrosion of metal. Its
ingredients are:

- Potassium chlorate-45% (initiator and fuel)

- Antimony sulfide -23% (fuel element)

- Mercury fulminate -32% (initiator)

Non-corrosive primer This is the improved class of priming mixture. It has barium nitrate instead of
potassium chlorate.

TYPES OF PRIMER

BERDAN PRIMER

- European type.

- It was invented by Hiram Berdan and was patented in March 20, 1886.

- The anvil, which is actually a part of the cartridge case, is sticking out from the center of two or three
flash holes

- Special tool is required to remove the primer. Thus, Berdan primed shells are not generally reloaded.

BOXER PRIMER

- American type

- Has a single vent.

- Its anvil is V-shaped separate little piece of brass, thus this is also called separate anvil type.

- The flash hole is located at the center of the primer Cup.

- The Boxer type primer was developed by Colonel Edward Munier Boxer and was patented in June 29,
1869. Although the process of manufacturing it seems to be quite difficult, it became more popular
because of its adaptability in reloading cartridge cases.

THE GUN POWDER

It is the chemical substance of varied compositions, sizes,shapes, and colors that function as propellant.
Gunpowder serves as the sources of energy to propel a projectile. Once it is burned in a confined place,
it produces large volume of heated gases that expand thus generating energy capable of pushing
through the gun barrel and launched it to fly towards a target. There are two main types of gunpowder;
the black powder and the so-called smokeless powder.

THE BLACK POWDER

Black powder can be prepared following this optimum proportion:

- 11.85% sulfur, This is main fuel component of the gun powder.-

-74.64% saltpeter Scientifically known as KNO3 (potassium nitrate)

-13.51% carbon

The three disadvantages of black powder that were tolerated

before the invention of modern gunpowder as follows: (SFM)

- It produces large cloud of white Smoke.

- It leaves a thick, heavy Fouling which is both- hygroscopic and corrosive.

- It attracts Moisture hence it must be stored properly.

THE SMOKELESS POWDER

  The term smokeless powder is a misnomer for this propellant is neither a powder nor smokeless.

Most smokeless powder used as propellant appears as flakes. When they are burned, they produce
smoke but not as many compared to huge cloud of white smoke produced by black powder.

  Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi-and-full automatic firearms. There are
two main advantages of smokeless powder over black powder. Minimal smoke is produced when
smokeless powder is burned. It is much more powerful than black powder giving an accurate rifle range
of up to 1000 yards.

POUDRE B

- Developed by Paul Vieille in France on the year 1186

- This was made from gelatinized nitrocellulose mixed with ether and alcohol, it was passed through
rollers to form thin sheets, which were cut  with a guillotine to flakes of the desired size.

BALLISTITE

- Developed by Alfred Nobel on the year 1887

- Nobel's gun powder is composed of 40% nitroglycerine and 60% nitrocellulose, a powder easier to
handle and more powerful than Poudre B.

Smokeless powders today can be in various shapes. Sheets of smokeless powder are cut into

Discs
Flakes

Balls

Tiny cylindrical shapes

THE 4 MAIN CLASSES OF PROPELLANTS

Single-based propellant - This is composed of pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose

Double-based propellant - This type is composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin mixed with any or all
of the following minor ingredients: Centralite, Vaseline phathalate, esters, and inorganic salts.

Triple-based propellant - This is composed of three principal ingredients, which are nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerinne, and nitro-guanidine. This type of propellant was developed in attempting to
compromise the low-power sing-based propellant and high-power but excessive heat of double base
powders.

HIT (high-ignition temperature) Propellant The main ingredient of this class of propellant is the RDX
(cyclonite) group of high explosives. It was developed by the Dynamite Noble of Germany in conjunction
with Heckler and Koch.

THE BULLET

  A metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of the expansive
force of gasses coming from burning gunpowder. In layman's term,the bullet is called slug. The word
bullet came from the French word

Boulette' which roughly means little ball.

As distinguished from pellets, bullets are slugs that have pointed tip or cylindical nose loaded in
cartridges for rifled guns while pellets are small spherical projectiles loaded in shot shells for smooth
bore weapons. Pellets, more often called shots, may also refer to skirted projectiles used in pellet guns.

PARTS OF STANDARD BULLET

Base- the portion of the bulet that receives the thrust and heat from the burning gunpowder

Heel- the part where the base and bearing surface meet
Bearing surface - the cylindrical side of the bullet that comes in contact with the barel rifling

Cannelure - the groove around the body of a bullet to receive the case crimp; for lead bullets, this part is
better known as lubricant groove

Jacket- a metal covering of the bullet's lewd core which

could be made of copper, brass, steel, aluminum, or an alloy of these metals; it may partially or
completely cover the lead Core

Core- bulk of mass in the bullet; the main component of the bullet that is usually made of lead but
sometimes alloyed or replace with other metals for special purposed such as deeper penetration and
tracing

Shoulder - the part where the parallel sides end and the ogive begins

Ogive - the radius of curve between the bearing surface and the point usually stated with respect to the
caliber

Tip or Nose - the most forward point of the ogive

Head- height- the length of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS

General groups of bullets according to composition(LG)

- Lead bullets - These are made of pure lead or alloyed with tin and antimony. Lead alloy is slightly
harder than pure lead. Traditionally, lead bullets are for revolvers and caliber.22 rim-fire cartridges. Pure
lead bullets are not satisfactory for use when high velocities are involved.
- Jacketed bullets - Metal-jacketed bullets are the types of bullets with lead core covered by soft brass or
copper-plated soft steel jacket. The core is Composed of lead-antimony alloy for hunting and for military
anti-personnel cartridges.

Bullets are jacketed with various metallic materials or alloys because of the following purposes: (PIDED)

- To Prevent adherence of lead on the barrel's rifling (main purpose)

- To keep the bullet Intact when it hits the target

- To prevent Deformation while the bullet is in its path towards the target (lead bullets are deformed at
very high bullet velocities)To control Expansion once the bullet hits the target

-To prevent bullet Damage while inside the weapon

CLASSIFICATION OF LEAD BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE

-Round nose

-Wad cutter

- Semi wad-cutter

- Hollow point

- Boat Tailed

TWO TYPES OF JACKETED BULLETS

-Full Metal Jacketed

- Semi-jacketed

TYPES OF BULLETS BASED ON PURPOSE

TARGET SHOOTING BULLETS

- Bullets designed with sharp shoulder to cut clean holes in target paper.

HARD BALLS

-These bullets have full metal jacket composed of copper sheath over a lead core. These are the
standard projectile type, expanding very little, but giving good penetration.
ARMOR PIERCING BULLETS- These are bullets designed to perforate thin layers of armor and retain
enough velocity to injure personnel or destroy equipment. Amor-piercing bullets for small arms are of
similar material to the standard bullets. However, in addition to lead and antimony / filler, they have
hardened steel (tungsten chrome steel) cores.The hardened steel core continues to penetrate the armor
after the jacket and filler have been stripped away by contact with a resistant surface.

EXPANDING BULLETS

These are soft point bullets

(mushroom) bullets and hollow point bullets (sometimes called dumdums after the British arsenal in
India where they were designed and first manufactured)

Expanding bullets have metal jacket at both ends that flattens on contact with living tissue and produce
internal damage. All soft bullets, split-nose bullets, hollow-point

.bullets, and jacketed bullets with the core exposed at the tip are of expanding type of bullets. Today,
they are used for big-game hunting because of their great stopping power.

- Soft point bullets expand on striking an object and therefore

produce much serious shock and

have more correspondingly greater stopping power when fire from high velocity rifles, these bullets
expand upon striking a flesh until

it looks like a mushroom. However, bullets of these kinds when fired from handguns have lesser
penetrating effect than full jacketed bullets because velocity is too law to cause the bullet to expand.

HOLLOW-POINT BULLETS

sometimes called express

bullets, have cavity in the nose designed to increase the expansion when they hit their target. They are
designed to provide rapid expansion while soft-points are designed to provide deeper penetration
before expansion. However, this performance may vary depending on the design of the bullet

and the impact velocity.

INCENDIARY BULLETS
These are military bullets used for starting fires in inflammable targets. They certain mixture of
phosphorous and other chemicals that can be set on fireupon firing the target. They are used against
targets socks aircrafts or gasoline depot.

TRACER BULLETS -These are bullets that have chemical compound (usually barium nitrates) at the base
that burns brightly so the shooter can observe its path. There are special pistol traces bullets with which
downed aviators can signal their positions. Usually this is a mixture of magnesium, perchlorate, and
chromium, to yield a bright red color. A new design involves the use of LED, but the cost and complexity
would seem to negate any advantage.

FRAGMENTING BULLETS

- These are similar to hard ball round with stress lines manufactured into slug. The result is that the
bullet splits into fragments when hitting soft tissue, creating a bigger wound. However, they tend to
retain their form when penetrating an amored target

FLECHETTE

-This is a special type of pointed bullet with an arrow-shaped tip. Spitzer bullet is the tem used by the

American and British sportsmen when referring to a pointed bullet

X-BULLETS

-These are solid copper projectiles, heat treated for extra toughness with no separate jacket or
leadcore.These bullets are famous for deep dependable penetration. A deep forward cavity causes the
nose to peel back into four razor-edge petals. Viewed in front, the appearance of the four petals gives
the x-bullet its name.

WAX-BULLETS

- These are bullets intended for quickdraw shooting exercise or competition.

ICE BULLETS OR SOLIDIFIED BULLET - Super cooled water made as a projectile

POISONED BULLETS

- Theoretically, a caliber.177 bullets (the smallest bullet in general use) can cary enough poison to kill a
large animal. A bullet with this caliber can allow small but lethal guns. A protein poison such as alfatoxin
or ricin, with tiny lethal doses and easy low-cost availability, is used in tiny assassination weapons in the
past.

EXPLOSIVE BULLETS/ SAFETY GLAZER SLUG - A type of bullet which would explode if it hits a hard object
or target.

RUBBER BULLETS

-Designed to be non-lethal, usually Used in riot control.

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

  Firearms identification can be defined as the systematic identification of fired bullets, fired cartridge
cases, or other ammunition components as having been fired from a specific firearm.

Firearms ldentification involves the following:

1. FIELD INVESTIGATION- refers to the work of an investigation in the field. It concerns mostly with the
collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of fireams evidences. It includes the study of
class characteristics of fireams and bullets

2. TECHNICAL EXAMINATION refers to the examiners who examine bullets/ or shells, whether fired from
also whether or not cartridges were loaded and ejected made by the suspected fireams submitted.
Reports are made by the examiners and testiy in court regarding their

reports

3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS (COURT TRIALS) - the most critical part in the field of firearm identification
wherein the examiner will go to the court as expert witness regarding the ballistics report and exhibits
he had prepared and examined in the laboratory.

FIREARM CHARACTERISTICS

  Firearms identification is mostly concerned with the examination of the characteristics left by the
firearm on any ballistics related evidence, These are features/traits of the Firearms that can be
transfered to the ammunitions fired through them and are used to identify them. These characteristics
may come in two categories namely:

-Class Characteristics
-Individual characteristics

CLASS CHARACTERISTCS OF FIREARMS

The intentional or design characteristics that would

be common to a particular group or family of fireams. These are characteristics that are determined
even before the fiream is manufactured. All cases that involve firearms identification start with
preliminary examination of the evidence for similar class characteristics. Firearm class characteristics
may be determined from any of the following: (F-BUS)

- The Firearm itself

- Fired Bullet

- Unfired cartridge

- Fired Shell

Class characteristics of firearms that can be determined

in bullets fired from them are as follows: (CaRN-W-DDD)

- Caliber of the firearm

- Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm

- Number of lands and grooves

- Width of lands and grooves

- Depth of grooves

- Degree of rifling twist

- Direction of rifling twist

RIFLING- consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore. The rifling in
firearms may be divided into the following types:

STEYR TYPE - 4 lands, 4 grooves, Right hand twist, Lands

and Grooves of equal width (4R, G=L). It is used in earliest self-loading pistols.
SMITH AND WESSON TYPE - 5 lands, 5 grooves, Right hand twist, Lands and Grooves of equal width. (5R,
G=L)

BROWNING TYPE - 6 land, 6 grooves, Right hand twist, narrow land and broader grooves. (6R, G2x)

COLT TYPE - 6 lands, 6 grooves, Left hand twist, narow land and broader groove. (6L, G2x)

WEBLEY TYPE -  7 lands, 7 grooves, Right hand twist, narrow land and broader groove. (7R, G3x)

ÁRMY TYPE - 4 lands, 4 grooves, Right hand twist, narrow

lands and broader grooves (4R, G3x)

What is PITCH OF RIFLING? 

It is the distance that the rifling advances to make

one complete turn.

Cartridges and cartridge cases on the other hand are examined for class similarities that could be in the
form of: (BEEF)

1. Breech mark

2.Extractor mark

3. Ejector mark

4. Firing pin impression

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

  Firearm individual characteristics simply refer to those characteristics that are determinable only after
a gun is finally manufactured. The individual characteristics of firearms can be transferred to: (BCC)

- Bullets

- Cartridge Case

- Primer Cup
The characteristics of firearms are influenced by three principal factors, which are as follows: (DMM)

- Design of the gun as established by the

manufacturer

- The Manner how the fiream is used

- Gun Manufacturing process

GUN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES RELATED TO FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

   In most cases, the process of manufacturing the gun or its components is one of the important keys in
firearms identification. Imperfections on the tools or equipment used in the production of fireams will
result to the characteriscs of such firearms that would be imparted on the ammunition component
coming from them.

MAKING THE GUN BARREL

  Gun barrels are made of solid steel. There  are  2 classes of steel currently used in making gun barrels;
Chrome molybdenum steel and stainless steel. Chrome

molybdenum steel is mostly used in hunting rifles and military firearms. On the other hand, stainless
steel is mostly used in barrels of target shooting fireams.

STAGES OF BARREL MANUFACTURING (DRRiL-C)

Drilling

Reaming

Rifling

Lapping

Chambering

A. DRILLING

It is the process of making a hole from one end to another end through the center of a steel rod. The
result of this stage is a rough hole with almost uniform diameter from end to end of the barrel. The
interior surface of the barrel has sears, scratches and chips due to irregular cutting of the drilling
instrument. Special driling machines have drills made of tungsten carbide.

B. REAMING
It is the process of cleaning or uniformly scrapping the interior surface of the barrel to achieve the
desired bore diameter. The reaming instrument removes the metal from the entire surface because its
diameter is slightly larger than the driller. Reamers are made of tungsten carbide. This stage produces a
smoothbore barrel. After reaming, the bore's surface has good dimensional unifomity from end to end.

C. RIFLING

This stage is the process necessary for making the helical grooves inside the barrel. This stage produces a
barrel with lands and grooves at the interior surface. However, this is not applied in making a
smoothbore firearm.There are four types of rifling technique namely: (CBBH)

Cut-Rifling Technique

Broaching

Button Rifling

Hammer Rifling

Cut-Rifling Technique:

- Also called hook-cutter system, this technique is described as the single point broaching system.

This is the oldest method as it was invented in Nuremburg, Germany sometime in 1492 which requires
the use of "hook' cutter. In this rifling technique, grooves are cut individually one at a time

Broaching

In this technique, all the grooves are cut at once by means of a long progressively stepped cutter that
pulled through the barrel. This is much faster than the preceding technique because all the grooves are
cut at the same time. This technique is usually used in making volumes of military firearms. It

produces  gun barrels that have rougher interior Surface as compared to barels produced by cut rifling
technique. Modern broaching tool is are about 16 inches long with several cutting rings that is why they
are called gang broaches.

Button Rifling

This 'is done by forcing a carbide tool with button made of very hard steel plug through the bore. This
technique is fairly fast and generally produces smoother finish than cut-rifling technique or broaching
process however, it does not provide a uniformly controlled twist.

Hammer Rifling
This technique was developed by the Gemans before the 2nd world war. The first hammer rifling
machine was built in Erfurt, Gemany in 1939.

D. LAPPING

It is the process of polishing the inner surface of the gun

barrel. It simply involves rubbing the bore surface using a polishing compound to remove machining
marks and any tight spots in the rifling thus making the bore's surface dimensionally uniform from end
to end.

It is worthy to note however that no matter how many times we polish or finish the interior surface of
the gun barel ,the minute imperfections cannot be removed. These microscopic imperfections cause the
series of striation on the bearing surface of the bullet that passes through the barrel. These striations
are the mechanical fingerprints of the gun found in fired bullets which are used as basis of firearm

identification.

Take note that the barrel of the gun is made of a harder metal than the bullet. When a harder metal
comes in contact with a softer metal, it is always the softer metal that gets marks from the harder metal.
This is the basic principle applied in explaining why do guns leave their marks on the bullet and shell that
they fire.

E. CHAMBERING

The process which involves cutting wider space at the breech end of the barel that will serve as the
chamber for the cartridge ready to be fired.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED AMMUNITION COMPONENTS

- Land marks

depressed portion found on fired

bullet caused by the land.

- Groove marks - raised or elevated portion caused by the grooves.

- Skid marks - this happens when the bullet enters the rifled bore from a stationary position and is
forced abruptly into the rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight forward before entering the regular
rifling twist. These markings are more pronounced in the revolver and caused due to worn out barels.
- Slippage/Stripping Marks - these are marks found on bullets fired from a worn-out barrel, oily barrels
and slightly over-sized bullets.

- Shaving Marks- most commonly found on bullets fired from a revolver due to a poor alignment of the
cylinder with the bore.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED. CARTRIDGE CASE

- Firing Pin impression the indentation in the primer of a centerfire cartridge case or in the rim of a
rimfire cartridge case caused when it is struck by the firing pin.

- Breechface markings- negative impression of the breechface of the firearm found generally on the base
or the head of the cartridge case after firing.

- Chamber marks- marks upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of Chambering,
Expanding during firing or Extraction

- Extractor marks- marks produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case from contact with the extractor.
These are usually found on or just ahead of the rim. These are usually found on shells fired from pistols,
rifles, shotguns and machineguns.

- Ejector marks - marks produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case on the head, generally at or near

the rim, from contact with the ejector.

- Shear marks or the secondary firing pin marks

     found in the primer near the firing pin mark.

-Firing pin drag marks

it is caused by the protruding nose of the firing pin.

PRINCIPLES OF FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

  The main forensic principle applied in firearms identification states that EVERY GUN LEAVES CERTAIN
MARKS ON THE BULLET IT FIRES. These marks differ from those made by any other gun.

This principle is used in the interpretation of all ballistic

related evidence and phenomenon or ballistics exhibit with the purpose of interpreting or establishing
the true facts in a shooting related incident. These ballistics related exhibits are the following: (FBC)

-Firearms

-Bullets

-Cartridge cases
On the other hand, there is countless list of ballistic related phenomenon but the most common are the
following:(B-DaTH-GWS)

- Bullet Damage on various mediums

- Bullet Trajectories

- Bullet Holes

- GunShot Wounds

PRINCIPLES OF BULLET IDENTIFICATION

- No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all possesses individual
characteristics markings of their own.

- When a bullet is fired from rifled barel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this engraving will vary
in its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the bullets fired
from one barrel will be different from another bullet fired from another barrel.

- Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprint on very single bullet fired through it just as every
breech face leaves its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridges case.

PRINCIPLES OF SHELL IDENTIFICATION

- The breech face and striker of every single fiream leave microscopical individualities of their own.

- The firearm leaves its "fingerprints" or "thumb mark"on every cartridges case which it fires

- The whole principles of identification is based on

the fact that since the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridges cases
which it fires are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints on all cartridges cases fired from
thesame weapon are always the same; those on cartridges cases fired from different weapons are

different.

TYPES OF BALLISTICS PROBLEMS

There are six (6) types of problems in Forensic balistic, namely

No. Item .Problem

1. Bullet - Determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired.

2. Fired Cartridges Case - Determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired.

3. Bullet and suspected Firearm - Determine whether or not the bullet was fired from the suspected
Firearm.

4. Fired Cartridge case and a suspected Firearm - Determine whether or not the cartridge case was fired
from the suspected Firearm.

5. Two or more bullets - Determine whether or not they were fired from only one firearm

6. Two or more cartridge case - Determine whether or not they were fired from only one firearm.

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

A. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

All specimens submitted by the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings
or initials made by the investigator for identification purposes. All cases that involve fiream identification
start with preliminary examinations of the evidence for similar class characteristics.

Test Firing

The firearm is fired from a bullet recovery box or water tank in order to obtain test bullets and test
cartridge cases

Note: for conclusiveness of findings, there shall be atleast three test bullets that should be compared.

- First, for Comparison/preliminany

- Second, for Confimation

- Third, for Conclusion

B. Microscopic Examination

  After the recovery of the test bullets and test cartridge cases, known, test fired specimens are
compared to questioned specimens using the Bullet Comparison Microscope.

   Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells are examined in
juxtaposition - that is, the two objects- evidence and the test bullet are examined and compared:(TiP-
DIM)

- at the same Time

- at the same Place or level

- at the same Direction

- at the same Image

- at the same Magnification

Examination Results

1. Identification- signifies a match between two specimens. "Agreement of a combination of individual

characteristics and all discernible classcharacteristics.

2. Inconclusive- represents a no match between the examined items of evidence

3. Elimination- elimination is a significant disagreement of discernible class characteristics and/or

individual characteristics.

4. No Conclusion/Unsuitable - indicates that specimen submitted could neither be identified nor

eliminated as having been fired by a particular weapon based on the quantity and quality of microscopic
markings.

3 Points of Basic Positive Identification

The markings must be: (CSP)

Consistent

Significant; and

Prominent

Note: 8 or more striations

accepted by the court.

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

- Bullet Comparison Microscope

A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms identification expert is the bullet
comparison microscope, with camera attachment.

- Stereoscopic Microscope

No camera attachment and

no photomicrograph can be taken for court tampered serial number.

- Shadowgraph

A series of microscopic lenses of different magnification determine

to class use characteristics of fired bullets and shells.

- Bullet Recovery Box

Long box (12" x 12" x 96") filled with

ordinary cotton and separated into sections by and board partitions.

- Helixometer

Used in measuring "pitch of rifling".

Distance traveled by the bullet in one complete rotation.

- Caliper

Use for making measurements such as bullet diameter barrel length.

-Analytical or torsion balance

   Use to determine weights of bullets and

pellets for possible determination of type, caliber and make from which fired.

-Onoscope

Small instrument sometimes used in

examining the internal surface of the gun barrel indetermining the regularities inside the bore of the gun
barrel. It has a tiny lamp the terminal portion and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinations.

Taper Gauge

  Use primarily for determining bore

diameter of a smoothbore fiream.