Philippine College of Criminology: Course Module For Personal Identification Techniques (Forensic 2)

PHILIPPINE COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Year II - FORENSIC 2 Personal Identification Techniques
Course Module for

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
(FORENSIC 2)
Author: ALLAN L. TILLA-IN, Ph.D.
Course description: The course covers the fundamental study of ancient and modern methods
of personal identification with emphasis on Dactyloscopy, Orthodontology and Palmistry, which
embraces the identification and comparison of fingerprint patterns and ridge characteristics; the
scientific method of recognition, development and preservation of latent prints and the recording
and classifying of fingerprints which includes the Henry System and the FBI Extension.
Learning Outcomes and Competencies:

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
Cognitive Objectives: Demonstrate an understanding of the principles and concepts in

dactyloscopy as a science and as a means of identification, therefore applied in criminal
investigation and other legal applications;
Affective Objectives: Appreciate the value of fingerprints as a proof of human uniqueness and
individuality;
Psychomotor Objectives: Perform different processes involved in the classification of fingerprints,

from collecting or lifting, classifying, filing and comparing.
FORENSIC 2 Personal Identification Techniques | Quarter 2 Modular Learning Packet Page 1 of 35

Overview of the Course
Week Topics Intended Learning Outcomes

No. At the end of the learning period, the students
should be able to:
7 THE DIFFERENT RIDGE Show understanding of the different ridge

CHARACTERISTICS AND RIDGE characteristics and ridge formation.
FORMATION
8 RULES GOVERNING THE Show understanding of the rules in the proper

SELECTION OF DELTA AND selection and location of delta and core.
CORE
9 RULES ON RIDGE COUNTING Show comprehension of the method and

AND RIDGE TRACING principles involved in ridge counting and ridge
tracing.
10 THE EIGHT TYPES OF Analyze and interpret the different types of

FINGERPRINT PATTERNS AND fingerprint patterns.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Week 11: MIDTERM EXAMINATION

WEEK 7
THE DIFFERENT RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS AND RIDGE FORMATION
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO):
At the end of the learning period, the students should be able to:
1. Show understanding of the different ridge characteristics and ridge formation.
DIFFERENT RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
Before a pattern definition can be learned, it is very important to understand some technical terms
used in fingerprint identification.
The unique characteristics of fingerprints, as identified by Galton, was officially known as Minutiae;
sometimes referred to as "Galton’s Details”.
The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its general shape or pattern but by a careful
study of its ridge characteristics (also known as Minutiae). The identity, number, and relative
location of characteristics (fragment)
1. Bifurcating Ridge - is a single ridge that divides itself in two branches. It is sometimes called a
“fork”.

Note: When the single ridge forks into three branches it is called trifurcation.
2. Converging Ridge - is a ridge formation characterized by a close angular end and serves as a
point of convergence; or is the meeting of two ridges that were previously running side by side.
3. Diverging Ridge - is the spreading of two ridges that are flowing side by side and suddenly
separating or spreading apart.

4. Enclosure or Lake Ridge/Eyelet - is a ridge that divides into two branches and meets to form the
original ridge.
5. Ending Ridge - it refers to an endpoint of a ridge, or a ridge with an abrupt ending.
6. Dot Ridge or Island Ridge - is a ridge that resembles a dot, fragment or a period.

7. Appendage - is a short ridge found at the top or at the summit of a recurving ridge.
If the looping or recurving ridge has an appendage, such appendage will spoil the recurve.
Therefore, a looping ridge that has an appendage has no sufficient recurve.
8. Re-Curving or Looping Ridge - is a kind of ridge formation that curves back in the direction from
which it started. It looks like a hairpin.

9. Sufficient Recurve - is a recurving ridge complete in its shoulder (having with two shoulders) and
is free from any appendage (without appendage).
The figure shows a looping ridge that contains a sufficient recurve, the part of the looping ridge
that was enclosed by the dotted lines has two shoulders and without appendage. Therefore a
looping ridge may have or may not have sufficient recurve.
Two characteristics or elements of a looping or recurving ridge that has sufficient recurve:
A. It has two shoulders;

Shoulders of recurving ridge or looping ridge is known as part of looping or recurving

ridge in which the ridge curves inward.
B. Free from appendage.
10. Rod or Bar - is a short or long ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
11. Obstruction Ridge - is a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge which spoiled
the inner line of flow towards the center of the pattern.

Note: The appendage, rod or bar, and obstruction ridge are all examples of an ending ridge. They
just differ in their position, location and purpose.
12. Pattern Area - is that part of the fingerprint that lies within the area surrounded by the type lines.
It is where the core, delta, and other ridge characteristics used for classification can be found.
The pattern area is only part of the fingerprint impression which is concerned in regard to
interpretation and classification. It is present in all patterns, of course but in many arches and
tented arches, it is impossible to define. The only patterns in which we need to define the pattern
area for classification purposes are loops and whorls.
The pattern area of loops and whorls are enclosed by type lines.
13. Type Lines - these are considered as the boundaries of fingerprint patterns.

These are the two innermost ridges that are running parallel or nearly parallel with each other
which diverge at a certain point tending to surround the pattern area.
Type lines are not always continuous ridges. In fact, they are more often to be broken. When there
is a definite break in type line, the ridges outside of it are immediately considered as its
continuation.
When does a bifurcating ridge be considered as a type line?

A single ridge may bifurcate, but it may not diverge. When a bifurcating ridge runs parallel and
then diverges, then the bifurcating ridge may be considered as a type-lines.

In this figure, the bifurcation will be considered as typelines; due to the fact that the two branches
of the bifurcation run parallel to each other before the two branches diverge.
In this figure, the bifurcation, failed to meet the requirements to qualify as a typelines; due to the
fact that the two branches diverged immediately without running parallel to each other first.

WEEK 8
RULES GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF DELTA AND CORE
1. Show understanding of the rules in the proper selection and location of delta and core.
The Two Fingerprint Terminuses (Focal Points)

There are two focal points or terminuses of a fingerprint pattern, the delta and core.
A loop pattern commonly has one delta and core while whorl may contain two or multiple delta
and cores.
The Delta
Also called the Outer Terminus, the delta is a point along a ridge formation found at the center or
near the center of the diverging type lines.
The term Delta is an old Greek word. The original English meaning of the word refers to a deposit
of Earth at the mouth of a river.

Note: In order for a point of a ridge formation to be considered as a Delta, it must be located or
found, in front of, at the center or nearest to the divergence of the typelines.

Different ridge formation that can serve as a Delta

1. A point of bifurcation ridge;
2. Point of converging ridge;
3. A point of an ending ridge;
4. A dot ridge;
5. A short ridge; and
6. A point on a long ridge.
1. The bifurcation should not be selected as a Delta if not open towards the core.
Note: to determine whether the bifurcating ridge is open towards the core is to put an imaginary
line or extension on both branches of the bifurcating ridge.
2. If there is a choice between two or more Deltas, the one nearest to the core must be selected.

3. The bifurcation can be selected as a Delta if open towards the core.
4. The Delta should not be located on the middle of the ending ridge running between the type
line towards the core; but at the endpoint of such an ending ridge that was nearest to the core.

The Core
Also known as the Heart or the Inner Terminus, the core is usually found at the center or at the
innermost recurve.
Note: The core is located on the shoulder of the innermost sufficient recurve or on the endpoint of
rod inside the innermost sufficient recurve.
In this figure, looping ridge number 2 will be considered as the innermost sufficient recurve due to
the appendage appearing on looping ridge number one which spoils the recurve.
In this figure, the core is placed on the endpoint of a rod located on sufficient recurve number
one; which is also considered as the innermost sufficient recurve.

Rules Governing The Selection of Core
1. The core is placed on the shoulder of the innermost sufficient recurve farther from the Delta. This
rule will apply if the innermost sufficient recurve contains no rods or bar which rise as high as the
shoulder line.
Note: In order for the endpoint of a rod or bar to be considered as the core, the length must reach
the shoulder line of the innermost sufficient recurve.

2. When there is a rod or bar inside the innermost sufficient recurve, which rises as high or even
higher than the shoulder line, the core is located on the endpoint of that rod or bar.
3. If there is an even number of bars, the core is located on the endpoint of the center ridges
farther from the Delta (consider only the two innermost rods).

4. If there is an odd number of bars, the core is located on the endpoint of the center ridge.

WEEK 9
RULES ON RIDGE COUNTING AND RIDGE TRACING

1. Show comprehension of the method and principles involved in ridge counting and ridge
tracing.
RIDGE COUNTING
Ridge Counting is the process
of counting the ridges that
touch or cross an imaginary
line drawn between the Delta
and Core of a loop. A wide
space must intervene
between the Delta and the
first ridge to be counted.
Rules in Ridge Counting
a. Locate the exact

points, core and
delta.
b. Count all the ridges

which touch or cross
an imaginary line as
drawn between delta
and core. In actual use of fingerprint cards for classification, the lens is guided by a redline
shown on the disk.
c. Never include the delta and core in counting. Count only those ridges which intervene or
pass the imaginary line of the count line.
d. Incipient ridges are never counted no matter where they appear. The general rule is that
in order to be counted, the width of the ridge must be equal to the width of the other
ridges in the pattern under consideration.

Ridges Subject to Ridge Counting:
a. A ridge island or a dot

ridge gives one ridge
count;
b. A short ridge is counted
as one;
c. A long ridge is counted
as one;
d. An abrupt ending
ridges is given one
ridge count;
e. A bifurcating ridge is
given two ridge counts
when it was crossed in
opening or at the
center of the
bifurcation;
f. Ridge enclosure is
counted as two ridges;
g. Criss-crossing ridge or
meeting of two ridges is
counted as two.

Ridge Count
Ridge Count is known as the number of ridges intervening between Delta and Core.
Ridge Tracing
Ridge Tracing is the process of counting the ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and the
right Delta.
This process was used to determine the three subdivisions of whorls into inner, outer, and meeting
which is represented by capitals I, M, O.
Also means tracking or trailing the ridge commencing from left delta going across the right delta
or nearest in distance to the right delta with the number of ridges intervening between the ridge
being traced and the right delta accounted for.
Rules in Ridge Tracing

a. Look for the left delta and trace the delta towards the front of the ridgt delta;
b. When the ridge being traced abruptly ends, drop to the next ridge just below the original
tracing ridge and continue the tracing until it reaches the opposite side or the right delta;
c. When the left delta is a dot, the same thing would be done as in procedure in no. 1;
d. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation, always follow the lower branch until tracing
is completed;
e. Determine whether the tracing ridge flows inside (above) or below (outside) the right
delta;
f. Count the number of intervening ridges (between the tracing ridge and right delta).

Intervening Ridge
Intervening Ridge is the number of ridges that intervenes between the right delta and tracing
ridge. The three subdivisions of whorl are:
1. I (Inner Whorl) when the tracing proceeds above or in-front of the right delta and there
are three or more intervening ridges.
2. O (Outer Whorl) when the tracing proceeds outside or below the right delta and there are
three or more intervening ridges.

3. M (Meeting Whorl) when the tracing proceeds above or below the right delta and there
are two or less intervening ridges.

WEEK 10
THE EIGHT TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

1. Analyze and interpret the different types of fingerprint patterns.
Fingerprint patterns may be concluded into three (3) general groups of patterns, and each group
has the same general characteristics or family resemblance.
The three (3) Groups/Families of Fingerprint Patterns are:

1. Loops, composed of 60%
2. Arches, composed of 5%
3. Whorls, composed of 35%
The groups of fingerprint patterns were subdivided into sub-groups by means of smaller differences
existing between the patterns in the similar group.
This sub-division are the following:

I. Loop
a. Ulnar Loop
b. Radial Loop
II. Arches
a. Plain Arch
b. Tented Arch
III. Whorl
a. Plain Whorl
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl
c. Double Loop Whorl
d. Accidental Whorl
I. Loop
A loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which the ridges enter on either side of impression,
recurve or turning back on itself for one or more of the ridges; touch or cross an imaginary line
drawn from delta to core; and terminate toward the same side of the impression from where such
ridge or ridges entered. This type of pattern was considered to be the most common of all and
composed of about sixty (60) percent of all prints.

Elements of a Loop
1. It must have a delta;
2. It must have a core;
3. It must have a sufficient recurve; and
4. It must have a ridge count of at least one.
The terms Ulnar and Radial are derived from the two bones of the forearm radius bones and ulna
bone. Loops which the opening of sufficient recurve opens or flows in the direction of the ulna
bone (towards the little finger) are called ulnar loops; and those which the opening of sufficient
recurve opens or flows in the direction of the radius bone are called radial loops.
To differentiate an ulnar loop from a radial loop in the plain or rolled impression, it is important to
know from what hand the loop was taken.
Note: The classification of loops is based on the way the loops flow on the hand (not the card), so
that on the fingerprint card for the left hand, loops flowing towards the thumb impression are ulnar,
and loops flowing towards the little finger impression are radial.
This fingerprint pattern can be This fingerprint pattern is

classified as a radial loop. classified as an ulnar loop.
Note: If the fingerprint is directly examined on the finger itself, the palmar side must be facing with
you, just like illustrated above; however, if you are going to examine a fingerprint impression, the
dorsal part of the hand must be the one facing with you; in accordance with the position of the
hand when the fingerprints were printed on the card.

Ulna bone and radius bone are the two bones which give structure to the forearm.
Radius bone- extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist.
Ulna bone- stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger.
Note: When the loop enters and exits from the thumb side of the hand, the pattern will always be
a Radial Loop. On the other hand, when the loop enters and exits from the little finger of the hand,
the pattern will always be an Ulnar Loop.
1. Ulnar Loop
The above patterns show the direction of looping ridges flows towards the little finger if
located on the left hand. Be reminded that the dorsal part or back of that hand must be
facing you, since you are now examining fingerprint impressions.

The above patterns show the direction of looping ridges flows towards the little finger if
located on the right hand.
2. Radial Loop
The above patterns show the direction of looping ridges flows towards the thumb finger if
located on the right hand.
The above patterns show the direction of looping ridges flows towards the thumb finger if
located on the left hand.

II. Arches
There are two types of arches: (1) plain arch and (2) tented arch.
1. Plain Arch - is the simplest of all fingerprint patterns, and it is easily distinguished.
This is a pattern in which the majority of the ridges flows from one side to the other
side of the pattern; without recurving, usually having a slight upward curve in the
pattern, making the pattern like an arch. It has no core and no delta.

2. Tented Arch
There are three (3) kinds of tented arches:
a. Angle type;
b. With upthrust;
c. A pattern similar or resembles like a loop but with missing or lacking at least
one essential element.

III. WHORLS
1. Plain Whorl - it is a pattern consisting of two deltas and which at least one ridge makes
a turn through one complete circuit; and if an imaginary line was drawn between two
deltas, it must touch or cross any circuiting ridge. It consists of the simplest form of whorl
construction and is most common of the whorl subdivisions.
Elements:
a. Presence of two deltas, left and right deltas.
b. Presence of at least one circuiting ridge either oval, spiral or circular shape.
c. The straight line drawn from left to right delta should touch or cross any circuiting
ridge.

2. Central Pocket Loop – is a pattern which possesses two deltas with one or more ridges
forming a complete circuit, which maybe oval, spiral or circular: or it is a pattern consisting
of two deltas, with one or more recurving ridges and an obstruction at right angle to the
inner line of flow, and when an imaginary line was drawn between two deltas, it should
not touch or cross any circuiting ridge.
a. Presence of two deltas, left and right deltas.
b. Presence of at least one circuiting ridge either oval, spiral or circular shape.
c. The straight line drawn from left to right delta shall not touch or cross any circuiting
ridge.

3. Double Loop
This type of fingerprint pattern consists of two separate and distinct loop formations, with
sets of shoulders and two deltas.
Elements:
a. Two separate loop formation
b. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulder
c. Two deltas

4. Accidental Whorl – Is a fingerprint pattern consisting of a combination of two different

types of pattern such as a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop, or any
combination of two different loop and whorl type pattern; but it cannot be a combination
of a plain arch with any pattern. It can have two or more deltas.

REFERENCES:
1.Manlusoc, Ariel C., c2011 The Science of Fingerprint Identification. Manila: Philippine College of
Criminology – MLC Textbook Committee
2.Harralson, Heide H, c2013 Developments in Handwriting and Signature Identification in the

Digital Age. Amsterdam: Elsevier
3.Sarmieto, Alfie P. c2012 A Textbook on Firearms Identification with Practical Exercises.

Quezon City: Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.,
4.Mendoza, Gregorio Bacay c2012 The Questioned Document Examination and Practices.
Quezon City: Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc
5.Rosete, Mario C., c2009 Questioned Documents Examinations Handbook. Quezon City. Great
Books Trading

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PHILIPPINE COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY

Year II - FORENSIC 2 Personal Identification Techniques

Course Module for

Author: ALLAN L. TILLA-IN, Ph.D.

Learning Outcomes and Competencies:

Cognitive Objectives: Demonstrate an understanding of the principles and concepts in

Psychomotor Objectives: Perform different processes involved in the classification of fingerprints,

FORENSIC 2 Personal Identification Techniques | Quarter 2 Modular Learning Packet Page 1 of 35

Overview of the Course

Week Topics Intended Learning Outcomes

7 THE DIFFERENT RIDGE Show understanding of the different ridge

8 RULES GOVERNING THE Show understanding of the rules in the proper

9 RULES ON RIDGE COUNTING Show comprehension of the method and

10 THE EIGHT TYPES OF Analyze and interpret the different types of

Week 11: MIDTERM EXAMINATION

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DIFFERENT RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

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5. Ending Ridge - it refers to an endpoint of a ridge, or a ridge with an abrupt ending.

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A. It has two shoulders;

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Shoulders of recurving ridge or looping ridge is known as part of looping or recurving

B. Free from appendage.

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When does a bifurcating ridge be considered as a type line?

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The Two Fingerprint Terminuses (Focal Points)

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Different ridge formation that can serve as a Delta

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3. The bifurcation can be selected as a Delta if open towards the core.

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Rules Governing The Selection of Core

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Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO):

Rules in Ridge Counting

a. Locate the exact

b. Count all the ridges

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Ridges Subject to Ridge Counting:

a. A ridge island or a dot

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Rules in Ridge Tracing

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Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO):

The three (3) Groups/Families of Fingerprint Patterns are:

This sub-division are the following:

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This fingerprint pattern can be This fingerprint pattern is

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