THE LITERATURE AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST

Literature had linguistic and social changes after the Norman Conquest; but the literary production of this period cannot be
called national. English, in fact, was not the only language spoken in the country, as two others were in use: French, which
was the language of the court and of the Norman nobles, and Latin, which was used by the clergy for the liturgy and for
literary purposes. English, on the other hand, was the language of the workers and servants who, in those days, could not
read and write.

It was in poetry that the linguistic changes operated by the Normans were most evident. The old metric system rich in
alliteration has been replaced by regular lines, with a precise number of syllables without final rhymes. In addition to the
new structure of the lines, the Normans also introduced a new way of looking at nature. The gloomy atmosphere of Anglo-
Saxon poetry was replaced by a brighter vision of life, evident above all in love stories and adventure stories imported from
France. Nature began to be looked at with different eyes, as a friend of man.

What were the metrical romances?

The metrical romances were tales in verse dealing whit love, chivalry and religion. They were modeled on the French
"Chansons de Geste that were short compositions celebrating the deeds of famous heroes. These romances were modeled
on English legends and heroes, such as King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The literary form of the poems was
still influenced by French. The characters were knights and ladies, and the novels were written for educated members of the
aristocracy.

What were the ballads?

The ballads were anonymous poem. Their characters were strictly popular, they were written by the people for the people.
They were oral transmitted from generation to generation. The language was very simple because unlettered authors made
them for illiterate audience. They were probably accompanied by music and dance. The ballads can be grouped in five
categories: love ballads and jealousy, religious ballads, ballads about supernatural events, ballads about outlaws, ballads
about the long rivalry between the British and the Scots. Their origin are indeterminate: they probably existed in the Anglo-
Saxon times but it was only during the Middle Age they appeared in written form. Lots of ballads have been produced all
over the centuries but they have preserved the same features: the story is simple and direct; the scenes are linked by a
device called incremental repetition, that’s the repetition of the same sentences. This repetition sometimes takes the form
of the so called oral testament. They are usually divided in four-line stanzas, the story line is usually dramatic; the narrative
often takes the form of question and answers. There are one or more climaxes; there is no moralism or other form of
comment.

Can you think of any modern composition, which can be compared to a ballad?

Yes, I can. Ballads from the Middle Ages right up to the present day. Nowadays the term ballad is applied to a short song
with a slow rhythm and romantic and sentimental content. So a song can be compared to a ballad an example can be
revolver written by the Beatles

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340-1400)

Chaucer was born in London, probably around 1340. The son of a wealthy wine merchant, he had the opportunity to get in
touch with the new merchant class. He met the Court of Edward III. He participated in the Hundred Years War, he was taken
prisoner by the French and then redeemed by King Edward III. Back to England, he returned to court service. He often
performed diplomatic missions and he also visited Italy, where he probably met Petrarch and Boccaccio and read many of
Dante's plays. He died in 1400 and was the first poet to be buried in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey

Chaucer is regarded as the father of English literature. His language became Standard English.

WORKS

Chaucer's literary production is usually divided into three periods:

First period (1359-1372) was influenced by the French Le Roman de la Rose, an unfinished translation of the French
allegorical poem and Book of the Duchess, an allegorical lament on the death of the first wife of John of Gaunt, belong to
this period.

Second period (1372-1386) under Italian and Latin influence

They belong to this period Troilus and Criseda, from Boccaccio's Filostrato and the Parliament of the Gauls, full of comic
spirit.

Third period also called the English period.the Canterbury tales belong to this period, but some of the tales introduced later
in the work had been written earlier.

THE CANTERBURY TALES

Chaucer created a new language, called “Middle English”, that was a mix among the three languages spoken at that time
(French in the court, Latin by the Clergy and the Old English by the people).

Another important element used by Chaucer when he wrote this work is the realism: all the stories tell about realistic
events.

“The Canterbury Tales” is very similar to the Decameron, because it’s a collection of tales held together by a framework. It is
a pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral, more precisely to Thomas Becket’s shrines, during the month of April (this is a realistic
condition, because April is the month most accredited to have long trips because it isn’t so hot but it isn’t also so cold).

Chaucer's numerous travels gave him the opportunity to meet many people including nobles, merchants, and poets.

When England had finally transformed into a united nation, he realized that his country was ready for a literature and
decided to write a work in English, which could be understood by anyone who read or listened to it.

His initial idea was to write a collection of short stories. Writing short stories was fashionable at the time.

However, Chaucer wrote this work for another purpose: he wanted to give a true portrait of England of his time. So when he
began his masterpiece (probably in 1387) he turned for inspiration to the many people he had met during his life. But he
needed a framework in which to place them and once again he probably remembered Boccaccio's Decameron, above all for
the idea of bringing more people together. This event, however, had to be typically English so the traditional annual
pilgrimage to Canterbury would surely be the best setting for his characters. He imagined that one day in April at the Tabard
in Southwark in London. Twenty-nine pilgrims met before setting out on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas à Becket in
Canterbury. Each pilgrim should tell two stories going to Canterbury and two coming back. Chaucer himself was invited to
join the company, as we learn from the opening lines of the poem.

THE PILGRIMS

The pilgrims belong to almost the social classes of the time and can be roughly divided into three main groups: a first group
still connected with the feudal word, as knights; a second group associated with the religious like as the prioress, the monk
and a third group including townspeople as merchant, lawyer, cook and students.

Even if there are at least two classes missing, the upper aristocracy and the needy. At the two ends of the social ladder there
are a knight and a plowman, and in between there are the middle class, the rising bourgeoisie.

Each pilgrims is described both as an individual and the prototype of the social class he belongs to.

THE TALES

After all the pilgrims have been introduced, Chaucer starts with the actual tales, of which there are only twenty-four ,and
three of which are incomplete, instead of the hundred and twenty.

They are all written in verse and in prose.

CHAUCER AND BOCCACCIO

Though apparently influenced by Boccaccio, Chaucer is very different from the Italian writer. In Boccaccio, in fact, all the
pilgrims belong to the same social class; Chaucer, instead, chose pilgrims from different social classes. Chaucer unlike
Boccaccio was more precise and tried a psychological study of his characters through a very detailed description of the
middle class of his time. But probably the most important different between Chaucer and Boccaccio is another. Chaucer was
a member of the group, pretending to go on the pilgrimage with the others.

In which language was The Canterbury Tales written?

The Canterbury tales was written in a new language, called “Middle English”, an early form of Modern English , that was a
mix among the three languages spoken at that time: the French spoken in the court, the Latin used by the Clergy and the Old
English spoken by the people.

What was Chaucer’s purpose in writing these tales?

Chaucer wanted to give a true portrait of England of his time. So when he began his masterpiece, probably in 1387, he
turned for inspiration the many people he had met during his life. The tales could be described both as  social realism and as
estates satire. he also aims to critique the hypocrisy of the church and the social problems posed by Medieval politics and
social custom

What is the typical English event he used as a frame for his work?

The typical English event that he used as a frame for his work was the traditional annual pilgrimage to Canterbury. He took
this idea for the background from Boccaccio's Decameron. This pilgrimage was very important for the Christians in the
Middle Age and the tales were set in April because it was the month of the resurrection.

How many pilgrims were there? In which social classes did they come from?

There were twenty-nine pilgrims. They should have to tell two stories going to Canterbury and two coming back. Chaucer
himself was a pilgrims, this is one of difference between Chaucer and Boccaccio. The pilgrims belonged to almost the social
classes of the time and they can be roughly divided into three main groups: a first group still connected with the feudal
world; a second group associated with the religious; and the third group including townspeople as merchants, lawyers,
cooks and students.

Why are the characters in The Canterbury Tales going on a pilgrimage to Canterbury?

Chaucer as narrator offers a few reasons for the journey to the Canterbury Cathedral, including that at least some of the
pilgrims attribute a recent healing to Saint Thomas Becket’s miraculous intervention. However, Pilgrims wanted to  prove
their devotion and their faith.

When and where did they meet before leaving for Canterbury?

Before leaving for the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, the pilgrims met in the Tabard Inn at Southward in London,
in a April day

Why do the characters tell stories in The Canterbury Tales? The characters in The Canterbury Tales tell stories to pass time
on their pilgrimage to Canterbury and to compete for a free supper. 

Why is Chaucer called the father of English poetry?

Geoffrey Chaucer is called the father of English literature because he was the first to write poems and stories in the language
of the common people of his time - medieval English. Chaucer has been known as the "father of English poetry,"  a model to
be imitated by English poets.

The Prioress

The Prioress is sweet, gentle, and kind. She is selfless, amiable. Described as modest and quiet, this Prioress (a nun who is
head of her convent) aspires to have exquisite taste. Her table manners are dainty, she knows French (though not the
French of the court), she dresses well, and she is charitable and compassionate.

The Prologue

In this poem he truly represented the comedy of life in its all forms. The Prologue to The Canterbury Tales gives us the
background of the actions and movements of the pilgrims who make up the. All these pilgrims represent the whole of
“English society” of the fourteenth century. The pilgrims are persons of all ranks and classes of society; and in the inimitable
description of their manners, dresses, person, horses etc, with which the poet has introduced them, we behold a vast and
minute portrait gallery of the social state of England in the fourteenth century. In the General Prologue, the narrator speaks
in the first person, describing each of the pilgrims as they appeared to him. Though narrated by different pilgrims, each of
the tales is told from an omniscient third-person point of view, providing the reader with the thoughts as well as actions of
the characters.

Chaucer’s Irony
Irony is a vitally important part of The Canterbury Tales, and Chaucer uses it as a literary device. When Chaucer reports
pilgrims he tells us ironically what he sees or what he thinks about. This can be seen in his presentation of the Prioress. For
example in the prioress, her dress and her fashionable manners are also ironically described.

Who are the protagonists of the Canterbury Tales?

The protagonists of The Canterbury Tale are the pilgrims. The pilgrims belong to the social classes of the time and can be
roughly divided into three main groups: a first group still connected with the feudal word, as knights; a second group
associated with the religious as the prioress, the monk and a third group including townspeople as merchant, lawyer, cook
and students. The upper aristocracy and the needy miss.

Where do they meet and where are they going?

They go to the shine of Thomas a Becket to Canterbury. Twenty-nine pilgrims meet in one day in April at the Tabard in
Southwark in London. Each pilgrim should tell two stories going to Canterbury and two coming back. Chaucer himself is
invited to join the company, as we learn from the opening lines of the poem.

What kind of work is the Canterbury Tales?

The Canterbury Tales is a narrative poem. The majority of The Canterbury Tales is written in verse. Chaucer wrote his verse
with lines that contain ten syllables and often had rhyming pairs of lines called couplets.

How is it organized?

He lays out his plan: each of the pilgrims will tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way back. the
Host decides the most meaningful and comforting stories will receive a meal paid for by the rest of the pilgrims upon their
return

What is Chaucer’s function in the story?

The role of Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales is extremely important. He gives us an accurate description of the characters
without prejudice. He gives all the details of each in the prologue. Chaucer is also a character in the history.

What is the pilgrimage an allegory of?

The Canterbury Tales can be considered an allegory for the journey from Earth to heaven. The pilgrims meet in the tavern,
they journey together, discussing various stories and characters. Their journey together can be considered as life itself.
Canterbury, their destination, is an allegory for heaven.

In what sense can The Canterbury Tales be regarded as a portrait of English medieval society?

Its vivid portrayal of a diverse group of pilgrims reveals much about the composition and values of society in late medieval
England. It shows us dynamics of social power, an economy in flux, and diverse expressions of faith and doubt within late
medieval Christianity.

What is its new factor?

The new factor in the Canterbury Tales is individualism: the character exists because he/she has reactions and in his
movement

What is the different between Chaucer and Boccaccio?

Though apparently influenced by Boccaccio, Chaucer is very different from the Italian writer. In Boccaccio, in fact, all the
pilgrims belonged to the same social class; Chaucer, instead, chose pilgrims from different social classes. Chaucer unlike
Boccaccio was more precise and tried a psychological study of his characters through a very detailed description of the
middle class of his time. But probably the most important different between Chaucer and Boccaccio is another. Chaucer was
a member of the group, in fact he went on the pilgrimage with the others.

How was Chaucer influenced by Dante?

Chaucer was deeply influenced by Dante's Divina Commedia (Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso). Dante portrays himself as a
pilgrim who will be led by various guides on a vivid journey through Hell and Purgatory towards a final beatific vision of God.

What do Dante and Chaucer have in common?

Both Dante and Chaucer's works have lots in common: the two authors wrote about a journey,the medieval tradition of
pilgrimage; the two journeys stars in April, the two authors describe people they met there, moreover they put themselves
into their works as pilgrims.