2.

STANDARDS, CODES, AND REGULATIONS

John F. Duntemann, P.E., S.E.

2.1. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS, CODES, AND

REGULATIONS
Numerous standards, codes, and regulations provide guidance for construction in the United States. These publications
include national standards, design codes and specifications, model building codes, and state and local codes. Many of the
existing standards were developed for permanent construction, and few are specifically written to address temporary
structures in construction.

With the exception of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations, as well as related state and local
safety regulations, most standards for temporary structures in construction are voluntary. These voluntary standards, or
guidelines, are generally produced by a consensus procedure through organizations such as the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), the American Concrete Institute (ACI), and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). In some cases,
provisions of voluntary standards are adopted either in part or as a whole by regulatory agencies, thereby becoming
mandatory standards. Many of the ANSI standards, for instance, have been incorporated into the OSHA regulations.

The objective of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with the available national codes, standards, and guidelines, and
discuss their applicability to temporary structures in construction.

2.2. NATIONAL STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, AND CODES

2.2.1. National Standards
For the purpose of this discussion, national standards are defined as standards developed by national organizations or
organizations representing a wide variety of regional interests. Included in this group are the American National Standards
Institute and the American Society of Civil Engineers. There are also several design codes, such as the American Concrete
Institute's Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-08), the American Institute of Steel
Construction's Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges, and the American Forest & Paper Association's
National Design Specification for Wood Construction, that are subject-specific and nationally recognized.1–3 Many of these
documents are developed and written in a form that allows them to be adopted by reference in a general building code. For
example, the introduction to ACI 318-08 notes the following:

The code has no legal status unless it is adopted by government bodies having the police power to regulate building
design and construction. Where the code has not been adopted, it may serve as a reference to good practice even
though it has no legal status.

Similarly, the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges states that:

In the absence of specific instructions to the contrary in the Contract Documents, the trade practices that are defined in
this Code shall govern the fabrication and erection of Structural Steel.

American National Standard for Construction and Demolition Operations, ANSI A10.  In 1931, the American Standards
Association (ASA), which is now known as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Committee on Standards for

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Safety in the Construction Industry, issued the American Safety Code for Building Construction. Since then, it has been updated
as a series of standards known as American National Standard for Construction and Demolition Operations, ANSI A10. The
topics addressed by ANSI A10 include the following.4–6

ANSI Standard A10.8—Scaffolding covers a broad range of scaffold types, including general requirements and provisions
for platforms, tube and coupler scaffolds, and fabricated tubular frame scaffolds commonly used for construction access.

ANSI Standard A10.9—Concrete and Masonry Work contains sections on concrete placement, vertical shoring, formwork,
prestressed concrete, precast concrete, lift slab operations, and masonry construction. General guidelines in regard to
construction means and methods are discussed. Minimum design loads and safety factors are also specified.

ANSI Standard A10.13—Steel Erection contains general guidelines on temporary flooring, bolting and "fit-up," building and
bridge erection, dismantling, mill work, and working over water. Like the other ANSI standards, ANSI A10.13 tends to be
relatively prescriptive and cross-references a variety of related standards.

At present, there are 46 existing or proposed standards under development in the A10 series for safety requirements in
construction and demolition operations. A list of the A10 series can be found in the foreword of most of these standards.

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-10.  A report of the Department of Commerce Building
Code Committee, entitled "Minimum Live Loads Allowable for Use in Design of Buildings," was published by the National
Bureau of Standards in 1924. The recommendations contained in that document were widely used in revision of local building
codes. These recommendations, based upon the engineering data available at that time, represented the collective experience
and judgment of the committee responsible for drafting this document.

The ASA Committee on Building Code Requirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings subsequently issued a report in
1945 that represented a continuation of work in this field. This committee took into consideration the work of the previous
committee and expanded on it to reflect current knowledge and experience. The end result was American Standard Building
Code Requirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, A58.1-1945.

The A58.1 standard has been revised nine times since 1945, the latest revision corresponding to ASCE 7-10,Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.7 Subsequent to the 1982 edition of ANSI A 58.1, the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) and the ASCE Board of Direction approved ASCE rules for the standards committee to govern the writing and
maintenance of the ANSI A58.1 standard. The current document prescribes load combinations, dead loads, live loads, soil and
hydrostatic pressures, wind loads, snow loads, rain loads, and earthquake loads. Like earlier editions of the ANSI standard,
ASCE 7 has significantly influenced the development and revision of other building codes.

Design Loads on Structures During Construction, SEI/ASCE 37-02.  In 2002, ASCE published the SEI/ASCE 37-02, Design
Loads on Structures During Construction. 8 (At the time of this writing, ASCE 37 is in balloting for the next edition intended for
publication in 2012. Since balloting is not complete, there might be some differences between content described herein and
content in the final version of ASCE 37-12.)

The objective of the standard is to establish performance criteria, design loads, load combinations, and safety factors to be
used in the analysis and design of structures during their transient stages of construction as well as temporary structures
used in construction operations. The standard is composed of six sections corresponding to a general introduction identifying
the purpose and scope of the document, loads and load combinations, dead and live loads, construction loads, lateral earth
pressures, and environmental loads.

The construction loads, load combinations, and load factors were developed to account for the relatively short duration of
load, variability of loading, variation in material strength, and the recognition that many elements of the completed structure
that are relied upon implicitly to provide strength, stiffness, stability, or continuity are not present during construction. The
load factors are based on a combination of probabilistic analysis and expert opinion. The concept of using maximum and
arbitrary point-in-time (APT) loads and corresponding load factors is adopted to be consistent with ASCE 7.

The basic reference for the computation of environmental loads is also ASCE 7. However, modification factors have been

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adopted to account for reduced exposure periods. Furthermore, certain loads may be disregarded due to the relatively short
reference period associated with typical construction projects, and certain loads in combinations may effectively be ignored
because of the practice of shutting down job sites during these events, for example, excessive snow and wind.

2.2.2. Design Codes and Specifications

While many of the national design codes can also be applied to temporary structures in construction, specific commentary on
design criteria and construction methods is limited. Some notable exceptions, however, are the AISC Specification for Design,
Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges, the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide Design Specifications for Bridge
Temporary Works, and the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications. 9–11 The latter two publications are undergoing
revisions at the time of this writing and will be republished in 2013.

AISC Specifications and Code of Standard Practice.  As evident by the title, the AISC Specification for Design, Fabrication
and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings applies to both temporary and permanent construction. As in earlier editions,
many of the general provisions, such as stability and slenderness, are also applicable to temporary structures. The
specifications also contain a section "Fabrication, Erection and Quality Control," designated Chapter M.

The practices defined in the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges have been adopted by the AISC as
the commonly accepted standards of the structural steel fabricating industry. In the absence of other instructions in the
contract documents, the trade practices defined in this code govern the fabrication and erection of structural steel. Specific
sections related to temporary structures in construction include Section 6, "Shop Fabrication and Delivery," and Section 7,
"Erection." Basic fabrication tolerances are stipulated in Section 6.4 of the code.

The erection tolerances defined in Section 7.13 of the code have been developed through long-standing usage as practical
criteria for the erection of structural steel. The current requirements were first published in the October 1, 1972, edition of the
code. The basic premise that the final accuracy of location of any specific point in a structural steel frame results from the
combined mill, fabrication, and erection tolerances, rather than from erection tolerances alone, remains unchanged.

Section 7.10 of the code, entitled Temporary Support of Structural Steel Frames, presents some basic guidelines on temporary
support. Temporary supports, such as guys, braces, falsework, cribbing, or other elements required for erection, are specified
to be determined, furnished, and installed by the erector.

AASHTO Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works.  The AASHTO Guide Design Specifications for Bridge
Temporary Works was developed for use by state agencies to update their existing standard specifications for falsework,
formwork, and related temporary structures and was first published in 1995. The Guide Design Specifications provides unified
design criteria that reflect the state of practice at the time the specifications were developed. The specifications were
prepared in a format similar to the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.

In this document, "falsework" is defined as temporary construction used to support the permanent structure until it becomes
self-supporting. "Shoring" is generally considered a component of falsework, such as horizontal or vertical support members,
but often used interchangeably with falsework. "Formwork" is a temporary structure or mold used to retain plastic or fluid
concrete in its designated shape until it hardens. "Temporary retaining structures" are both earth-retaining structures and
cofferdams.

The Guide Specifications contains four sections: Introduction, Falsework, Formwork, and Temporary Retaining Structures. A
brief description of the falsework, formwork, and temporary retaining structures sections is as follows:

Falsework.  The falsework provisions include four general topics: materials, loads, design considerations, and
construction. Allowable stress provisions for steel and timber, as well as modification factors for salvaged (used) materials,
are identified. Safety factors and limitations of manufactured (proprietary) components are also as specified. Four general
load categories including environmental loads are defined. The basic reference for computation of wind load is the Uniform
12

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Building Code. 12 General design topics such as load combinations, stability against overturning, traffic openings, and
foundations are addressed. Presumptive soil-bearing values are also provided. Construction topics include foundation
protection; erection tolerances; and clearances of traffic openings, adjustment methods, and removal.

The specification is supplemented with commentary and appendices, which include design values for ungraded structural
lumber, provisions for steel beam webs and flanges under concentrated forces, design wind pressure from selected model
codes, and foundation investigation and design.

Formwork.  ACI 347-88 along with ACI SP-4, Formwork for Concrete, served as the principal reference documents for this
section.13,14 Formwork includes materials, loads, and construction. Requirements for sheathing, form accessories,
prefabricated formwork, and stay-in-place formwork are specified, as are minimum vertical and horizontal loads. The ACI
equations for lateral pressure of fluid concrete are adopted, and the limitations of these equations are discussed in the
commentary. Construction topics such as form removal, placement of construction joints, and tolerances are also discussed.

Temporary Retaining Structures.  Although developed primarily to address earth-retaining systems more common to bridge
construction, this section also applies to temporary cofferdams. General requirements and types of excavation support are
identified. Federal standards of OSHA and other regulations are referenced.15 Empirical methods for determining design
lateral pressures in various soils and their limitations are identified. The simplified earth pressure distributions presented in
the AASHTO 1991 Interim Specifications for Highway Bridges are adopted.16

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications.  In 1991, the AASHTO Interim Specifications contained a newly created
section entitled "Temporary Works," which included subsections on falsework and forms, cofferdams and shoring, temporary
water controls systems, and temporary bridges. This section was developed, in part, to update Division II and consolidate
information found in other parts of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. The section on falsework and
forms includes design criteria as well as guidelines for removal of these temporary structures. The other sections tend to be
more general in content.

With the adoption of the AASTHO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications in 1998, AASHTO moved the Division II—
Construction provisions that appeared in the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridge Structures to the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Construction Specifications. Further discussion regarding the evolution of these specifications can be found in NCHRP
Research Results Digest No. 198 available from the Transportation Research Board.17

The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications consists of 32 sections. Section 3—"Temporary Works" references the
documents that were developed by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Bridge Temporary Works Research Program
including the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works and the Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary
Works. 18,19 This section includes general requirements regarding working drawings, design and removal and specific
requirements regarding falsework and forms, cofferdams and shoring, temporary water control systems, temporary bridges
and measurement and payment. The section on falsework and forms contains similar provisions to the construction
provisions found in the Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works.

The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications requires that the design of temporary works be in accordance with the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications or the Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works unless another
recognized specification is accepted by the engineer (presumably the state bridge engineer or governing authority). The
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications notes that the design of access scaffolding is subject to the OSHA
regulations. The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications also requires the working drawings for falsework to be
prepared and sealed by a registered professional engineer when the height of the falsework exceeds 14 ft. The specifications
require the design of formwork to conform with ACI 347-04, "Guide to Formwork for Concrete."20

2.2.3. State and Local Codes

Until recently, most local building codes in the United States were patterned after the so-called model building codes, which

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included the National Building Code by the Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA), the Uniform Building Code by the
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and the Southern Standard Building Code by the Southern Building Code
Congress (SBCC).21,22

In 2000, the International Code Council (ICC) published the first edition of the International Building Code. 23 This code was the
culmination of an effort initiated in 1997 by the ICC that included five drafting subcommittees appointed by the ICC and
consisted of representatives of BOCA, ICBO, and SBCC. The intent was to draft a comprehensive set of regulations for building
systems consistent with the existing model codes. The technical content of the latest model codes promulgated by BOCA,
ICBO, and SBCC was utilized as the basis for the development. The 2006 edition presents the code as originally issued, with
changes approved through 2005. A new edition of the code is produced every 3 years.

With the development and publication of the International Building Code in 2000, the continued development and maintenance
of the model codes individually promulgated by BOCA, ICBO, and SBCC was discontinued. The 2000 International Building
Code, and subsequent editions of the code, was intended to be the successor building code to those codes previously
developed by BOCA, ICBO, and SBCC.

Discussion related to construction safety and temporary construction in these model codes is generally minimal or
nonexistent. The model codes, however, adopt many of the national design standards developed by organizations such as the
American Concrete Institute (ACI), the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), and the National Forest Products
Association (NFPA), all of which have application to temporary structures. The model codes also adopt by reference many of
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards as the recognized test procedures to ensure construction
quality.

2.2.4. Related Foreign Standards

Several countries, such as Canada and Britain, have comprehensive national standards that address the more common
temporary structures used in construction, such as falsework and scaffolding. These standards serve as good reference
documents and are briefly discussed herein.

Canada.  In 1975, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) published a national standard entitled Falsework for
Construction Purposes, designated CSA Standard S269.1-1975.24 This standard provides rules and requirements for design,
fabrication, erection, inspection, testing, and maintenance of falsework. The falsework standard was prepared by the
Technical Committee on Scaffolding for Construction Purposes and is one of the first national standards developed on this
subject. CSA Standard S269.1-1975 was reaffirmed in 2003. 25

CSA Standard S269.1-1975 R2003 adopts the National Building Code of Canada and existing CSA Standards by reference.
Materials that cannot be identified as complying with specified standards are not allowed for falsework construction.

In addition to material and design standards, CSA S269.1-1975 R2003 specifies design loads and forces, analysis and design
methods, erection procedures, and test procedures for steel shoring systems and components. Vertical loads are generally
prescribed in terms of a uniformly distributed load. Loads due to special conditions such as impact, asymmetrical placement
of concrete, and overpressures due to pneumatic pumping are discussed but not quantified. Horizontal loads are specified as
either the lateral wind force found in the National Building Code of Canada, or 2 percent of the total vertical load, whichever is
greater. Design capacity is determined by existing CSA design codes or, where proprietary components are used, based upon
test results with prescribed factor(s) of safety. Additional requirements for tubular scaffold frames and wood falsework are
specified.

Tolerances for vertical load-carrying members are also specified, and general inspection guidelines are discussed and
illustrated. Test procedures and safety factors for welded tubular frame scaffolding, tube and coupler scaffolding and
components, vertical shores, and horizontal shores are prescribed.

Great Britain.  The British Code of Practice for Falsework (BS 5975) was originally published in 1982 and is similar in format

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to the Canadian falsework standard in that the content is organized under the general headings of procedures, materials and
components, loads, foundations and ground conditions, design, and construction. 26 However, it also contains a considerable
amount of in-depth commentary and several detailed appendices, which include properties of components in tube and coupler
falsework, design of steel beams at points of reaction or concentrated load, effective lengths of steel members in
compression, and so forth. The most recent edition of BS 5975 was published in 2008.27

One of the unique features of the British code is the distinction made between maximum wind force during the life of the
falsework, which represents an extreme condition, and a maximum allowable wind force during construction operations.
Forces from both of these conditions are used to check the stability of the falsework at appropriate stages of construction.

The British Code of Practice for Falsework is relatively complete with respect to foundations and ground conditions for
temporary works. Pile foundations are addressed in a separate British standard on foundations. BS 5975 includes allowable
bearing pressures for a wide range of rock and soil types. The British Code of Practice includes modification factors which—
depending upon the reliability of site information, magnitude of anticipated settlement, and fluctuations in groundwater level—
are applied to the prescribed bearing pressure. The code also contains some specific guidelines for the protection of
foundation areas.

In addition to the Code of Practice for Falsework, the British Standards Institute publishes BS 5973 Code of Practice for Access
and Working Scaffolds and Special Scaffold Structures in Steel and BS1139 Metal Scaffolding.28,29 Although the latter
standards are primarily descriptive in terms of materials and tolerances, they also provide guidance on bracing arrangements,
effective lengths, joint eccentricity, and allowable loads for couplers and fittings.

2.3. OSHA AND STATE REGULATIONS

The regulations most profoundly affecting temporary structures in construction are those of the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 was enacted
to provide a safe workplace and requires employers to provide a job environment that is free from hazards that can cause
serious physical harm or death. The OSHA act applies to virtually all employers, but specifically to those engaged in
construction and commerce. Failure to meet standards or comply with the provisions of the act can subject the contractor to
substantial civil penalties. Moreover, willful disobedience can subject a contractor to criminal penalties.

The inspection and enforcement of OSHA regulations is performed by regional offices. OSHA inspectors are generally allowed
to enter any construction site at reasonable times and without undue delay. An OSHA inspector who is refused admission can
obtain a search warrant. Inspections can also be initiated by accidents, collapses, or employee complaints. In addition to
federal OSHA, compliance checks of construction sites are often made by state or local agencies, most insurance carriers,
and some private consultants.

Although most states administer their own occupational safety and health programs, they generally adopt the federal OSHA
regulation or similar requirements. Because three sets of regulations may apply at the federal, state, and local levels,
contractors are advised to follow the strictest requirement when the codes merely supplement each other. When there is a
direct conflict between state, federal, or city regulation, the federal code should take precedence, followed by the state and
finally the municipal regulations.

OSHA Regulation 29CFR, Part 1926, defines mandatory requirements to protect employees from the hazards of construction
operations. Part 1926 has 30 subparts, or subdivisions, which include Subpart L—Scaffolding, Subpart P—Excavations, Subpart
Q—Concrete and Masonry Construction, Subpart R—Steel Erection, and Subpart S—Underground Construction, Caissons,
Cofferdams and Compressed Air. Some of the more relevant OSHA regulations to temporary structures in construction are as
follows:

Subpart L—Scaffolding.  The OSHA regulations are patterned after ANSI A10.8—Scaffolding, and organized into general
and type-specific provisions. The general provisions apply to scaffolding systems of all types, while the type-specific

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provisions can vary depending upon the particular type of scaffolding.

OSHA adopts the light-, medium-, and heavy-duty definitions found in ANSI A10.8, and described as follows:

Light duty: Scaffold design for a 25 lb/ft2 maximum working load to support workers and tools only. Equipment or material
storage on the platform is not allowed.

Medium duty: Scaffold designed for a 50 lb/ft2 maximum working load for workers and material, often intended for
bricklayers' and plasterers' work.

Heavy duty: Scaffold designed for a 75 lb/ft2 maximum working load for workers and material storage, often intended for
stone masonry work.

Similar load ratings are presented for platform units, such as wood scaffold planks, scaffold decks, and fabricated planks and
platforms. Specific provisions are presented for the wide variety of scaffold types, including the tube and coupler; fabricated
tubular frame; and suspended, bracket, and form scaffolds common on most construction sites.

Subpart P—Excavations.  This subpart applies to all open excavations including trenches, which are defined as narrow
excavations where the depth is greater than the width and the width is not greater than 15 ft. Section 1926.652 prescribes the
requirements for protection systems. Specific topics include protection of employees in excavations; design of sloping and
benching systems; design of support systems, shield systems, and other protective systems; materials and equipment;
installation of removal and support; sloping and benching systems; and shield systems. For excavations greater than 20 ft in
depth, OSHA requires the protective system be designed by a registered professional engineer.

Subpart Q—Concrete and Masonry Construction.  Subpart Q contains requirements for cast-in-place concrete, precast
concrete, lift-slab construction operations, and masonry construction. The provisions of ANSI Standard 10.9-1983 are non-
mandatory guidelines referenced in an appendix to Section 1926.703, Requirements for Cast-in-Place Concrete. Similarly, App.
A to Subpart Q lists a variety of related ACI, ANSI, and ASTM standards, including Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-83), "Guide to Formwork for Concrete" (ACI 347-78), and Formwork for Concrete (ACI SP-
4). The documents in App. A are also identified as non-mandatory references and do not necessarily reflect their most recent
editions.

2.4. RECOMMENDED PRACTICE AND GUIDELINES

Perhaps some of the best sources of information related to the design, erection, and construction of temporary structures can
be found in the publications produced by various industry groups. Several of these groups have already been identified in this
chapter. Others include the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), the American Institute of Timber Construction
(AITC), the Truss Plate Institute (TPI), and the Scaffolding, and Shoring and Forming Institute (SSFI). Private industry groups,
such as U.S. Steel Corporation, also produce related publications. In addition, there are several federal and state
organizations, such as the FHWA, AASHTO, the Department of Commerce, and the Army and the Navy that publish some
noteworthy manuals. A selective list of these publications is as follows: ACI 347-04 "Guide to Formwork for Concrete," ACI
Publication SP-4, Formwork for Concrete, the PCI Design Handbook, PCI Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast
Concrete, AITC Timber Construction Manual, TPI Commentary and Recommendations for Handling and Erecting Wood Trusses,
the Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual by U.S. Steel Corporation, the California Falsework Manual, and the AASHTO Construction
Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works.30–37

ACI 347-04 "Guide to Formwork for Concrete" is the basic source document for many other codes and standards and has been
adopted in its entirety as an ANSI standard. The standard describes various design and construction considerations, and
includes special guidelines for shoring and reshoring multistory structures, slipforming, and bridge construction. ACI
Publication SP-4, Formwork for Concrete, serves as a commentary to ACI 347-04, and includes design aids and illustrative
examples and figures. Although ACI 318-08 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary includes

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some general provisions for design of formwork and removal of forms and shores, it references ACI 347-04 in the
Commentary.

The PCI Design Handbook contains several chapters, addressing general topics such as product information, analysis and
design of precast prestressed concrete structures, design of components, and design of connections. Also included are
chapters on product handling, erection bracing, and tolerances. The section on erection bracing discusses recommended
loads used for erection design, suggested factors of safety, bracing equipment and related materials, and erection analysis
and sequencing. This particular chapter is a unique and comprehensive treatise on erection procedures. PCI also publishes
another related document, entitled Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast Concrete. This document is more
comprehensive than the passages found in the PCI Design Handbook and is well illustrated.

The AITC Timber Construction Manual is principally a design manual, applicable to a wide variety of temporary structures.
Related documents include AITC 104—Typical Construction Details, AITC 108—Standard for Heavy Timber Construction, and
AITC 112—Standard for Tongue-and-Groove Heavy Timber Roof Decking.

The Truss Plate Institute publishes two very good guidelines related to wood truss construction, entitledGuide to Good
Practice for Handling, Installing, Restraining & Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses and Bracing Wood Trusses:
Commentary and Recommendations.

The Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual was prepared by U.S. Steel Corporation to be used by engineering design professionals
to design steel sheet pile-retaining structures. Emphasis is placed on step-by-step procedures for estimating the external
forces on the structure, evaluating the overall stability, and sizing the sheet piling and other structural elements. Three basic
types of sheet pile structures are considered: (1) cantilevered and anchored retaining walls, (2) braced cofferdams, and (3)
cellular cofferdams. Consideration is also given to the design of anchorage systems for walls and bracing systems for
cofferdams. Graphs and tables are included as design aids.

The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Falsework Manual is one of the more authoritative documents written
on the subject of falsework used in bridge construction. The first edition of the Falsework Manual was published in 1977 to fill
a long-recognized need for a comprehensive design and construction manual devoted to bridge falsework. Topics include
design considerations and stability. The Falsework Manual also includes some specific guidelines and design procedures for
pile foundations. The majority of the discussion on pile foundations relates to timber pile bents and an empirical method of
analysis based on a modified combined stress equation. The derivation of the equation is described in detail and is based
upon field testing and analytical studies. General guidelines with respect to required penetration, point-of-fixity, and soil
relaxation are also discussed.

The AASHTO Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works was developed for use by contractors and construction
engineers involved in bridge construction on federal highway projects. This document supplements information found in the
Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works. The content is construction-oriented, focusing primarily on standards
of material quality and means and methods. The handbook contains chapters on falsework, formwork, and temporary
retaining structures.

Chapter 2, "Falsework" identifies material standards, the assessment and protection of foundations, construction-related
topics, loading considerations, and inspection guidelines. Methods for in situ testing of foundations are identified. General
guidelines regarding timber construction, proprietary shoring systems, cable bracing, bridge deck falsework, and traffic
openings are also discussed.

Chapter 3, "Formwork" identifies and describes the various components and formwork types commonly used in bridge
construction. Information on load considerations and design nomographs is provided. General guidelines relating to formwork
construction and form maintenance are also discussed.

Chapter 4, "Temporary Retaining Structures" focuses primarily on cofferdams and their application to bridge construction. As
indicated by the chapter title, however, general topics relating to a wide range of temporary retaining structures are also
addressed. Specific topics include classification of construction types, relative costs, sealing and buoyance control, seepage

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control, and protection. The construction of timber sheet pile cofferdams, soldier pile and wood lagging cofferdams, and steel
sheet piles cofferdams is reviewed. Methods of internal bracing and soil and rock anchorage are also discussed.

While the publications identified in this chapter are some of the more widely distributed documents, this information by no
means represents the full extent of available literature on the subject of temporary structures in construction. Other related
publications and guidelines are identified in a bibliography at the end of this chapter. Some of these publications are
referenced and further discussed in subsequent chapters.

2.5. REFERENCES
2.5.1. National Standards and Codes
1. ACI Committee 318: Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-08), American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Mich., 2008.

2. American Institute of Steel Construction: Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges (AISC 303-10),
Chicago, Ill., 2010.

3. American Forest & Paper Association: ANSI/AF&PA NDS-2005 National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction,
American Wood Council, Leesburg, Va., 2005.

4. American National Standards Institute: Safety Requirements for Scaffolding (ANSI/ASSE A10.8-2001) New York, 2001.
(Withdrawn, for historical purposes only.)

5. American National Standards Institute: American National Standard for Construction and Demolition Operations: Concrete
and Masonry Work—Safety Requirements (ANSI A10.9-1997 R2004), New York, 2004.

6. American National Standards Institute: Safety Requirements for Steel Erection (ANSI/ASSE A10.13-2011), American
National Standards Institute, New York, 2011.

7. American Society of Civil Engineers: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-10), New York,
2010.

8. ASCE Standards Committee: Design Loads on Structures During Construction (ASCE 37-02), American Society of Civil
Engineers, Reston, Va., 2002.

9. American Institute of Steel Construction: Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 365-05), Chicago, Ill.,
2005.

10. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary
Works, Washington, D.C., 1995, p. 89.

11. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications,
2d ed., Washington, D.C., 2004.

12. International Conference of Building Officials: Uniform Building Code, 1991 ed., Whittier, Calif., 1991.

13. American Concrete Institute: "Guide to Formwork for Concrete (ACI 347R-88)," ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2,
Detroit, Mich., 1990.

14. Hurd, M. K and ACI Committee 347: Formwork for Concrete (SP-4), 5th ed., American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Mich.,
1989.

15. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Safety and Health Standards, CFR Part 1926—Safety and Health
Regulations for Construction, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 2011.

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 16. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: Interim Specifications for Highway Bridges,
Washington, D.C., 1991.

17. Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, "Development of Comprehensive
Bridge Specifications and Commentary." NCHRP Research Results Digest, no. 198, Washington D.C., May 1998.

18. Duntemann, J. F., L. E. Dunn, S. Gill, R. G. Lukas, and M. D. Kaler: Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary
Works, FHWA Report No. FHWA-RD-93-032, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., November 1993, p. 87.

19. Duntemann, J. D, F. Calabrese, and S. Gill: Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works, Report FHWA-RD-93-
034, FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation, November 1993.

20. ACI Committee 347: "Guide to Formwork for Concrete (ACI 347-04)," ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 3, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Mich., 2011.

21. Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc.: The BOCA National Building Code/1999, Country Club
Hills, Ill., 1999.

22. Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc.: Standard Building Code, Birmingham, Ala., 1999.

23. International Building Code, International Code Council, Country Club Hills, Ill., 2000.

24. Canadian Standards Association: Falsework for Construction Purposes (CSA Standard S269.1-1975), Rexdale, Ontario,
Canada, 1975.

25. Canadian Standards Association: Falsework for Construction Purposes (CSA Standard S269.1-1975 R2003), Rexdale,
Ontario, Canada, 1975 (Reaffirmed 2003).

26. British Standards Institution: Code of Practice for Falsework (BS 5975:1982), London, England, 1982.

27. British Standards Institution: Code of Practice for Falsework (BS 5975:2008), London, England, 2008.

28. Code of Practice for Access and Working Scaffolds and Special Scaffold Structures in Steel, BS 5973. London, England:
British Standards Institution, 1993.

29. Metal Scaffolding, BS1139-2.2:2009. London, England: British Standards Institute, 2009.

2.5.2. Recommended Practice and Guidelines

30. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute: PCI Design Handbook, 7th ed., Chicago, Ill., 2010.

31. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute: Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast Concrete, Chicago, Ill., 1985.

32. American Institute of Timber Construction: Timber Construction Manual, 5th ed., Wiley, New York, 2005.

33. WTCA and Truss Plate Institute: Guide to Good Practice for Handling, Installing, Restraining & Bracing of Metal Plate
Connected Wood Trusses, WTCA, Madison, Wisc., 2008.

34. WTCA and Truss Plate Institute: Bracing Wood Trusses: Commentary and Recommendations, WTCA, Madison, Wisc.,
2008.

35. U.S. Steel Corporation: Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1984.

36. California Department of Transportation: California Falsework Manual, Rev. 35, Division of Structures, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, Calif., 2010.

37. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary
Works, 1st ed., with 2008 Interim Revisions, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, D.C., 1995.

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2.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., and National Steel Bridge Alliance,
Chicago, Steel Bridge Fabrication Guide Specification, S2.1-2002.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: Guidelines for Design for Constructability, Washington,
D.C., 2003.

American Plywood Association: Concrete Forming, Form C345P, American Plywood Association, Tacoma, Wash., 1988.

American Plywood Association: Concrete Forming, Form No. V345U, Tacoma, Wash., 2004.

California Department of Transportation: Trenching and Shoring Manual, Division of Structures, California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, Calif., 1977.

Dayton-Superior Corporation: Bridge Deck Forming Handbook, Miamisburg, Ohio, 1985 (Rev. 6-88A).

Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command: Foundations and Earth Structures, NAVFAC DM-7,
Alexandria, Va., May 1982.

Goldberg, D. T., W. E. Jaworski, and M. D. Gordon: Lateral Support Systems and Underpinning Vols. I, II, III, Federal Highway
Administration Report FHWA-RD-75-128, 129, 130, Washington, D.C., 1976.

Harris, F.: Ground Engineering Equipment and Methods, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.

National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Steel Bridge Erection Practices NCHRP Synthesis 345, Washington, D.C.,
2005.

Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn: Foundation Engineering, 2d ed., Wiley, New York, 1974.

Peurifoy, R. L.: Formwork for Concrete Structures, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976.

Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc.: Guidelines for Safety Requirements for Shoring Concrete Formwork,
Publication SH306, Cleveland, Ohio, 1990.

Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc.: Recommended Procedure for Compression Testing of Welded Frame
Scaffolds and Shoring Equipment, Publication S102, Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, 1989.

Tomlinson, M. J.: Foundation Design and Construction, 3d ed., Wiley, New York, 1975.

Yokel, F. Y.: NBS Building Science Series 127—Recommended Technical Provisions for Construction Practice in Shoring
and Sloping of Trenches and Excavations, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., June 1980.

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