3.

Extreme Wind Events, Hurricanes, and Tornadoes

3.1. Overview of Hurricanes
Hurricanes are generally tropical storms of certain strength. When the wind speeds in a tropical storm reach or exceed 74 mph
(119 km/h), the storm is classified as a hurricane. The main characteristic of a hurricane is that it is a mass of rotating winds
of high velocity, with the warm air rising near the center and the cool air sinking on the outer edge. These types of storms are
called hurricanes in the Atlantic, Central Pacific, and Eastern Pacific regions. They are referred to as typhoons in the other
Pacific and Indian Ocean areas where the term cyclones is also used sometimes. Hurricane winds blow counterclockwise in
the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Figure 3.1 shows a satellite photo of a hurricane
(Hurricane Isabel in the Atlantic Ocean). Hurricanes are generally accompanied by heavy rains, often leading to flooding and
water damage in addition to wind damage.

Figure 3.1 Satellite photograph of Hurricane Isabel in east of the Bahamas, Atlantic Ocean,
September 12, 2003. The hurricane made landfall in North Carolina on September 18 as a Category
2 storm. (Photo courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of
Commerce; website at www.noaa.gov.)

The overall age of a hurricane can vary from a few hours to a couple of weeks or more. Generally, hurricanes start as an area of
low pressure called a tropical disturbance. If the conditions are suitable for the disturbance to grow, then wind speeds increase
and the path becomes more defined, and the storm becomes a "tropical depression." At 39 mph (63 km/h), it is classified as a
tropical storm.

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The period from June 1 to November 30 is generally considered as the Atlantic hurricane season. Most hurricanes occur in the
months of August, September, and October in this region.

3.2. Regions of Occurrence of Hurricanes

Hurricanes generally occur in the southern portion of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of
Mexico. They also take place in the southwest portion of the North Pacific Ocean, the North Pacific Ocean by the coast of
Mexico, various parts of the Indian Ocean, in the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and the South Indian Ocean, northwest of
Australia and from Madagascar eastward and some areas of the South Pacific Ocean.

3.3. Classification of Hurricanes

The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is used to classify hurricanes. On this scale, hurricanes are classified into five
categories, from 1 to 5. The most severe category is Category 5. This scale was revised in 2012. The scale provides the means
of comparing effects of hurricanes of various intensities and their damage potential.

Table 3.1 summarizes these five categories, the related sustained wind speed ranges, and types of expected damage.

Table 3.1 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (Courtesy of the National Hurricane Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce; website at www.noaa.gov.)

Category Sustained Types of Damage due to Hurricane Winds

Winds

1 74–95 Very dangerous winds will produce some damage: Well-constructed frame homes could have damage to roof,
mph shingles, vinyl siding, and gutters. Large branches of trees will snap and shallowly rooted trees may be toppled.
(119– Extensive damage to power lines and poles likely will result in power outages that could last a few to several days.
153
km/h)

2 96–110 Extremely dangerous winds will cause extensive damage: Well-constructed frame homes could sustain major roof
mph and siding damage. Many shallowly rooted trees will be snapped or uprooted, blocking numerous roads. Near-total
(154– power loss is expected with outages that could last from several days to weeks.
177
km/h)

3 111–129 Devastating damage will occur: Well-built framed homes may incur major damage or removal of roof decking and
(major) mph gable ends. Many trees will be snapped or uprooted, blocking numerous roads. Electricity and water will be
(178– unavailable for several days to weeks after the storm passes.
208
km/h)

4 130–156 Catastrophic damage will occur: Well-built framed homes can sustain severe damage with loss of most of the roof
(major) mph structure and/or some exterior walls. Most trees will be snapped or uprooted and power poles downed. Fallen trees
(209– and power poles will isolate residential areas. Power outages will last weeks to possibly months. Most of the area will
251 be uninhabitable for weeks or months.
km/h)

5 157 mph Catastrophic damage will occur: A high percentage of framed homes will be destroyed, with total roof failure and wall
(major) or higher collapse. Fallen trees and power poles will isolate residential areas. Power outages will last for weeks to possibly
(252 months. Most of the area will be uninhabitable for weeks or months.
km/h or
higher)

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More information on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale can be found on the website of the National Hurricane Center
(NHC), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the United States.1

3.4. Overview of Tornadoes

A tornado generally consists of a strong rotating column of air of violent nature. It extends from the base of a thunderstorm
down to the ground surface. In the northern hemisphere, the column of air generally rotates counterclockwise. Tornadoes can
last from a few minutes to an hour or more. The majority of tornadoes last less than 10 minutes. In some cases, a tornado
forms a funnel shape that can be visible. The funnel is due to condensation and is made up of water droplets in addition to
some dust and debris. As the tornado weakens, the condensation funnel gets smaller; it tilts with height and eventually
dissipates.

Compared to a hurricane, a tornado usually covers a smaller geographic area of a few miles or less but has a much higher
wind speed. On average, about 1300 tornadoes strike the United States per year. They have occurred in all states of the United
States, but they are more frequent in the central plains and the states located in the south east of the United States. They can
happen at any time of the day and any season of the year. However generally, there is a peak season for the southern plains,
which is May into the first part of June. For the northern plains and the Midwest, the peak season is June and July.

Tornadoes also occur in different parts of the world on all continents. The highest number of tornadoes outside the United
States is often reported in Argentina and Bangladesh.

Tornado events are complex, and can cause various degrees of damage and devastation. In some cases, small tornadoes can
even produce more damage than larger tornadoes. Figure 3.2 shows a photo of a U.S. tornado from 2011.

Figure 3.2 Image of a tornado, Manitou, Oklahoma, 2011. (Courtesy of the National Weather Service,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce; website at
www.noaa.gov.)

3.5. Classification of Tornadoes

The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale is used now to classify tornadoes. The Fujita Scale (F-Scale) was initially created by the late
Tetsuya Theodore Fujita from the University of Chicago, to classify tornado damage. The scale classified the tornado severity
based on damage observed and not on recorded wind speeds. The categories were from F-0 to F-5. The F-0 on the scale was
for light damage such as broken tree branches. The F-5 represented the highest damageincredible damage, where, for
instance, strong frame houses are lifted from foundations and so forth. This first F-Scale was used since 1971.

Later on, a group of well-known wind engineers and meteorologists improved the F-Scale, which suffered from a lack of
damage indicators and had no definite correlation between damage and wind speed. The improved new scale called the

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Enhanced Fujita Scale or EF-Scale formally replaced the previous F-Scale on February 1, 2007. In this new EF-Scale, a tornado
is assigned a rating based on estimated wind speed and related damage. A list of damage indicators (DIs) and degrees of
damage (DoDs) was created. So when a tornado-related damage is surveyed, it is compared to indicators on a list that helps
better estimate the ranges of wind speeds created by the tornado. The purpose was to better connect the tornado damage to
the wind speeds. So the wind speeds on the EF-Scale are wind estimates and not wind measurements. The EF-Scale uses 3-
second gusts in miles per hour as shown in Table 3.2. 1 These speeds are estimated at the location of damage based on 28
DIs as shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.2 The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale) (Courtesy of the National Hurricane Center, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce; website at www.noaa.gov.)

EF Rating 3-Second Gust (mph)

0 65–85

1 86–110

2 111–135

3 136–165

4 166–200

5 Over 200

Table 3.3 The EF Scale—Conversion of Wind Speeds to km/h

EF Rating 3-Second Gust/Approximate Conversion to km/h

0 105–137

1 138–177

2 179–217

3 219–266

4 267–322

5 Over 322

Table 3.3 provides the approximate wind speed conversions to km/h for the above EF ratings.

The National Weather Service is the federal agency that provides the official EF-Scale rating based on observations and
survey of damage by trained personnel using the 28 indicators on the list. The construction type of building should match the
DI listed, and the damage observed should match one of the eight DoDs of the scale. The list of DIs and related DoDs can be
found on the website of the National Weather Service/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

3.6. General Impacts on Buildings and Structures

Extreme wind events, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, can have a devastating impact on buildings and structures. During

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these events, the wind velocity and direction are rarely constant. Gusts and swirling winds are common. Objects in the path of
the wind are generally rocked, blown away, and flapped. Loose parts or parts of structures that are poorly connected are most
vulnerable. Objects protruding from buildings, such as canopies and parapets, are susceptible to breaking and damage. Roofs
and roofing materials tend to get blown off due to wind uplift pressure. Wind can also produce vibration and flutter. Harmonic
effects can take place, and can occur at low wind velocity or at higher velocities during windstorm events. These effects are
connected to the creation of a match between the natural vibration period of a building and the wind velocity and can lead to
important damaging effects.

Damage to buildings and structures from extreme winds is discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.

3.7. Reference
1. National Hurricane Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)—Website at www.noaa.gov.

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