Major Final Print

A Major Project Report on
MODELING AND SIMULATION OF MICRO

CONTROLLER BASED MPPT METHOD USING FPGA
Submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
HYDERABAD
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
Ms. B. GAYATRI SIRISHA 17831A0207

Mr. C. SANTHOSH KUMAR 17831A0209
Mr. P. PREETHAM 17831A0235
Under the guidance of
Mr. T. MANIDHAR ME
Associate Professor
GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad) Ibrahimpatnam (V),
Ranga Reddy District -501506
2020-21
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “MODELING AND SIMULATION OFMICRO
CONTROLLER BASED MPPT METHOD USING FPGA” is being presented with report
by B. GAYATRI SIRISHA C. SANTHOSHKUMAR, P. PREETHAM, bearing roll
numbers, 17831A0207, 17831A0209, 17831A0235 in partial fulfillment for the award of
Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
INTERNAL GUIDE PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR

T. MANIDHAR Mr. R. JAGAN
Associate Professor Assistant Professor
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

Dr. CH. NAGARAJA KUMARI Dr. S. SREENATHA REDDY
Major project viva voce held on
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
ii
VISION OF THE INSTITUTION
To be a world – class educational and research institution in the service of humanity by

promoting high quality Engineering and Management Education.
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION
M1: Imbibe soft skills and technical skills.
M2: Develop the faculty to reach the international standards.
M3: Maintain high academic standards and teaching quality that promotes the analytical
thinking and independent judgment.
M4: Promote research, innovation and Product development by collaboration withreputed

foreign universities.
M5: Offer collaborative industry programs in emerging areas and spirit of enterprise.
QUALITY POLICY
GNIT is committed to provide quality education through dedicated and talented Faculty,world
class infrastructure, Labs and Advanced Research center to the students.
iii
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT
To be recognized as one of the best EEE departments in the region and to develop the
department to a level of par excellence that produces Electrical Engineers who can bean asset
to the country.
MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT
➢ To nurture young individual into knowledge, skillful, and ethical professionals intheir
pursuit of knowledge.
➢ To promote academic growth by offering state of the art programmers for thestudents and
faculties.
➢ To develop human potential to its fullest extent so that intellectuals capable ofbeing an asset
to the country can emerge.
➢ To nurture the faculty and expose them to world class infrastructure.
➢ To sustain high performance by excellence in teaching, research and innovations.
➢ To extensive partnership and collaborations with foreign universities fortechnology up
gradation.
iv
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICSENGINEERING
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S):
1. The main objective of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program is the upliftmentof
rural students through technical education. These technocrats should be able to apply basic and
contemporary science, engineering, experimentation skills to identifyElectrical/Electronic
problems in the industry and academia and be able to develop practical solutions to them and
also, gain employment as an Electrical and Electronics professional.
2. The graduates of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should be able to establish
themselves as practicing professionals in Electrical Transmission & Distribution, Electrical
grid, Generating Plant, or sustain a life-long career in related areas. Also, the graduates of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should be able to use their skills with a strong
base to prepare them for higher education.
3. The graduates of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should be able to develop
an ability to analyze the requirements, understand the technical specifications, design and
provide economical & social acceptable engineering solutions and produce efficient product
designs of equipment’s by means of organized training or self-learning inareas related to
Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
4. The graduates of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should have an exposure
to emerging cutting edge technologies, adequate training and opportunities to work as team on
multidisciplinary projects with effective communication skills, individual, supportive and
leadership qualities and also be able to establish an understanding of professionalism, ethics,
public policy and aesthetics that allows them to become good professional engineers.
v
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S):
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineeringsciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretationof data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling tocomplex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate theknowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
vi
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effectivepresentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work,as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
MAPPING OF PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S) AND
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S) FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING:
Program PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)

Educational
Objectives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(PEO’s)
1 * * * *
2 * * * * *
3 * * * * * * * *
4 * * * * * * * * * *
PROJECT MAPPING WITH POs AND PEOs
l. No. PROJECT NAME POs PEOs

1 DELING AND SIMULATION OF 1,2,5,7,9,10 1,4
RO CONTROLLER BASED MPPT
METHOD USING FPGA
vii
DECLARTION
This is to certify that the work reported in the present report titled “MODELING
AND SIMULATION OF MICRO CONTROLLER BASED MPPT METHOD USING
FPGA” is a record of work done by us in the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Ibrahimpatnam.
No part of the thesis is copied from books / journals / internet and wherever the
portion is taken, the same has been duly referred in the text. The reported work is based on
the project work done entirely by us and not copied from any other source.

viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The major-project entitled “MODELING AND SIMULATION OF MICRO

CONTROLER BASED MPPT USING FPGA” is the sum of total efforts of our batch.
Itis our duty to bring forward each and every one who is directly or indirectly in relation
with our project and without whom it would not have gained a structure.
We extend our deep sense of gratitude to the Management and Principal Dr. S.
Sreenatha Reddy, Dean Dr. Sanjeev Shrivastava and the management of Guru Nanak
Institute of Technology for providing us the best enmities to enable us complete our project
work in the stipulated time.
We also extend our sincere thanks to Dr. Nagaraja Kumari Ch, Associate Professor &
Head of the department EEE for his valuable guidance and unstinting support which gave
us the confidence required to overcome the obstacles that we faced in the completion of
this project.
We also extend our sincere thanks to Mr. T. Manidhar, Associate Professor of Electrical
and Electronics Engineering for his valuable guidance and unstinting support which gave
us the confidence required to overcome the obstacles that we faced in the completion of
this project
Last but not least, we are very thankful to our parents, friends and other faculty of the
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for their constant support for
completion of this project.

ix
ABSTRACT
Solar photovoltaic (PV) is one of the most promising renewable energy resources
that converts solar energy into electricity with environment friendly manner. However, it
has low efficiency and high relative costs. In order to overcome these drawbacks, a grid-
connected PV energy system should be required to satisfy the load demand.
The aim of this thesis is to study, design a performance analysis of grid-connected
PV system as follows Improving the efficiency of grid-connected PV system to operate at
maximum power point (MPP) with the aid of perturb and observe (P&O) tracker.
This work focuses on the design and development of FPGA-based digital
controller for the grid connected solar photo-Voltaic (PV) systems as a distributed
generation. The proposed grid connected PV system is able to deliver a sinusoidal current
to the utility grid in-phase with grid voltage. In this work, the system is operated in
discontinuous conduction mode. The advantage of this mode of conduction is that it feeds
sinusoidal current with near to unity power factor into the grid. Due to the versatility of
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), it offers significant advantages in high
performance and low volume applications. The level of optimization in FPGAs is very
high in comparison to microprocessors or Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) as FPGAs
allow customizable bit-widths and massive instruction-level parallelism. The proposed
FPGA-based control scheme for single- stage grid connected photovoltaic system
generates switching pulses in such a way that sinusoidal current with unity power factor is
injected into the grid
x
LIST 0F FIGURES
Fig. No Name of the figures Page No

1.1 Renewable Energy Source 2
2.1 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 6
2.2 Different Solar Modules 8
2.3 Electrical Equivalent Circuit of PV cell 8
2.4 Current and Voltage Characteristics of a PV modulewith 9
temperature variation
2.5 Current and Voltage Characteristics of a PV module 10
with irradiance variation
2.6 Current and Voltage Characteristics of a PV Module 11
2.7 Stand-alone photovoltaic system 12
2.8 Grid Connected Photovoltaic systems 13
3.1 Block Diagram of DSP 15
3.2 FPGA Block Diagram 18
4.1 Schematic of a CCM boost converter 21
4.2 Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms 21
4.3 Variation of DC component of Inductor current with Duty 23
Cycle
4.4 Inductor current wave form 23
4.5 Hysteresis Control Scheme 24
4.6 Input Current Waveform 24
4.7 Voltage Mode controlled buck converter 25
4.8 Peak Current mode controlled boost converter 26
4.9 Simplified AC-DC Converters 26
4.10 Input and Output AC-DC Converters 26
4.11 DC-AC Converters 27
4.12 Input and Output DC-AC Converters response 27
4.13 Input and Output DC-DC Converters 28
4.14 Single and dual inverter topology with coupling 28
capacitances Single- stage topology
5.1 Block Diagram of implemented system 30

5.2 Block Diagram of Boost Converter 31
5.3 Proposed and Developed Simulation Diagram 31
5.4 FPGA Based MPPT Controller Simulation Diagram 32
5.5 Solar Irradiance Level irradiance 32
xi
5.6 I-V and P-V Characteristics of one module at 25degree 32
5.7 I-V and P-V Characteristics of array at 25 degree 32
5.8 a. Grid Voltage Waveforms 33
5.8 b. Grid Current Waveforms 33
5.9 Source current and Source Voltage 34
5.10 PV Voltages at maximum power for different 34
irradiance
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table. No Name of the Table Page. No
5.1 Simulation Parameters 31
Xiii
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array

PV Photovoltaic
DSP Digital Signal Processing
ADC Analog Digital Signal
DAC Digital Analog Signal
ALU Arithmetic logic Unit
LUT Look-up tables
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
xiv
INDEX
S.NO. CONTENTS PAGE.NO
I. Certificates ii
II. Declaration viii
III Acknowledgement ix
1V Abstract x
V List of Figures xi-xii
VI List of Tables xiii
VII List of Abbreviations xiv
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1-5
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of energy resources 2
1.3 Literature Review 2-4
1.4 Project Motivation 4
1.5 Scope of Work 5
1.6 Organization of Project 5
CHAPTER-2 SOLAR PV SYSTEM AND SOLUTIONS 6-14

2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Solar energy 6
2.2.1 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 6
2.3 Photovoltaic system overview and inverter 7
2.4 Modeling of PV Panel 7
2.4.1 Photo Voltaic Cell 7
2.4.2 PV module 7
2.4.3 PV Array 8
2.5 Photovoltaic characteristics 8-9
2.5.1 Open Circuit Voltage and Temperature 9-10
2.5.2 Module Current and Irradiance 10
2.5.3 Maximum Tracking Point (MPPT) 10-11
2.6 Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems 12
2.7 Grid Connected Photovoltaic Systems 12-13
2.7.1 Standards and Codes For Grid Connected PV System 13-14
CHAPTER 3 DSP Controller and Field Programmable Gate 15-19

Array (FPGA)
3.1 Digital signal processing (DSP) 15

3.2 Purpose of digital signal processing (DSP) 15
3.2.1 Advantages of a Digital Signal Processing 15-16
3.2.2 Microprocessor 16
3.2.3 Advantages of a Microprocessor 16
3.3 Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) 16-17
3.3.1 FPGA Architecture 17-18
3.3.2 Advantages OF FPGA 18-19
3.4 Applications 19
CHAPTER 4 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 20-29
4.1 Electrical Grid 20

4.2 Power Electronic Consideration 20-21
4.2.1 The CCM Boost Converter 21-24
4.2.2 Hysteresis Control 24
4.2.3 Sliding Mode Control 24-25
4.2.4 Pulse Width Modulation Controller 25-26
4.2.5 AC to DC Converters 26-27
4.2.6 DC to AC Converters or Inverters 27-28
4.2.7 DC to DC Converters 28
4.3 Dual and Single Stage PV Inverter Circuit Topology 28-29
CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION AND RESULTS 30-35
5.1 Introduction 30
5.2 Boost Converter based MPPT Charger Controller 30-31
5.3 Simulation and Results 31-35
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 36

6.1 Conclusion 36
6.2 Scope of Future Work 36
REFERENCES 37-38
PUBLICATIONS 39
Modeling and Simulation of Micro Controller Based MPPT Method Using FPGA
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The present day electronics world is moving towards miniaturization and low
priced equipments. At the risk of making a trite observation, the last two decade of
advances in microcontrollers, processors, and programmable logic have opened up
tremendously exciting possibilities for enhancing performance, applicability, and
economy of power electronics appliances. Thus implementing a digital circuit in place
of analog circuit attracts all the benefits associated with digital circuits.
In modern contest the world is moving from conventional energy sources to the
renewable one. To overcome the problems associated with generation of electricity
from fossil fuels, renewable energy sources can be participated in the energy mix. One
of the renewable energy sources that can be used for this purpose is the light received
from the sun. This light can be converted to clean electricity through the photovoltaic
process. The use of photovoltaic (PV) systems for electricity generation started in the
seventies of the 20th century and is currently growing rapidly worldwide.
Power electronic devices are working as an interface between grid and solar
power output. Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power
with the help of power semiconductor devices, which used as switch. Advent of silicon
controlled rectifier led to the development of new area of applications [1]. Simple
triggering circuit can be realized by R or Resistance and Capacitance network. They are
not expensive and little power required for its operation. However the control and hence
the load output voltage susceptible to device temperature variations. Moreover feedback
control incorporation is not easy.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES
The energy resources are generally classified into two categories:
1. Non-Renewable Resources of Energy
2. Renewable Resources of Energy
1.2.1 Non-Renewable Resources of Energy
Non-Renewable Resources are those natural resources which are exhaustible and
cannot be replaced once they are used. Non renewable resources are as follows:
a) Coal
b) Petroleum
c) Natural gal
d) Uranium etc.
Department of EEE 1 GNIT

1.2.2 Renewable Energy resources:

Renewable sources of energy are never-ending and can be used to generate energy
again and again. Renewable energy resources are categorized as given in Figure 1.1.
Figure.1.1: Renewable energy resources

1.3 Literature Review
Various researchers and authors have presented their work for modeling and control of
Grid connected converter. Basic idea is to get grid connected PV systems and low
THD. It is due to its greater abundance and environment friendly characteristics.
Control of grid connected comprised of two structures, MPPT control and inverter
control. Many methods have been proposed and discussed in literature.
The grid-connected inverter has various functions for small DG systems. First of
all is a power conversion from the dc energy sources to the ac grid and local loads [1].
This power conversion makes the ac grid current be synchronized with the grid voltage.
Another important function is a grid power quality control, especially, the control like
the compensation of the harmonic distortion at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
Because most of local loads are non-linear in home application, it distorts the grid
current. However, to connect the inverter to the grid, the utility standards such as
EN61000- 3-2 and IEEE1547 have to be met [2]. The inverter, therefore, has to regulate
not only the fundamental component of the current but also the harmonic currents [3].
The DG systems are usually small modular devices close to users, including solar
energy systems and fuel cells. Such systems commonly need dc–ac inverters as
interface between their single-phase grid and energy sources [4].

The islanding of a grid connected independent generator occurs when a section of the
utility system containing such a PV system is disconnected from the grid line but the
grid connected inverter continues to energize the energy to the grid line in the isolated
section [5]. There are many reasons that islanding should be prevented with
photovoltaic or any other distributed energy generation. The safety, liability and
maintaining the quality of delivered power to customers ranks high on the list of
reasons [6]. The ANF structure on its own is able to provide a smooth frequency
detection as well as magnitude estimation without introducing any delay into the
estimation loop [7]. Carrasco et al. [8] proposed Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid
Integration of Renewable Energy Sources and presented new trends in power
electronics for the integration of wind and photovoltaic (PV) power generators. A
storage system technology was introduced for the resources whose output changes.
Kazantzakis et al. [18] proposed a method to integrate the photovoltaic system into
distribution network operations. Distributed PV generator was used to improve the
stability of system by appropriate control. Power modulation should be such that power
quality remainswithin specified limit. Magureanu et al. [19] proposed a real solution for
Renewable energy sources connection into distribution. Direct current link was
proposed and simulated. A new method for load sharing and droop control was
presented. Nayar et al. [20] presented the bi-directional inverters application in the
field of PV, diesel generators and battery storage. Gonzalez-Moran et al. [21] proposed
and described a photovoltaic direct current source model. PV o/p could be supplied to
inverters, which connected to grid. Proposed model considered all the parameters that
could affect o/p of PV. Mei Shan Ngan et al. [22] discussed two categories of maximum
power point tracking algorithm algorithms. Also, the advantages and disadvantages of
each maximum power point tracking algorithm were reviewed. Also compared the
results obtained by the algorithms used.
Martina Calais et al. [23] presented an overview on different multilevel topologies
and investigated their suitability for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems.
Gianfranco Chicco et al [24] discussed the operation of grid connected photovoltaic
(PV) systems and provided a detailed performance comparison of different inverter
technologies for connecting the photovoltaic systems to the grid.
Massimo Aiello et al. [25] calculated total harmonic distortion theoretically and
experimentally in order to show which of the currently defined distortion factors was
best suitable to detect supply pollution. Hirotaka Koizumi et al. [26] developed a novel
microcontroller for grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems. A 100-W-class module-
integrated converter prototype model composed of the proposed controller and a fly
back inverter had been built and tested. Brando et al. [27] proposed an architecture that
included a Power Electronic Transformer which was practically an isolated high-

frequency link AC/AC converter that substitutes a conventional transformer. A
maximum power point tracking control technique was presented and result obtained
was validated by simulation. Javier Chavarría et al [28] presented an energy-balance
control strategy for a cascaded single-phase grid-connected H-bridge multilevel inverter
linking n independent photovoltaic (PV) arrays to the grid.
D.C. Riawan et al. [29] presented a scheme for transferring power from the
photovoltaic (PV) modules to a storage battery using a solar charge controller based on
a Cuk dc/dc converter.
The maximum power that can be delivered by a PV panel depends greatly on the
insulation level and the operating temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to track the
maximum power point all the time. Many researchers have been focused on various
MPP control algorithm to lead the operating point of the PV. P. HUYNH et al. [30]
analyzed Stability and dynamics of a series configuration peak-power tracking (PPT)
system. Analysis of multiloop control in the PPT mode was discussed. Yongho Kim
[31] presented a new peak power tracker (PPT) which forces a photovoltaic system to
extract the maximum power from solar arrays, regardless of the change of load demand,
insolation and temperature.
1.4 Project Motivation
The overcome the problems associated with generation of electricity from fossil
fuels, renewable energy sources can be participated in the energy mix. One of the
renewable energy sources that can be used for this purpose is the light received from
the sun. This light can be converted to clean electricity through the photovoltaic
process. The use of photovoltaic (PV) systems for electricity generation started in the
seventies and is currently growing rapidly worldwide. In fact, many organizations
expect a bright future for these systems. The European Photovoltaic Industry
Association (EPIA) expects that the global cumulative PV capacity will reach 200 GW
by the year 2020 and 800 GW bythe year 2030.
PV systems are usually used in three main fields: 1)
• Satellite applications, where the solar arrays provide power to satellites,
• Off-grid applications, where solar arrays are used to power remote loads that are
not connected to the electric grid.
• On-grid or grid connected applications, in which solar arrays are used to supply
energy to local loads as well as to the electric grid.
1.5 Scope of Work
The aim of this project is provide more stable solution for grid-connected PV systems,

at different components of a grid-connected PV system from the solar irradiance

received by the PV arrays to the AC power injected into the grid, and makes a review of
the recent achievements and current research activities in the field. The overall
objective is to develop methods that improve performance and extract optimum DC
power from solar PV modules MPPT charge controller is designed. The constant
voltage MPPT charge controller is designed based on small signal analysis of converter.
1.6 Organization of Project
Chapter 1 briefly introduced about renewable energy sources and literature survey on
grid connected PV systems.
Chapter 2 discusses briefly about the need for PV system and all the mathematical
explanation of control technique used.
Chapter 3 briefly discusses about Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and DSP
Controller.
Chapter 4 Contain project description
Chapter 5 Contain the simulations and results.
Chapter 6 Contain conclusion and future scope

CHAPTER 2
SOLAR PV SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of grid connected inverters and the PV systems. Grid
connected technologies have been discussed. The important solar characteristics in
relations to temperature and irradiance and how the open circuit voltage is affected are
depicted in the chapter. Standards to design and installation practices of PV-grid
connected systems discussed in this chapter play the significant role at the point of
common coupling. These standards helped in the development of the proposed PV
system.
2.2 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar PV systems convert sunlight into electrical energy. Photons of light hitting the
solar panel knock electrons in the substrate material into a higher level of activity; these
electrons are then channelled off of the panel to create DC electricity. In most cases, an
inverter will be used to convert the DC power into AC power, making it more directly
usable to consumers as most modern electric appliances operate only on AC power.
2.2.1. PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY CONVERSION
It works on the principle of simple PN junction. PV cell converts sun energy into
direct current. To get required dc power cells are connected in series and parallel to get
required power level. When cells are connected in series increases the voltage while in
parallel connection increase the current [6]. Figures 2.1 show photovoltaic energy
conversion.
Figure. 2.1 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion

2.3 Photovoltaic system overview and inverter

Generally the PV system comprises of PV generator which is a set of series-parallel
electrically interconnected solar panels. PV panels are delivered by the manufacturers
and are given in terms of the nominal peak power of the panel at standard test
conditions (STC). PV generator gives the total installed power which is the sum of
nominal peak power of each solar panel present in the PV installation [15]. This PV
generator is connected to an inverter which connected to an AC/DC load and/or grid.
The grid-connected inverter must be designed for the peak power and must obey
conditions that deal with issues like power quality, detection of islanding operation,
grounding; MPPT and long-life [14]. Inverter maximum power is exactly referred to the
total installed power of the PV generator and has to optimize the energy injected to
grid. Since the expected irradiance in the physical location of the PV installation is
lower than the nominal or standard one, a current practice is to select the inverter
maximum power than the nominal peak power of the PV generator. This practice is
what is known as under sizing of the Inverter and has been discussed.
The nominal power of the PV generator corresponds to standard irradiance
conditions. However this irradiance is unusual. Under low irradiance, a PV array
generates power at only a part of its nominal capacity and the inverter thus operates
under part load conditions with lower system efficiency [14]. Despite of the irradiance
level affecting the PV generator characteristics, it is also important to consider the
effects of temperature when selecting inverters. The two factors contribute to inverters
maximum power and efficiency at the time of design and sizing.
2.4 MODELLING OF PV PANEL
2.4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that converts light
to electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of light is greater
than the band gap then the electron is emitted and the flow of electrons creates current.
However a photovoltaic cell is different from a photodiode. In a photodiode light fall
son n-channel of the semiconductor junction and gets converted into current or voltage
signal but a photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.
2.4.2 PV MODULE
Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the
energy requirements. PV modules of different sizes are commercially available
(generally sized from 60W to 170W). For example, a typical small scale desalination
plant requires a few thousand of watts power.

2.4.3 PVARRAY
A PV array consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections.
Series connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas the
parallel connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array.
Figure. 2.2 Different Solar Modules
2.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC CHARACTERISTICS

Voltage and Current outputs of the PV modules is affected by temperature and
irradiance. Power electronics components of a photovoltaic system, such as grid-direct
inverters have maximum and minimum voltage inputs. During rating of power
electronics equipment, these variations should be taken into account especially for the
MPPT range of inverters.
Figure.2.3. Electrical Equivalent Circuit of PV Cell
 V+IR
I = I ph − I01  e KT −1 − I02 e nKT −1 − s → (2.1)
q(V+IRs ) q(V+IRs )
    RP
 V+IR
I = I ph − I02  e nKT −1 − s
q(V+IRs )
→ (2.2)
  R P

The I-V characteristics of PV cell shown in fig1.6.The double exponential model and
single exponential model eqn1.2 are used to characterize the PV cell. [1–3] A PV cell
behaves differently depending on the size/type of load connected to it. This behavior is
called the PV cell ’characteristics’. The characteristic of a PV cell is described by the
current and voltage levels when different loads are connected.
Where
V =PV cell terminal voltage (V).
I = PV cell terminal current (A).
Iph = photocurrent (A).
I01 =saturation current due to diffusion mechanism (A).
I02 = saturation current due to carrier recombination in space-charge region (A).
2.5.1 Open Circuit Voltage and Temperature

A PV module’s voltage output is actually a variable value that is primarily affected by
temperature. The relationship between module voltage and temperature is actually an
inverse one. As elaborated in Figure.2.4
Figure.2.4: Current and Voltage characteristics of a PV module with temperature

variation

The module’s temperature increases, the voltage value decreases and vice versa. It is
important to put into consideration the cold and hot temperatures during PV design as
shown in PV calculations. If the temperature of the module is less than the STC value
of 25°C, the module’s open circuited voltage, Voc value will actually be greater than
the value listed on the module’s listing label.
2.5.2 Module Current and Irradiance
The amount of current produced by a PV module is directly proportional to how bright
the sun is. Higher levels of irradiance will cause more electrons to flow off the PV cells
to the load attached. However the amount of voltage produced by the PV module is
affected by the irradiance value, but the effect is very small. As demonstrated in Fig.
2.5 the PV module’s voltage changes very little with varying levels of irradiance.
Figure.2.5: Current and Voltage characteristics of a PV module with

irradiance variation
2.5.3 Maximum Tracking Point (MPPT)
Many MPPT methods have been reported, such as perturb and observe, incremental
conductance, neural network based and fuzzy logic control as it has been said in [7]
[10][12]. Together with the efficiency, each method has its advantage and

disadvantage. These approaches have been effectively used in standalone and grid-
connected PV solar energy systems and work well under reasonably slow and smoothly
changing illumination conditions mainly caused by weather fluctuations, seen also in
[5] [10].
Figure.2.6 Current, Voltage and Power characteristics of a PV module
In order to utilize the maximum power produced by the PV modules, the power
conversion equipment has to be equipped with a maximum power point tracker
(MPPT). This is a device which tracks the voltage at where the maximum power is
utilized at all times. It is usually implemented in the DC-DC converter, but in systems
without a DC- DC converter the MPPT is included in the DC-AC inverter control [7].
MPPT will ensure that, PV modules operate in such away maximum voltage, Vmp an
maximum current, Imp of the modules will be attained and produce maximum power,
Pmp point. However these values together with short-circuit current, Isc and open
circuitvoltages, Voc as illustrated on the Fig.2.6 are specified in the PV module data
sheet attached to it. The values are at standard test condition (STC) and they are called
PV performance parameters.

2.6 Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
Figure. 2.7 Stand-alone photovoltaic systems

Stand-alone photovoltaic systems are designed to operate independent of the electric
utility grid, and are generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC
electrical loads. These types of systems may be powered by a photovoltaic array only or
may use wind, an engine-generator or utility power as an auxiliary power source in
what is called a photovoltaic-hybrid system. The simplest type of stand-alone
photovoltaic system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC output of a photovoltaic
module or array is directly connected to a DC load. The stand-alone photovoltaic
systems are usually a utility power alternate. They generally include solar charging
modules, storage batteries, and controls or regulators as shown in Fig.2.7
2.7 Grid Connected Photovoltaic Systems
Grid-connected PV systems can provide a number of benefits to electric utilities, such
as power loss reduction, improvement in the voltage profile, and reduction in the
maintenance and operational costs of the electric network. However, improper choice
of the location and size of the PV systems and unsuitability of the output power profile
of the PV system to the profile of the electric network can impose operational problems
on the network. The building blocks of a grid-connected photovoltaic system are shown
in Figure 1.4. The system is mainly composed of a matrix of PV arrays, which converts
the sunlight to DC power and a power conditioning unit that converts the DC power to
AC power. The generated AC power is injected into the grid and/or utilized by the local
loads. In some cases, storage devices are used to improve the availability of the power
generated by the PV system.

Figure. 2.8 Grid Connected photovoltaic systems
Inverters are very important power electronics equipment in grid connected PV

systems. Their major role is to convert DC power into AC power. Furthermore, inverter
interfacing PV module (s) with the grid ensures that the PV module(s) is operated at the
maximum power point (MPPT) [1]. Based on the photovoltaic arrays output voltage,
output power level and applications, the photovoltaic grid-connected system can adopt
different topologies. These configurations describe the evolution of grid-connected
inverters as from past, present and future technologies.
2.7.1 Standards and Codes for Grid Connected Photovoltaic system

There are several standards on the market dealing with the interconnection of
distributed resources with the grid [7]. In this context PV system is of importance
where all practice for wiring, design and installation has been explained. This thesis is
limited to International Electro technical Commission (IEC), Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and National Electrical Code (NEC). Standards and codes
governing the design of the proposed PV system at NTNU electro building is based on
PV electrical installations practices and interfacing with grid. In the standard [13] IEEE
929-2000: Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
which gives the guidance to PV system practices. These practices include power quality
and protection functions [26]. The IEEE 929 standard also containing UL 1741
standard which has been used as the key to select inverters used in this design.
The IEC standard has been discussed in [7] and they show to give out the
characteristics of PV system and grid interface at the point of common coupling (PCC).
National Electrical Code in article 690 Photovoltaic power systems [23] as well as
explain in literatures [16] and [17] shows the necessity and important information for

proper installation of PV system. The 690 code explain most of the important
information in both design aspects and installation. Some of this important information
includes;
• PV system conductors and coding.
• Grounding system and Module connection
• PV source circuits, PV Inverter output circuits and circuit routing.
• Identification of equipment used and system circuit requirements i.e. Open
Circuit voltage and short-circuit current.

CHAPTER 3
DSP CONTROLLER AND FIELD PROGRAMMABLEGATE ARAY
(FPGA)
3.1 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)
Digital signal processing (DSP) is the use of digital processing, such as by computers
or more specialized digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of signal
processing operations. The digital signals processed in this manner are a sequence of
numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time,
space, or frequency. In digital electronics, a digital signal is represented as a pulse train,
which is typically generated by the switching of a transistor.
Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal
processing. DSP applications include audio and speech processing, sonar, radar and
other sensor array processing, spectral density estimation, statistical signal processing,
digital image processing, data compression, video coding, audio coding, image
compression, signal processing for telecommunications, control systems, biomedical
engineering, and seismology, among others. DSP can involve linear or nonlinear
operations. Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to nonlinear system
identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-temporal
domains. Identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-
temporal domains.
3.2 PURPOSE OF DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)
The goal of a DSP is usually to measure, filter or compress continuous real-world
analog signals. Most general-purpose microprocessors can also execute digital signal
processing algorithms successfully, but may not be able to keep up with such processing
continuously in real-time.
Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of DSP

3.2.1 Advantages of a Digital Signal Processing
DSP has a high level of accuracy. The filters designed in DSP have firm control over
output accuracy as compared to analog filters. The combination of DSP interfaced with
FPGA helps in designing the protocol stack of the whole wireless system like WiMAX,

LTE, etc. In this type of architecture, as per the latency requirements, few of the
modules are ported on FPGA and the other few on DSP.
3.2.2 MICROPROCESSOR
The microprocessor is the central unit of a computer system that performs arithmetic
andlogic operations, which generally include adding, subtracting, transferring numbers
from one area to another, and comparing two numbers. It's often known simply as a
processor, a central processing unit, or as a logic chip. It's essentially the engine or the
brain of the computer that goes into motion when the computer is switched on. It's a
programmable, multipurpose device that incorporates the functions of a CPU (central
processing unit)on a single IC.
A microprocessor accepts binary data as input, processes that data, and then
provides output based on the instructions stored in the memory. The data is processed
using the microprocessor's ALU (arithmetical and logical unit), control unit, and a
register array. The register array processes the data via a number of registers that act as
temporary fast access memory locations. The flow of instructions and data through the
system is managed by the control unit. Examples of the second-generation
microprocessors are 16-bit arithmetic 7 pipelined instruction processing, MC68000
Motorola microprocessor. These processors are introduced in the year 1979, and Intel
8080 processor is another example of the microprocessor
3.2.3 Advantages of a Microprocessor
The microprocessor is that these are general purpose electronics processing devices
which can be programmed to execute a number of tasks.
• Compact size
• High speed
• Low power consumption
• It is portable
• It is very reliable
• Less heat generation
• The microprocessor is very versatile.
3.3 FIELD-PROGRAMMABLEGATEARRAY (FPGA)
A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be
configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing – hence the term “field-
programmable”. The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware
description language (HDL), similar to that used for an application-specific integrated
circuit (ASIC). Circuit diagrams were previously used to specify the configuration but
this is increasingly rare due to the advent of electronic design automation tools.

FPGAs contain an array of programmable logic blocks, and a hierarchy of

“reconfigurable interconnects” allowing blocks to be “wired together”, like many logic
gates that can be inter-wired in different configurations. Logic blocks can be configured
to perform complex combinational functions, or merely simple logic gates like AND
and XOR. In most FPGAs, logic blocks also include memory elements, which may be
simple flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory. Many FPGAs can be
reprogrammed to implement different logic functions, allowing flexible reconfigurable
computing as performed in computer software. FPGAs have a remarkable role in
embedded system development due to their capability to start system software (SW)
development simultaneously with hardware (HW), enable system performance
simulations at a very early phase of the development, and allow various system
partitioning (SW and HW) trials and iterations before final freezing of the system
architecture.
Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) have large resources of logic gates and
RAM blocks to implement complex digital computations. As FPGA designs employ
very fast I/O rates and bidirectional data buses FPGAs can be used to implement any
logical function that an ASIC can perform. FPGAs have analog features in addition to
digital functions FPGAs were primarily used in telecommunications and networking. By
the end of the decade, FPGAs found their way into consumer, automotive, and industrial
applications
3.3.1 FPGA Architecture
• Programmable logic blocks
Logic blocks can be formed from thousands of transistors to millions of transistors. They
implement the logic functions required by the design and consist of logic components
such as transistor pairs, look-up tables (LUTs), and Carry and Control Logic (flip flops
and multiplexers)
• Programmable I/O blocks
Theyare connect logic blocks with external components via interfacing pins

Figure.3.2 FPGA Block Diagram

• Programmable interconnect resources
They are electrically programmable interconnections (pre-laid vertically and
horizontally) that provide the routing path for the programmable logic blocks. Routing
paths contain wire segments of varying lengths which can be interconnected via
electrically programmable switches. The FPGA density depends of the number of
segments in used for routing paths
3.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF FPGA

• Long-Term Availability
The use of FPGAs makes you independent of component manufacturers, because the
functionality is not in the module itself but in the configuration. This can be
programmed in such a way that it can be undertaken without any adjustments on
different FPGAs.
• Updating and Adaptation at the Customer
In contrast to conventional computer chips, FPGAs are fully programmable. Updates
and adaptations can be carried out even after delivery, directly at the customer.

• Very Short Time-To-Market

The use of FPGAs significantly accelerates development of prototypes, since a part of
the hardware development lies in design of the IP cores. In the course of this, it is
possible to carry out time-consuming operations such as commissioning and
troubleshooting at the same time as development.
• Fast and Efficient Systems
As the largest possible user group is to be addressed with standard components, these are
usually a compromise between performance and compatibility. FPGAs offer the
possibility of developing systems that are exactly tailored to the intended task, which
thus work absolutely efficiently.
• Acceleration of Software
Complex tasks are often solved by software implementations with fast processors.
FPGAs offer a cost-effective alternative, which, via parallelization and adaption to the
application, provide a significant speed advantage compared to processor-based
solutions.
• Real-Time Applications
FPGAs are ideal for application in time-critical systems. In contrast to software-based
solutions with real-time operating systems, an actually deterministic behaviour can be
achieved using FPGAs. Due to the offered flexibility, even complicated calculations can
be carried out in an extremely short time.
• Massively Parallel Data Processing
The amount of data to be processed in current systems is steadily increasing, which
means that they can no longer be processed in a timely manner using sequentially
operating systems. The use of FPGAs offers an outstandingly scalable solution via the
parallel processing of data
3. 4 APPLICATIONS
An FPGA can be used to solve any problem which is computable. This is trivially
proven by the fact that FPGAs can be used to implement a soft microprocessor, such as
the Xilinx Micro Blaze or Altera Nios II. Their advantage lies in that they are
significantly faster for some applications because of their parallel
nature and optimality in terms of the number of gates used for certain processes.

CHAPTER 4
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
4.1 ELECTRICAL GRID
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers
toconsumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents.
It consists of:
• Power stations: often located near energy and away from heavily populated areas
• Electrical substations to step voltage up or down.
• Electric power transmission to carry power long distances.
• Electric power distribution to individual customers, where voltage is stepped
down again to the required service voltage(s).
Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016 1.4 billion people worldwide were
not connected to an electricity grid.[2]. As electrification increases, the number of
people with access to grid electricity is growing. About 840 million people (mostly in
Africa) had no access to grid electricity in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in
2010.[3]Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a
need for electric grid security. Also as electric grids modernize and introduce computers,
cyber threats also start to become a security risk.[4].
Particular concerns relate to the more complex computer systems needed to
manage grids.[5]Grids are nearly always synchronous, meaning all distribution areas all
operate with three phase alternating current (AC) frequencies synchronized (so that
peaks occur at virtually the same time). This allows transmission of AC power
throughout the area, connecting a large number of electricity generators and consumers
and potentially enabling more efficient electricity markets and redundant generation.
The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity
delivery, known as the "power grid" in North America, or just "the grid". In the United
Kingdom, India, Tanzania, Myanmar, Malaysia and New Zealand, the network is known
as the National Grid. Electric utility companies established central stations to take
advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation,
distribution, and system management.[6] After the war of the currents was settled in
favor of AC power, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to
interconnect stations to balance load and improve load factors.
4.2 Power Electronics Consideration
As described earlier, a variety of PFC circuit topologies [26] can be used which include
the boost converter and the buck converter. Though soft switched Zero-Voltage-
Transition (ZVT) techniques can be used for switching all the above topologies, the hard
switched boost converter PFC circuit [4] is more popular due to its simplicity and ability
to achieve a low distortion input current waveform. The Continuous Conduction Mode
(CCM) and Critical Conduction Mode (CRM) PFC circuit topologies are the most
popular. However, both have their advantages and disadvantages. In the following
section, the CCM boost converter is discussed.
4.2.1 The CCM Boost Converter
Since the remaining part of the work is now based on a CCM PFC circuit, a detailed
discussion on the boost converter is presented below. A CCM boost converter
schematic is shown in the Fig. 4.1. Now, from the above equations, the inductor voltage
and capacitor current waveforms are plotted in Fig. 4.2, D is the on-time duty cycle of
the Q1and TS is the switching period.
Figure 4.1 Schematic of a CCM boost converter.
Figure 4.2 Inductor voltage and capacitor current wave forms.

The total volt-seconds applied to the inductor over one switching period is given by,
Ts
 Vt (t ) dt = (Vg )DT S + (Vg −V )(1− D)TS

0
→ (4.1)
Equating this expression to zero and collecting terms, we have
Vg ( D +1− D ) −V (1− D) = 0 →(4.2)

Vg
V= →(4.3)
(1− D)
From the above, it is apparent that the output voltage increases as D increases.
However, when component non-idealizes are included, there is a limit to the maximum
possible output voltage of a boost converter.
The DC component of the inductor current (I) is derived from the fact that the
total charge on the output capacitor is always balanced. When the Q1 turns on, the load
current depletes the charge from the output capacitor while the capacitor recharges once
the Q1 turns off.
The net charge in the capacitor is found by integrating the above capacitor
current waveform
Ts V  V
 i (t)dt =  − R  DT + 1− R  (1− D)T
c S s →(4.4)
0    
Equating this equation to zero and collecting terms we get
 −V 
( D +1− D) − I (1− D) = 0 →(4.5)
R
 
V
I= →(4.6)
(1− D)R
Substituting equation 3.3 we get
Vg
I= →(4.7)
(1− D)2 R
From the plot of this equation shown in Fig. 4.3, it is apparent that the inductor
current’s DC component increases as the duty cycle increases.
The inductor current’s DC component is greater than the load current The inductor
current’s DC component is greater than the load current since the boost converter’s

output voltage is greater than the input voltage. The inductor winding resistance and
semiconductor voltage drops, through which the inductor current flows, are sources of
power loss. Thus, as the inductor current increases with increasing duty cycle, the
efficiency also decreases.
Figure 4.3 Variation of DC component of Inductor current with Duty cycle.

Referring to Fig. 4.1, when the Q1 turns ON, the slope of the inductor current is given
by,
dil (t) Vl (t) Vg
= = →(4.8)
dx L L
When the Q1 turns off the inductor current slops is given by,
dil (t) Vl (t) Vg −V

= = →(4.9)
dx L L
Fig. 4.3 shows the inductor current waveform with l il representing the total inductor ripple
current
Vg
di = DT →(4.10)
l s
L
Figure 4.4 Inductor current wave form.

From the above expression, it is apparent that the inductor ripples current increases with
lower inductance. The increase in ripple increases the RMS inductor current and this
4.2.2 HYSTERESIS CONTROL
Figure 4.5 shows this type of control in which two sinusoidal current references IPref,
IVref are generated, one for the peak and the other for the valley of the inductor current.
According to this control technique, the switch is turned on when the inductor current
goes below the lower reference IVref and is turned off when the inductor current goes
above the upper reference IPref, giving rise to a variable frequency control. Also with this
control technique the converter works in CICM.
Figure 4.5 Hysteresis Control Scheme
Figure 4.6 Input Current waveform of Hysteresis Control Scheme

Advantages:
➢ No need of compensation ramp.
➢ low distorted input current waveforms.
Disadvantages:
➢ Variable switching frequency.
➢ Control sensitive to commutation noises
4.2.3 Sliding Mode Control
In the course of the entire history of automatic control theory, the intensity of
investigation of systems with discontinuous control actions has been maintained at a

high level. In particular, at the first stage, relay, or “on-off’ regulators, ranked highly
for design of feedback systems. The reason was twofold: ease of implementation and
high efficiency of hardware. A number of processes in mechanics, electrical
engineering, and other areas, are characterized by the fact that the right hand sides of
the differential equations describing their dynamics feature discontinuities with respect
to the current process state. The sliding mode control approach is recognized as one of
the efficient tools to design robust controllers for complex high-order nonlinear
dynamic plant operating under uncertainty conditions.
The major advantage of sliding mode is low sensitivity to plant parameter
variations and disturbances which eliminates the necessity of exact modelling. Sliding
mode control enables the decoupling of the overall system motion into independent
partial components of lower dimension and, as a result, reduces the complexity of
feedback design. Sliding mode control implies that control actions are discontinuous
state functions which may easily be implemented by conventional power converters
with “on-off ” as the only admissible operation mode sliding mode control has been
proved to be applicable to a wide range of problems in robotics, electric drives and
generators, process control, vehicle and motion control.
4.2.4 Pulse Width Modulation Controller

The fixed-frequency PWM control is by far the most popular control technique used for
the regulation of DC–DC converters. It is well known that switching converters are
severe noise generators. With proper filtering, grounding, bonding, and shielding,
switching converters can be successfully used in “electromagnetic interference”
sensitive applications. The fixed-frequency PWM controllers assume two specific
forms, namely voltage feedback control and current-programmed control, also known
as voltage-mode control and current-mode control, respectively.
Figure. 4.7 Simplified fixed-frequency PWM controllers for DC–DC

convertersvoltage-mode controlled buck converter;

Figure.4.8. peak current-mode controlled boost converter

The voltage-mode control is a single-loop control where the output voltage is regulated
by closing a feedback loop between the output voltage and the duty-ratio signal.
4.2.5 AC to DC Converters
An AC to DC converter circuit can convert AC voltage into a DC voltage. The DC
output voltage can be controlled by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. The AC
input voltage could be a single phase or three phase.
Figure. 4.9 Simplified AC–DC converters
Figure 4.10 Input and Output AC–DC converters responses

An AC to DC converter is also called a rectifier, which converts AC supply from main

lines to DC supply for the load. The block diagram of an AC to DC converter is shown
in figure below. Here, the transformer adjusts the primary AC source supply to the
input of rectifier stage. Usually it is a step-down transformer that reduces the supply
voltage to a circuit operating range. The rectifier converts the low voltage AC supply
into DC supply. It comprises diode and/or thyristors based on type of rectifier. The
output of the rectifier is of pulsed DC and hence it is filtered using filter circuit, which
is usually made with a capacitor or a choke.
4.2.6 DC to AC Converters or Inverters
These converters are connected between DC source of fixed input, and variable AC
load. Most commonly, these DC to AC converters are called as inverters. An inverter is
a static device that converts fixed DC supply voltage to variable AC voltage.
Figure 4.11 DC–AC converters

Here the fixed DC voltage is obtained from batteries or by DC link in most power
electronic converter.
Figure 4.12 Input and Output DC-AC converters responses
The output of the inverter can be variable/ fixed AC voltage with variable/fixed
frequency. This conversion from DC to AC along with variable supply is produced by
varying the triggering angle to the thyristors. Most of the thyristors used in inverters are
employed with forced commutation technique. These can be single phase or three phase
inverter depending on the supply voltage. These converters are mainly divided into two
groups. One is PWM based inverters and other multilevel inverters. Further, these are
classified voltage source inverter and current source inverter. Each type is subdivided
into different types such as PWM, SVPWM, etc. Multilevel inverters are more popular
in industrial applications.
4.2.7 DC to DC Converters
These converters can converter a fixed DC input voltage into variable DC voltage or
vice versa. The DC output voltage is controlled by varying of duty cycle.
Figure 4.13 Input and Output DC–DC converters responses

4.3 Dual and single stage PV inverter circuit topology
PV inverter circuit topology with DC-DC converter is termed as dual stage, and in this
topology the DC‐DC converter will handle the MPPT and some voltage amplification if
needed [7]. As discussed in reference [29] to date, the single-phase grid-tied P inverter
has been constructed using either single-stage or two-stage topology as illustrated in
Fig.4.14.
Figure.4.14: Single and dual stage inverter topology with coupling capacitances
Single-stage topology
Figure represents the most reliable and cost effective solution but with the
operational limitation of minimum PV voltage being larger than the peak ac grid
voltage in order to avoid the over-modulation operation resulting in the large series
connection of PV panels which is unwanted from the optimal operation point ofview
and can be attenuated by connecting to a line frequency transformer. However this
topology is bulky and less efficient.
Meanwhile the AC output power ripple which has double fundamental frequency
oscillation unavoidably introduces the double-line-frequency voltage ripple unlike the

balanced operation of maximum power point tracking as discussed in section 1.3.3. To

minimize the DC voltage ripple and then enhance the solar energy transfer efficiency, a
large value DC link capacitor is normally employed, which however cannot fully
eliminate this problem and leads to the increase of system size and cost.
Alternatively, a two-stage solution as shown in Fig.3.1 (b) consisting of DC-DC
boost converter and DC-AC inverter can operate in a large range of PV voltage
ensuring the proper PV energy conversion under wide operational range. Moreover, the
inserted DC-DC converter decouples the direct connection of PV panel and ac output so
that the ac output power ripple will not induce the double-line-frequency ripple of PV
voltage. The MPPT efficiency can then be enhanced by using a relatively small input
capacitor to just attenuate the high frequency input voltage ripple in the DC-DC voltage
conversion. Using a DC-DC converter in front, the efficiency of whole inverter would
decrease since more passive and active components are involved in the energy
processing when compared to the single-stage topology but when considering the
improved MPPT efficiency and wide operation range the two-stage solution is superior
to the single-stage inverter .

CHAPTER 5
MATLAB SIMULATION AND RESULT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The realization of controller was done by simulation in MATLAB program. The
controller was designed which is based on the mathematical modelling as discussed in
Chapter 4. The grid-connected inverter system has two major parts which are the grid
and a power conversion system. Fig. 1 shows a configuration of the proposed grid-
connected inverter system. The FPGA controller consists of a soft-core processor, a
dedicated current controller and other peripherals. The processor performs the higher
level control and gives a current command to the dedicated current controller. The
dedicated current controller is implemented by Hardware Description Language (HDL).
It samples the inverter output current, the grid current and the grid voltage through
Analog-to-Digital (AD) converters and executes the control algorithm. Then, it sends
out the inverter gating signal to the full-bridge inverter. When a satisfactory result is
obtained via simulation, implement their design using SIMULINK to allow the user to
view the response plot.
Figure 5.1 block diagram of implemented system
5.2 BOOST CONVERTER BASED MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER

DC-DC Boost converter is used to magnify the voltage from PV to a suitable form of
energy accepted by the load. Boost converter is a second order system consists of an
inductor, a capacitor, a diode, and with the load resistance connected in parallel with the
capacitor.
As the output from PV is not constant due to the ambient temperature and
environmental condition, the modeling of such converter is crucial. A DC-DC boost
converter can be modeled based on the knowledge about PV voltage. DC-DC
converters are dynamical systems with highly nonlinear behavior.

Figure 5.2 block diagram of Boost Converter
5.3 SIMULATION AND RESULTS

This model has been developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK based on FPGA. The result
obtained is shown below with the table describing the parameter value used for
simulation
Table.5.1. Simulation Parameter
Reference Voltage 450 V
Grid voltage 220 V
Boost inductor value 1mH
Frequency 50 HZ
DC-link voltage 340 V
Boost capacitor value 6000  F
PV series Cells 8
PV Parallel Cells 12
State of discharge 40%
Simulation Time 5 sec
Figure 5.3 Proposed and Developed Simulation Diagram

Figure. 5.4 FPGA Based MPPT Controller Simulation Diagram
Figure 5.5 Solar irradiance levels
Figure 5.5 Shows irradiance levels that are incident on the surface of 80 W modules at
constant temperature equal to 25°C.
Figure5.6 I-V and P-V Characteristics of one module at 250C

Figure 5.7 I-V and P-V Characteristics of array at 250C
Figure 5-6. shows I-V and P-V Characteristics of one module at 250C and Figure 5.7
shows the I-V and P-V Characteristics of array at 250C depends on the solar radiation.
Figure 5.8 (a)
Figure 5.8(b)
Figure 5.8 (a) Grid Voltage Waveforms and (b) Grid Current Waveforms

Fig.5.8 shows the 3-phase output current & voltage response at grid side. The peak
value ofvoltage is 380 V and peak value of current is 0.4 A under grid connected mode
Figure 5.9 Source current and Source voltage
The above plot shows that the regulated output voltage is tracking the given reference
voltage i.e, 450 V and the output ripple of the voltage is 1.21%. Figure 5.8 shows the
plot of the Source current and Source voltage, from these plot it is observed that current
is sinusoidal and in phase with the source voltage.
Figure 5.10 PV voltages at maximum power for different irradiance levels.
The PV voltage range of maximum power is between (15.66-17.6) V as indicted in Fig. 5.

10. The MPP tracker will Increase the PV voltage up to (20-25) V on each power switch
of inverter via DC/DC boost converter. Normally, the grid voltage has maximum

amplitude voltage of 311+10%. The transformer turns ratio should be (1/18) to satisfy
synchronism with utility grid.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTUR SCOPE
6.1 CONCLUSION
In this Project attempts have been applied to apply the sliding mode control concept for
the Boost converter using MATLAB/SIMULINK based on FPGA The Grid connected
PV module of 80W, MPP P&O tracker, half bridge inverter, series-resonance and high-
pass filters, step-up transformer, coupling inductor, and an ideal switch to feed
residential load with utility connected grid. To satisfy the results, the PV Module is
simulated under the following conditions:
• Large uniform change of irradiance at constant 25°C temperature.
• Linear and step change of temperature at constant irradiance.
• Combined of irradiance and temperature change.
• Residential load change.
The conversion topology has been proposed without transformer in PV system and
verified its results in MA TLAB Simulink which is interfaced with FPGA based Xilinx
system generator. In this topology no common mode voltage is generated, thus changes
in the behavior of the inverter in terms of high efficiency and insures that no DC will be
injected into the load. The FPGA based control logic for single stage grid connected
photovoltaic system has been implemented.
6.2 SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

The following are the few areas of future study which can be considered for further
work.
1. Apply super twisting sliding mode controller to the boost converter circuit .

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PUBLICATIONS
B. Gayatri Sirisha, C. Santhosh Kumar P. Preetham, M. Naresh and T. Manidhar

“Modeling and Simulation Of Micro Controller Based MPPT Method Using FPGA”
IECON 2021, 47th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES),
October 13-16, 2021, at Sheraton Centre, Toronto, Canada. (Submitted).

STUDENT BIO-DATA
Name : B. Gayatri Sirisha
Father Name : B. Hari Krishna
Roll No. : 17831A0207
Date of Birth : 06-06-1999
Mobile No : 7093776807
Email.id : bhagavathulagayatrisisha@gmail.com
Nationality : Indian
Communication Address : 25-40/12 plot no:46 East Anand Bagh , Adarsh

Nagar near DTDC Courrier Malkajgiri Medchal
district Hyderbad Telangana 500047
Permanent Address : 25-40/12 plot no:46 East Anand Bagh , Adarsh

Nagar near DTDC Courrier Malkajgiri Medchal
district Hyderbad Telangana 500047
STUDENT BIO-DATA
Name : C. Santhosh Kumar
Father Name : C. Srinivasulu
Roll No. : 17831A0209
Mobile No : 9182543588
Email.id : santhoshchinna109@gmail.com
Communication Address : House No.44-136, Ram Nagar Colony, Wanaparthy,

Dist: Wanaparthy, Pin: 509103
Permanent Address : House No.44-136, Ram Nagar Colony, Wanaparthy,

Dist: Wanaparthy, Pin: 509103
STUDENT BIO-DATA
Name : P. Preetham
Father Name : P. Hanumantha Rao
Roll No. : 17831A0235
Mobile No. : 9676232177
Email.id : parivedapreetham1@gmail.com
Communication Address : BN Reddy Nagar, Hasthinapuram, Ranga Reddy

District, pin: 500070
Permanent Address : Huzurabad, Karimnagar district, pin: 505468

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A Major Project Report on

MODELING AND SIMULATION OF MICRO

Ms. B. GAYATRI SIRISHA 17831A0207

Under the guidance of

GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

INTERNAL GUIDE PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

Major project viva voce held on

To be a world – class educational and research institution in the service of humanity by

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

M1: Imbibe soft skills and technical skills.

M2: Develop the faculty to reach the international standards.

M4: Promote research, innovation and Product development by collaboration withreputed

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S):

Program PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)

PROJECT MAPPING WITH POs AND PEOs

l. No. PROJECT NAME POs PEOs

Ms. B. GAYATRI SIRISHA 17831A0207

The major-project entitled “MODELING AND SIMULATION OF MICRO

Ms. B. GAYATRI SIRISHA 17831A0207

Fig. No Name of the figures Page No

5.1 Block Diagram of implemented system 30

5.1 Simulation Parameters 31

FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array

S.NO. CONTENTS PAGE.NO

CHAPTER-2 SOLAR PV SYSTEM AND SOLUTIONS 6-14

CHAPTER 3 DSP Controller and Field Programmable Gate 15-19

3.1 Digital signal processing (DSP) 15

CHAPTER 4 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 20-29

4.1 Electrical Grid 20

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 36

Department of EEE 1 GNIT

1.2.2 Renewable Energy resources:

Figure.1.1: Renewable energy resources

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included a Power Electronic Transformer which was practically an isolated high-

Department of EEE 4 GNIT

at different components of a grid-connected PV system from the solar irradiance

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Figure. 2.1 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion

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2.3 Photovoltaic system overview and inverter

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Figure. 2.2 Different Solar Modules

2.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC CHARACTERISTICS

Figure.2.3. Electrical Equivalent Circuit of PV Cell

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2.5.1 Open Circuit Voltage and Temperature

Figure.2.4: Current and Voltage characteristics of a PV module with temperature

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Figure.2.5: Current and Voltage characteristics of a PV module with

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Figure.2.6 Current, Voltage and Power characteristics of a PV module

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2.6 Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems

Figure. 2.7 Stand-alone photovoltaic systems

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Figure. 2.8 Grid Connected photovoltaic systems

Inverters are very important power electronics equipment in grid connected PV

2.7.1 Standards and Codes for Grid Connected Photovoltaic system