Power Electronics EECE 473

Chapter 2

Power Semiconductor Switches

 2

2.1 Introduction - 1

• In order to clearly understand the • SCR or Thyristors: They latch on by a

feasibility of the topologies of different control signal at the gate, they must be
power electronics circuits, it is essential turned off by the power circuit based on
that the characteristics of available the voltage across them.
power devices be understood. • Controllable switches: They are turned
• To do this, a brief summary is given of on or off by control signals.
the terminal voltage and current • The controllable switch category includes
characteristics of available power several device types including bipolar
devices, and switching speed. junction transistors (BJTs), metal-oxide-
• Power devices may be classified into semiconductor field effect transistors
three groups according to their degree of (MOSFETs), gate turn off (GTO) thyristors,
controllability. and insulated gate bipolar transistors
• Diodes: On and off states are controlled (IGBTs).
by the power circuit. If the voltage across • There have been major advances in
diode is positive it will conduct; its is in recent years in this category of devices.
the on-state. If the diode voltage is
negative it will block any conduction; it is
in off-state.
 3

2.2 Diodes - 1

• The diode circuit symbol is shown in Fig.

2.1 (a), and its i-v characteristics is shown
(a)
in Fig. 2.1 (b). The diode begins to conduct
when there is a small voltage across of the
order of 1 V.
• When the diode is reverse biased, a
negligibly small leakage current flow in it in
the reverse direction. (c)
• The idealized characteristics is shown in
Fig. 2.1 (c). We normally use the idealized
characteristic for analyzing the converter
topology, but we should consider the small
voltage drop when designing the
converter.
• At turn-on, the diode can be considered
an ideal switch because it turns on rapidly
compared to the transients in the power
circuit. Fig. 2.1: Diode: (a) symbol, (b) i-v characteristics,
(c) idealized characteristics.
 4

2.2 Diodes - 2

• At turn-off, the diode current reverses 1

𝑄𝑟𝑟 = 2 𝐼𝑅𝑀 𝑡𝑟𝑟 (2.1)
for a reverse-recovery time 𝑡𝑟𝑟 , as is
shown in Fig. 2.3, before falling to zero. • The value 𝐼𝑅𝑀 is given by
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑡𝑟𝑟
• This reverse-recovery (negative) current 𝐼𝑅𝑀 = 𝑑𝑡𝐷 𝑡𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡𝐷 (1+𝑆) (2.2)
is required to sweep out the excess
carriers in the diode and allow it to where 𝑆 = 𝑡𝑏 Τ𝑡𝑎 is the softness factor,
block a negative polarity voltage. The which is usually less than one.
reverse-recovery current can lead to • The time 𝑡𝑎 is that needed to sweep
over-voltages in inductive circuits. most charge from the depletion layer,
• Before turn-off, the diode was and 𝑡𝑏 is the time needed for remaining
conducting, its depletion region is full of charge to recombine.
charges. Diode will act as a short circuit
until the depletion region recovers. The
𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑏
current that may flow due to the source
can be very high unless limited by stray
or additional inductance in the circuit.
• The peak value 𝐼𝑅𝑀 may be estimated as
follows by first estimating 𝑄𝑟𝑟 (shaded)
as the area of a triangle: Fig. 2.3: Diode turn-off
 5

2.2 Diodes - 3

• From the above equations: • The values of 𝑄𝑟𝑟 and 𝑆 from the data
2𝑄𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝐷 Τ𝑑𝑡
sheet are 𝑄𝑟𝑟 =220 nC and 𝑆= 0.15. Thus,
𝐼𝑅𝑀 = (2.3)
(1+𝑆) 2×220×10−9 ×4000Τ10−6
𝐼𝑅𝑀 = = 39 A
• The values of 𝑄𝑟𝑟 and 𝑆 are obtained (1+0.15)

from the diode data sheet, and 𝑑𝑖𝐷 Τ𝑑𝑡 • The data sheet specifies a typical 𝐼𝑅𝑀 =
may be obtained from circuit analysis. 7.5 A, so we need to add inductance in
• Example 2.1: In the circuit of Fig. 2.4 series with the diode to protect it from
below, when the switch opens a current, excess reverse current. The allowable
𝑖𝐷 = 15 A, circulates in the inductor and rate of current drop is 𝑑𝑖𝐹 Τ𝑑𝑡= 200 A/s
diode. The stray inductance associated and so the inductance is obtained from
with leads of the 𝑉𝑆 = 400 V source is 0.1 𝐿𝑆 = 400/200= 2 H.
H. The diode is STTH15R06D. (a) What
is the peak reverse current 𝐼𝑅𝑀 observed
when the switch closes? (b) Do we need
to add additional inductance with the
source. How much?
• Solution: The rate of current increase of
the source is 400/0.1= 4000 A/s. By
KCL, the rate 𝑑𝑖𝐷 Τ𝑑𝑡 is –4000 A/s. Fig. 2.4: Step-down regulator for Example 2.1
 6

2.2 Diodes - 4

• Depending on the applications, various • Fast-Recovery Diodes: These are

types of diodes are available. designed to be used in high-frequency
• Schottky diodes: They are used where a circuits in combination with controllable
low forward voltage drop (e.g. 0.2 V) is switches where a small reverse-recovery
needed in very low-voltage and high- time (𝑡𝑟𝑟 ) is needed. At power levels of
current circuits. A typical application is several hundred volts and several
welding. They have blocking voltage hundred amperes, 𝑡𝑟𝑟 is less 5 s. One
such diode is the Vishay SD203N/R-S20
capabilities in the range 50-100 V.
that has a 2000 V and 200 A ratings,
Instead of a P-N junction, the Schottky with 𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 2 s.
diode has a metal-semiconductor
• Line-Frequency Diodes: The on-state
junction, which reduces capacitance
voltage of these diodes is designed to
and increases switching speed. Modern be as low as possible and thus have
Schottky diodes (e.g. SCS220AJHR) using larger 𝑡𝑟𝑟 which are acceptable for line-
silicon-carbide (SiC) technology have a frequency applications. One such diode
blocking voltage of about 650V and a is the ABB 5SDD-50N5500 with ratings
20A rating. The voltage drop is 1.55V at of 5500V and 4700A, and a 𝑡𝑟𝑟 ≅ 75 s.
150°C, and the switching time is 19 ns. These diodes can be connected in series
For comparison, the diode of Example and parallel to satisfy higher voltage and
2.1 has a switching time of about 50 ns. current requirements.
 7

2.3 Thyristors - 1

• The circuit symbol for the thyristor or (a)

SCR and its 𝑖 − 𝑣 characteristic are
shown in Figs. 2.5 (a) and 2.5 (b). The (b)
main current flows from the anode (A) to
cathode (K).
• In its off-state, the thyristor can block
forward and reverse polarity voltages
and does not conduct.
• If the thyristor is blocking a forward
voltage, then when triggered, by
applying a positive gate current pulse for
a short duration, it will conduct. Its on-
state characteristic is similar to that of (c)
two diodes in series, with a voltage drop
of about 1 to 3V. As the blocking
capability of the thyristor increase then
its forward voltage drop also increases.
• Once the device conducts, it latches on
and the gate current can be removed. Fig. 2.5: Diode: (a) symbol, (b) i-v characteristics,
(c) idealized characteristics.
 8

2.3 Thyristors - 2

• The thyristor can be represented by the

idealized characteristics shown in Fig. 2.5
(c) in analyzing converter topologies.
• A simple thyristor circuit is shown in Fig.
2.6 (a), its voltage and current are shown
in Fig. 2.6 (b). The current 𝑖𝐴 flowing in
the circuit is zero until the instant 𝑡𝛼
when the thyristor is triggered by a
current pulse as shown in Fig. 2.6 (c).
The supply voltage appears across the 𝒕𝜶

thyristor, and no voltage is across 𝑅.

• Once the thyristor conducts, the voltage
across it is very small voltage compared 𝒊𝑮
to 𝑣𝑠 . At 𝑇𝑠 Τ2 + 𝑡𝛼 , even if triggered the
thyristor will not conduct because it is
blocking a negative voltage. 𝒕𝜶
𝒕

• The thyristor stops conducting at 𝑇𝑠 Τ2 (c)

when the current through it is very small Fig. 2.6: Thyristor: (a) Circuit, (b) waveforms,
and then the voltage across it is negative. (c) gate current pulse.
 9
2.3 Thyristors - 3

• The thyristor’s most basic structure consists of a

four-layer PNPN junction device. A gate terminal
(G) is provided for this device to function as an
SCR.
• The operation of this device can best be
understood with the two-transistor model of the
SCR, shown in Figure 2.7. (𝒂)
• The middle layers are split and form PNP and NPN
transistors connected as shown. Without any gate
current, they will block forward and reverse
voltage between the anode (A) and cathode (K).
• When 𝑣𝐴𝐾 is positive and a current 𝑖𝐺 is injected 𝜷𝑷
at the base of the NPN transistor, it conducts and
carries a collector current given by 𝑖𝐶𝑁 = 𝛽𝑁 𝑖𝐺 · 𝜷𝑵

This collector current provides a base current for

the PNP transistor, and starts conducting with a (𝒃)
collector current of 𝑖𝐶𝑃 =𝛽𝑃 𝛽𝑁 𝑖𝐺 . The product
𝛽𝑃 𝛽𝑁 > 1, and the two transistors will drive each
Fig. 2.7: Two-transistor model: (a) symbol and
other into saturation. PNPN structure, (b) Change into two transistors.
 10
2.3 Thyristors - 4

• The collector current in the PNP transistor • Phase-Control Thyristors: these are used
replaces the gate current. The device will primarily for rectifying line-frequency
latch to an on-state through a voltages and currents in phase-controlled
regenerative current process. Only a rectifiers for dc and ac motor drives and
small current pulse is needed, for long in high-voltage dc power transmission.
enough, to trigger this process. • This type of thyristor has been produced
• For example, the 2N6509 SCR can block a with 4 kA and blocking voltage of 5-7 kV.
voltage of about 800V. To conduct, it On-state voltage drop range from 1.5 V
requires 𝑣𝐴𝐾 > 1.8 V, a gate current of for 1000 V devices to 3 V for the 5-7-kV
about 75 mA at -40°C, and a gate-cathode devices. One such device is the Infineon
voltage 𝑣𝐺𝐾 > 1 V for a duration of about 2 T2871N with ratings of 8000V and 2600A,
s. Check its data sheet. shown below in Fig. 2.8.
• Depending on the application, various 172.5 mm
types of thyristors are available. In
addition to voltage and current ratings,
turn-off time 𝑡𝑞 , and the forward voltage
drop, the permissible rate of rise of the
current (𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡) at turn-on and the rate of
rise of voltage (𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡) at turn-off. Fig. 2.8: The Infineon T2871N SCR
 11
2.3 Thyristors - 5

• Inverter-Grade Thyristors: These are • In HVDC transmission, many thyristors are

designed to have small turn-off times 𝑡𝑞 connected in series and parallel to make
in addition to low on-state voltages, but up a converter valve, as shown in Fig. 2.9.
on-state voltages are larger in devices The use of light insures that the triggering
with smaller values of 𝑡𝑞 . These devices pulses reach the different devices at the
are available with ratings up to 2500 V same time. They have similar voltage and
and 1500 A. Their turn-off times are current ratings as phase control
usually in the range of a few s to 100 ps thyristors.
depending on their blocking voltage
ratings and on-state voltage drops. One
such device is the 2N6509 SCR,
mentioned earlier.
• Light-Activated SCRs (LASCR): These can
be triggered on by a pulse of light guided
by optical fibers to a special sensitive
region of the thyristor. The light generates
excess electron-hole pairs in the silicon,
which starts the regenerative current
process. Their primary use is in high-
voltage dc (HVDC) transmission. Fig. 2.8: A HVDC valve where LASCR are used
 12
2.4 Characteristics of Controllable Switches - 1

• Controllable switches include BJTs, • Small leakage current in off-state.

MOSFETs, GTOs, IGBTs, and other devices • Short turn-on and turn-off times to allow
derived therefrom. In the design of such the devices to be used at high switching
switches we usually aim to approach the frequency.
characteristics of an ideal switch.
• Small control power requirement to turn
• An ideal switch can conduct an arbitrarily on or off of the device.
large current, can block any large voltage,
• Large 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕 and 𝒅𝒗/𝒅𝒕 ratings to
turns on or off instantaneously, and
minimize external circuitry to protect the
requires no power to be turned on or off.
device from being damaged.
• The desired characteristics in controllable
• Positive temperature coefficient of on-
switches may thus be stated as follows:
state resistance to enable devices to be
• High on-state current to minimize the connected in parallel to share a large
need to connect devices in parallel. current.
• Large forward and reverse voltage • The significant losses usually encountered
blocking capability to minimize the need with switches are the on-state losses and
for connecting several devices in series. the switching losses as the device is
• Small on-state voltage drop to minimize turned on or off. Switching losses increase
on-state power losses. with the switching frequency. This will be
examined in the following slides.
 13
2.4 Characteristics of Controllable Switches - 2

• Consider the circuit of Fig. 2.9 (a) to study

switching losses. The diode is considered
ideal to focus on the switching losses of
the transistor.
• When the transistor is on, the diode has a
reverse voltage of 𝑉𝑑 across it and is off. (a)
From KCL, the current in the transistor is
𝐼𝑜 . When the transistor is turned off the 𝑖𝐵
diode will conduct 𝐼𝑜 and the source
voltage appears across the transistor. 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓

• The energy dissipation 𝑊𝑜𝑛 when the

𝑡
switch is on for a time 𝑡𝑜𝑛 is approximately 𝑣𝑇 , 𝑖 𝑇
𝑇𝑠 = 1ൗ𝑓
𝑠

𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑛 (2.4) 𝑉𝑑

𝐼𝑜
𝑉𝑑

• The energy 𝑊𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 when the switch is being 𝑉𝑜𝑛

turned on is the integral of the power
𝑡
dissipated in the switch in the period 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 . 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙

It is the integral of the product 𝑣𝑇 𝑖 𝑇 from (b)

0 to 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 . Fig. 2.9: Circuit to study switching losses (a),
waveforms of switching losses (b).
 14
2.4 Characteristics of Controllable Switches - 3

• Assuming linear rise of current 𝑖 𝑇 and drop • Example 2.2: In the circuit of Fig. 2.9 the
in the voltage 𝑣𝑇 , so voltage source 𝑉𝑑 = 80 V, the current 𝐼𝑜 =
𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝑉𝑑 𝑡 8 A, and the transistor is a TIP142T. The
𝑊𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ‫׬‬0 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡 𝑜 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 frequency of switching 𝑓𝑠 =20 kHz, the
1 collector to emitter saturation voltage is
= 6 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 (2.5)
3 V, and the rise and fall times are 0.55
• The energy dissipated during turn-off is and 2.5 s, respectively. The switch is
1
𝑊𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 6 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 (2.6) operated at 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑠 Τ2. (a) What are the
• The total energy dissipated 𝑊𝑠 due to on-state power losses, with turn-on and
switching over one cycle is obtained from turn-off losses. What are the total
(2.4), (2.5), and (2.6) losses? (b) What is the efficiency of the
1 transistor switch?
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑛 + 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 + 𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 1
6 • Solution: (a) 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 6 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑓𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1.174
(2.7) 1
W, and 𝑃𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 6 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑓𝑠 𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 5.333 W. The
• There are 𝑓𝑠 such transitions per second.
So the power associated with switching: on-state losses are 𝑃𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑠 = 12
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜𝑛 + 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 + 𝑃𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 W. The total power loss is 18.507 W.
1
(b) Power supplied to the load is 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
= 𝑉𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑠 + 6 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑓𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 + 𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 𝑇𝑜𝑛= 320W, so 𝜂= 320/(320+18.51)=
𝑠
(2.8) 94.5%. Exercise: Include losses of diode!
 15

2.5 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

• The circuit symbol for an NPN BJT is

shown in Fig. 2.10 (a), and its steady-
state 𝑖 − 𝑣 characteristics are shown in
Fig. 2.10 (b). To operate the BJT as a
switch, i.e. in saturation, the control
circuit should provide a base current that
is sufficiently large so that
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵 > (2.9)
ℎ𝐹𝐸 Fig. 2.10: BJT: (a) symbol, (b) i-v characteristics.
where ℎ𝐹𝐸 is the dc current gain, which C
in high power BJTs is usually 5 – 10. The
on-state voltage in the range 2 to 3 V.
B
• Because of a low current gain, BJTs are usually connected as Q1
Q2 D2
a monolithic Darlington pair to achieve a larger current gain
of 50 min. for the MJ10023, shown in Fig 2.11. It has ratings D1

of 400V and 40A, 𝑉𝐶𝐸(sat) = 2.5V, and a turn off time is 2 s.
E
Diode D1 provides a path to quickly discharge the base- kΩ kΩ
emitter junction capacitance of Q2 thus enhancing its turn Fig. 2.11: MJ10023 Darlington
off. Diode D2 provides a path for inductive load currents. configuration.
 16

2.6 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (MOSFET) - 1

• Figure 2.12 shows a simplified cross section

of a lateral MOSFET. The P material is lightly
doped and is highly resistive. When 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is
positive and above a threshold, it attracts
electrons and an N-channel is formed
between the N-type wells.
• So if a voltage appears across the drain and
source, 𝑉𝐷𝑆 > 0, current will flow across the
channel. Because conduction is confined to Fig. 2.12: Basic structure of a
lateral MOSFET.
the channel, the current ratings of MOSFETs
are rather low, up to 100 A, but voltage
ratings may go up to 1000V.
• No gate current flows except during the
transitions from on to off or vice versa,
when the gate capacitance is being charged
or discharged.
• The circuit symbol for an n-channel MOSFET
is shown in Fig. 2.12 (a), and its 𝑖 − 𝑣
characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.12 (b). Fig. 2.13: MOSFET: (a) symbol, (b) i-v characteristics.
 17

2.6 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (MOSFET) - 2

• The on-state resistance 𝑅𝐷𝑆(on) of a • In the previous comparison, the drain-

MOSFET between the drain and source source voltage drop 𝑉𝐷𝑆 of the IRF150 is
increases rapidly with the device 1.1 V, whereas for the IRF460 it is 6.2 V.
blocking voltage rating 𝐵𝑉𝐷𝑆𝑆 . It is • The rise and fall time of MOSFETS are
approximately given by: much smaller than those of BJTs. For the
𝑅𝐷𝑆(on) = 𝑘 𝐵𝑉𝐷𝑆𝑆 2.6 (2.10) IRF150 𝑡𝑟 = 190 ns and 𝑡𝑓 = 130 ns, while
• Because of this, only devices with small for IRF460 they are 𝑡𝑟 = 120 ns and 𝑡𝑓 =
voltage ratings are available that have 98 ns. The are of the same order of
low on-state resistance and hence small magnitude.
conduction losses. • For the MJ10023 Darlington, the rise and
• For example, the IRF150 that has ratings fall time are 𝑡𝑟 = 400 ns and 𝑡𝑓 = 300 ns,
of 100 V and 38 A has an 𝑅𝐷𝑆(on) = while its on-state voltage drop 𝑉𝐶𝐸(sat) =
0.055Ω, whereas the IRF460 that has 2.5 V. So its on-state losses at 20 A are
ratings of 500 V and 21 A has an 50W.
𝑅𝐷𝑆(on) = 0.31 Ω. • Because of their small rise and fall times,
• The on-state losses at a current of 20A of MOSFETs would compete from the losses
an IRF150 are 22 W, whereas the losses viewpoint when the frequency is in
of an IRF460 are 124 W. excess of 30 to 100 kHz.
 18

2.7 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (IGBT) - 1

• The IGBT is based on a Darlington FET-BJT • To turn-off the IGBT, the gate-emitter
combination. A vertical device structure is voltage is set to zero. Once the internal
shown in Fig. 2.14 (a). gate-source capacitance has discharged,
• If an electric field is provided between the the channel current falls quickly. However,
gate and the emitter terminals, an N- the current flow in the transistor falls
channel is created through the lower P+ more slowly as carriers in the base region
region, close to the gate. A strong flow of are eliminated by recombination.
electrons goes from the N+ to the N-
region, via the N-channel. This creates a
base current for the (P+,N-,P+) transistor, (a) (b)
which turns on thus allowing the bulk Parasitic
current of the device to flow from the Transistor
collector to the emitter.
• The parasitic NPN transistor, Fig. 2.14 (b),
could turn-on and cause the IGBT to latch-
up and conduct as a thyristor. The
avoidance of this latch-up is an important
issue in IGBT design, which is achieved by
keeping 𝑅𝐵 low through high doping. Fig. 2.14: IGBT: (a) structure, (b) equivalent circuit.
 19

2.7 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (IGBT) - 2

• Lower doping in the upper P+ and N-

regions may enhance this recombination
process and reduce the turn-off time to (a)
about 500 ns, however, higher forward
drop is generated as a consequence.
• Due to its PNPN construction, the IGBT
has an inherent voltage blocking capability 15V
13V
in the forward an the reverse directions.
The IGBT symbol and i-v characteristics are
shown in Fig. 2.15 (a) and (b).
• The i-v characteristics are those of the (b)
Hitachi MBM 1000FS17G with ratings of
1800 V and 1000 A. At 𝑉𝐺𝐸 = 15 V and a
forward current of 1000 A, the forward
voltage drop 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is about 2.3 V. It has a
turn-on time of 0.6 s and a turn-off time
of 1.9 s.

Fig. 2.15: IGBT: (a) symbol, (b) i-v characteristics.

 20

2.8 GATE TURN-OFF (GTO) THYRISTORS - 1

• Like the thyristor, the GTO is a PNPN device

can be turned on by a short-duration gate
current pulse. Its basic structure is shown
in Fig. 2.16 (a). The gate-cathode structure
is intermingled to allow more control of the
gate on the operation of the device.
• Thus, unlike the thyristor, the GTO can be
turned off by applying a negative gate-
(a)
cathode voltage, therefore causing a
sufficiently large negative gate current to
flow for a few micro-seconds. The negative
gate current is about one-third of the main
anode current.
• The circuit symbol for the GTO is shown in
Fig. 2.16 (b) and its steady-state 𝑖 − 𝑣
characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.16 (c). The
GTO can block negative voltages whose
(c)
magnitude depends on the details of the (b)
GTO design. Fig. 2.16: GTO: (a) structure, (b) symbol,
(c) switching characteristics.
 21

2.8 GATE TURN-OFF (GTO) THYRISTORS - 2

• The on-state voltages (2-3 V) of GTOs is • The value of 𝐶𝑠 may be obtained from the
slightly higher than those of thyristors. following inequality:
The GTO switching speeds range from a 𝑑𝑣 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑣
= ≤ (2.10)
few microseconds to 25 s. They are 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠 𝑑𝑡 max
capable of handling large voltages , up to • Now when the device turns again at the
4.5 kV, and large currents up to few kA. next cycle, the resistance 𝑅𝑠 is to limit the
They are used in switching frequencies maximum discharge current 𝑉𝑑 /𝑅𝑠 so that
from a few hundred hertz to 10 kHz. 𝑉𝑑
+ 𝐼𝑜 ≤ 𝐼TQRM (2.11)
• A GTO cannot be used for inductive turn 𝑅𝑠
off unless a turn-off snubber circuit is where 𝐼TQRM is the maximum repetitive
connected across it as shown in Fig. 2.17. on-state current.
This is due to a large 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 that goes with
inductive current turn-off, which cannot
be tolerated by present-day GTOs.
• The snubber circuit consists of a capacitor
𝐶𝑠 to limit 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 to a critical value that
may be tolerated by the GTO obtained
from the data sheet 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 max . When
the device turns off, the capacitance 𝐶𝑠
will be charged by the load current 𝐼𝑜 . Fig. 2.17: Dc-dc converter using a GTO and turn-off snubber.
 22

2.8 GATE TURN-OFF (GTO) THYRISTORS - 3

• From (2.11) we get an lower limit on 𝑅𝑠 : a. Does the device used in this circuit need
𝑉 a turn-off snubber, if the diode D has a
𝑅𝑠 ≥ 𝐼 𝑑 −𝐼 (2.12)
TQRM 𝑜 turn-on time of 0.5 s?
• There is another limit on 𝑅𝑠 obtained from b. Determine the value of 𝐶𝑠 needed for a
time required for 𝐶𝑠 to discharge its safe turn-off of the GTO.
energy during the minimum on time c. Determine a value of 𝑅𝑠 that would keep
𝑡on min of the device: the snubber discharge current within the
3𝑅𝑠 𝐶𝑠 ≥ 𝑡on min = 𝐷min Τ𝑓𝑠 (2.13) GTO current limit. The switching
frequency 𝑓𝑠 = 1 kHz, and the minimum
where 𝐷min and 𝑓𝑠 are the minimum duty duty cycle is 0.1.
cycle and the switching frequency,
• Solution:
respectively. Thus from (2.13) we get
𝐷 a. If the diode turns on in 0.5 s, then the
𝑅𝑠 ≤ 3𝐶min (2.14) supply voltage of 3000 V will be across
𝑠 𝑓𝑠
• Example 2.3: Consider the GTO used is a the diode D at a rate of 3000/0.5= 6000
FG1000BV-90DA. The average load V/s, which is larger than 1000 V/s.
current is 𝐼𝑜 = 350 A and the supply Therefore we need to limit this rate of
rise using a turn-off snubber.
voltage is 𝑉𝑑 = 3000 V. The critical rate of
−1
rise of voltage, obtained from the data b. From (2.10), 𝐶𝑠 ≥ 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑣Τ𝑑𝑡 max =
sheet, is 1000 V/s, and 𝐼TQRM = 1000 A. 350/1000=0.35 F. Select 𝐶𝑠 to be 0.4 F.
 23

2.8 GATE TURN-OFF (GTO) THYRISTORS - 4

c. The value of 𝑅𝑠 is limited by (2.12) and • The inductance is obtained from:

(2.14): 4.6 ≤ 𝑅𝑠 ≤ 83.5 Ω. So an 𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝑑𝑖
= ≤ (2.15)
appropriate value would be 𝑅𝑠 = 15 Ω. 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑡 max
• The requirement of a snubber comes where 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 max is the critical rate of
usually when we have devices blocking rise of the current of the device, obtained
large voltages and turning-on to large from its data sheet. For Example 2.3, the
currents, as we have seen with the GTO. device 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 max = 1000 A/s. So using
• We have seen how to limit the rate of rise (2.15), 𝐿𝑠 = 4500/1000= 4.5 H.
of voltage on a device at turn-off. • When 𝐿𝑠 is included to protect a device at
• When a device turns on, the current turn on, we have to provide a path for the
spreads over the surface of the device current in it when the device turns off.
gradually, starting in the region where it Otherwise high voltages will appear due
was triggered. Some time must elapse to inductive current discontinuity. So, an
before the current is uniform over the anti-parallel diode is added in series with
total surface of the device. If the current a resistance as shown in Fig. 2.18.
build-up is too fast, it will cause hot-spots.
• These will eventually destroy the device.
This is avoided by connecting a turn-on
snubber, an inductance, in series with the
device to limit the rate of rise of current. Fig. 2.18: GTO in series with a turn-on snubber.
 24

2.9 MOS-CONTROLLED THYRISTORS (MCT)

• The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is a more

recent device. Its structure is shown in Fig.
2.19 (a), which shows that it is a PNPN device
that has similar 𝑖 − 𝑣 characteristics to the
GTO, except that turn-on and off is achieved
using two MOSFETs shown in the equivalent
circuit in Fig. 2.19 (b). The circuit symbol of
this P-MCT is shown in Fig. 2.19 (c). When
𝑣𝐺𝐴 < 0, the device is turned on by the P- (a)
MOSFET, and when 𝑣𝐺𝐴 > 0 the device is
turned off by the N-MOSFET.
• The MCT has many of the properties of a
GTO, including a low voltage drop in the on
state at relatively high currents and a latching
characteristic (the MCT remains on even if the
gate drive is removed). The MCT is a voltage-
controlled device like the IGBT and MOSFET.
• The MCTs have smaller on-state voltage drops (b) (c)
compared to IGBTs with ratings of 1500 V and
current ratings up to a few hundred amperes. Fig. 2.19: P-channel MOS controlled thyristor; (a)
structure, (b) equivalent circuit, (c) symbol.
 25

2.10 Comparison of Controllable Switches

• A summary of power device

capabilities is shown in Fig. 2.10.
Progress in semiconductor technology
is on going. It will lead to higher power
rating, faster switching speeds, and
lower costs.
• All device technologies, except MCT,
are relatively mature. MCT technology
is still developing and significant
improvements are expected indicated
by the expansion arrow in the
diagram.
• At one time, the SCR was the primary
device used in circuits for controllable
switch applications. However, the
advent of other devices has limited its
use to power converters in multi-MVA
ratings, as in high-voltage dc
transmission (HVDC).
Fig. 2.20: Summary of power semiconductor Switches.