Answer 1 (a)

• Epistemological discourse of Enlightenment can be traced in two schools :-

1. Rationalist :-
I. Our knowledge are gained independently of sense experience. They believe in a priory source of
knowledge.
II. Rationalist believe deductionist way of deriving the truth. Their method was like a mathematical
solution.
III. They claim for universal form of truth.
2. Empiricist :-
I. They believe that the knowledge can be gained from the sense experience only.
II. They reject intuition or innate knowledge thesis. Their idea is based upon posterior.
• Kant :-
 He came with a solution regarding this. He said that sense organ is the primary source of knowledge and
reason is the analysing factor. Without rational interpretation knowledge will be raw and it can’t be cohesive
to give a platform of law making or for framing a code of ethics.
 Answer 1 (b)

• Paris commune was established during March 1871 to May 1871.

• During this very short spell of time Paris witnessed a radical government, which was formed by the communist,
socialist and anarchist.
 They abolished capital punishment.
 They abolished military conscription.
 Abolished church laws.
 Remission of rents.
 Tried to develop working conditions.
 Pension for companions and family members of dead solders.
• This government emerged out of the extra-ordinary circumstances caused by Franco-German war, but it had a
deeper route in history and socio-demographic background also. But this alternative mode of politics could not
sustain because :-
 It was not having social support in rest of the part of nation.
 They came with the use of violence and finally could not sustain against the brutal attack of government.
 This revolution caused a concern throughout Europe because it was threatening the capitalist socio-economic
model, through it’s alternative model of dictatorship of proletariat. Thus the communists were punished.
Communist international collapsed.
 After this even the socialist started alternative way to bring socialism and this thing paved the path of
democratic socialism.
 Answer 1 (c)

• Rousseau was a French thinker of 18th Century who raised many questions against civilization in his book on
inequality, he examined the material growth with Human concern and concluded that man was noble in spirit but
during the course of growth of Economy, Social and Political ideas and institutions, they succeeded materially but
lost their human quotient.
• Rousseau said that greed has led the human towards the unjust economic distribution and after that they formed
suitable socio-economic structure.
• In that course many problems emerged.
• Modern and rational thinkers are trying to resolve the problems. But they can’t find out the solution through this
channel.
• He gave solution in his book social contract.
 Answer 1 (d)

• Give a general introduction of enlightenment :-

 Rationalism
 Liberalism
 Materialism
 Humanism
• Some prominent thinkers.
• Rousseau was not a rationalist.
• He said that one should listen to the music of heart. It will make you sensitive, kind, liberal and more human, while
mind dose calculation only. It is emotionally and ethically neutral. (in his famous book Emile)
• If you listen the voice of mind you can be capable while listening the voice of heart can make you noble and saga as
originally you are.
 Answer 1 (e)
• Brief introduction of American Civil War :-
 When : 1861-65
 Between the union and confederates (7 Secessionist Slave States)
• Reason :-
 North and South were under the fierce tassel caused by slavery. During the making of American constitution
they could temporarily resolve it but America remained ideologically divided into two groups :-
 Libertarian and equalitarian Vs Slave owner and discriminators.
 This socio- Intellectual division was not based upon different ideas of life only, rather it was having an
economic reason behind. South was primarily agricultural and particularly plantation based which
considered slavery essential.
 Initially George Washington was optimistic that slavery will end sooner or later but by the invention of new
plantation friendly technology slavery became more profitable to southerners.
 This difference became a cause of friction. Act of liberations enlarged the friction. Question of Slavery divided
Americans not only socially, politically, judicially and culturally also.
  Election of Abraham Lincoln and the declaration of cessation should be read in this backdrop.
 Along with this we should remember the difference in their opinion regarding the tariff policy as well. North
wanted heavy tariff while southern wanted free trade.
• Conclusion :-
 Finally we can say that slavery was the most vitiating factor among the north and south but not the only one
factor. Rather the real difference lies in their economic and political differences.
 Answer 2 (a)
• In his book what is enlightenment Kant underlined these points :-
 People are surrounded by directives and restrictions from various source of authorities. They don’t allow to
think them with freedom.
 He found religion as the most restrictive chain imposed upon the free thinking. It enslaves the mind of even the
most well read people.
 He observed that reason is essential but not enough to make a man enlightened. A perfect blend of reason and
courage is required to reach to the state of enlightenment.
 He said that most of the people are living in the state of self imposed nonage, which is allowing the handful of
self proclaimed guardians to dictate and chain in the maximum number of people.
 He concluded that unless the people develop reason and courage within themselves, change in the political
institutions and constitutions will not contribute sufficiently. That is why he did not find revolution as the real
game changer. He was in favour of the state who give the people maximum opportunity to think but did not
count it enough to make a man enlightened.
 Answer 2 (b)
• American war of independence was decided and declared in Philadelphia congress. They were committed to get
liberty, equality and pursuit of happiness. They were optimistic to win the war but the most important thing what
they declared was that, they are ready to die to live with liberty and dignity.
• Their revolutionary fervour was showing the shine from 1863 only which evolved with dream and valour as well as
readiness of sacrifice.
• At the same time we should remember that revolution occurred out of the conflict of interests between the British
and American commercial classes, like :-
 Hat act
 Iron Act
 Woollen Act
 Navigation Act
• Along with commercial conflict, they were opposed to each other for the territorial expansion as well.
• Revolution was instigated by the myopic policy of George III.
• America evolved gradually as a capitalist society and liberal political structure.
 Answer 2 (c)
• American revolution occurred first in the mind of the people and than finally it moved towards the war of
independence via Philadelphia congress.
• The real turning point came in 1763 after the stamp act protest. Boston Tea Party and Lexington massacre were the
prominent events before the Philadelphia congress.
• Real cause of the revolution can be traced in :-
 Commercial conflict
 Territorial conflict
 Ideological and aspirational awakening
• But in this regard we have to remember the gradual evolution of America which gave them :-
 Nationalism
 Democratic ideas and institutions.
 Capitalist idea and industrial as well as commercial standings.
 Urbanization and emergence of the middle class.
 Idea of Enlightenment.
• On account of these things we can say that American independence was inevitable, but revolution and war was not
the only possible way out of liberty. If there would have been a visionary leadership in England they would have
moved towards gradual reform after the 7 year’s war, but George III moved in just opposite direction. It made the
revolution inevitable.
 Answer 3 (a)
• Nationalism is a collective political consciousness . If emerged first time in Europe after renaissance and reformation.
• After French revolution, Nationalism changed the political boundary during 19th century and Paris peace treaty
completed the process.
• Asia too witnessed nationalist consciousness during 19th century and it became the most powerful political identity
of Asia. Post World War II decolonialisation made whole Asia free and turned it a bunch of nation states.
• Asian nationalism vary from European nationalism in many ways :-
 Europe evolved it’s nationalism either in the name of caste or language while Asia did it variously. India is a
special case of unity against diversity.
 Europe developed it’s nationalism against the catholic unity. Thus it was secular in character while in Asia many
countries evolved either in the name of religion or religion plays very significant role in their politics.
 European nationalism evolved along with it’s material and social as well as intellectual evolution. On account of
this they fought against the old and imperial political structure. While in Asia we witnessed that nationalism
evolved against European imperialism, which was exploitative, discriminatory and oppressive. Thus Asians were
generally very poor when they became nation state.
 Asia focused one another problem of partition or civil wars, particularly caused by imperial structure and
partially caused by it’s economic, social and intellectual backwardness.
 Answer 3 (b)
• Napoleon united Germany.
• How?
 39 out 300.
 One common parliament of the people’s representative.
 Spread the sense of nationalism.
 Spread the sense of new code of law and modern bureaucracy.
• He invaded Prussia and won in the battle of Jena.
• It generated nationalist feelings and resentment among the people.
• Same nationalist sentiment worked when Prussia joined the united front against Napoleon.
• The whole history of German unification evolved around anti French nationalism and finally it became united when
Jena turned into Sedan. That is why, a historian has rightly said that this is an Irony of History that Napoleon started
the process of German unification.
 Answer 3 (c)
• Basic introduction of the revolution and it’s contribution to Europe.
• Liberty :-
 During first phase it brought constitutional monarchy and personal liberty.
 In the second phase it brought republic but it became dictatorial.
 Napoleon begun like a republican dictator and finished like the replica of Louis XIVth.
 Although liberty remain uncertain initially but finally it changed the political structure of Europe.
• Nationalism :-
 Revolution made the people sovereign. This popular sovereignty, not only ended the absolutism but also
brought the new ways and means to determine the political boundary. Nation state became the new political
reality, that reshaped the political boundary of Europe.
 Revolution ended the social discrimination based upon the privilege system.
 Although it did not raise any serious question against the capitalistic class system and patriarchy, but the idea of
liberty, equality and fraternity paved the future course.
• Flip side of the coin :-
 French revolution was not the only factor to bring all the changes, it is credited with. Their were many more
sources, like :-
 Industrial revolution.
 Enlightenment and development of press.
 Glorious revolution, American revolution and many more events.
 If we go to evaluate it’s role, we can say that :-
 Revolution itself was the result of many changes.
 Initially it seemed failing with very few results, but other changing carriers made the revolution successful.
 Revolution’s real impact is not as the breeder of the changes but as an accelerator.
 Answer 4 (a)

• Basic introduction of British industrialization and it’s evolution in other European and American or Asian countries.
• England became the most prosperous and powerful country of the world on account of industrial revolution, which
inspired other countries as well to promote industrialization.
• Every country fulfilled the same requirement to promote industrialization, like:- fulfilling the demand and supply
side, expanding transportation and communication.
• But all the countries did not follow the same route to reach the same target.
 British adopted the capitalist model.
 British model was capitalist in which government did not contribute significantly. Even in infrastructure and
banking as well as technological discoveries, private sector played the pivotal role. They followed the path of
Laissez faire.
 Germany and Japan were following the nationalist model. Government played very significant role on all the
three fronts :- Supply side, demand side and transportation side.
 They believed that great economy can make their nation great.
 USA followed the middle path. They respected the policy of Laissez faire yet contributed significantly.
 USSR followed the socialist model, in which the government itself was investor. Government confiscated all the
private properties. On account of that they moved towards rapid industrialisation under the planned economy
model. Their preferred sectors grew with extra-ordinary pace but many sectors remained neglected.
 Answer 4 (b)

• England was the vanguard of industrial revolution and remained number one almost up to the last quarter of 19th
century.
• In 1882 England had 32% share of total industrial production of the world.
• But the beginning of 20th century came with the emergence of new industrial superpower. In 1907 USA became
number one industrial power and number two position was secured by Germany. Japan secured number four
position after England. By 1930 USSR begun it’s journey of rapid industrialisation. After the World War Two USSR
occupied the second place and after it’s disintegration China came to the number two position.
• Reasons :-
 Nationalist model and socialist model were inherently potent to be more rapid.
 England was not having the required raw materials of all the industries, which were developing in 20th century.
 World war gave England very serious jolt.
 England remained heavily dependent upon their colonies, thus they didn’t innovate. When they lost their
colonies after the World War Two England could not come out of it.
 English outlook too has been little classical. They could not break their limits. Thus they could not match the
pace of the 20th century greats of Industry.
 Answer 4 (c)
• 19th and earlier 20th century made the Europe Modern Europe- on various fronts.
• Reasons :-
o French Revolution :-
 Liberalism and Democracy
 Nation State
 Equality before the law and end of slavery
 Secular State
 Modern Bureaucracy
o Industrial Revolution :-
 Economic change :-
 Commercial agriculture
 Modern Industry
 Service Sector got an impetus
 Urban revolution and the emergence of strong middle class as well as working class.
 Railway and other means of transportation and communication.
 Economic integration brought impetus to political integration.
 Paved the path of globalisation.
• Correlation :-
 French revolution promoted capitalism and capitalism promoted industrial revolution.
 Industrial revolution made the middle class strong. It became the social base of the ideas of French revolution.
 French revolution gave the political impetus to the nation building while industrial revolution gave it economic
base.
 Industrial revolution organised the working class which stimulated the struggle for equality.
• Conclusion :-
Finally we can say that :-
 Without industrial revolution French revolution would not have been successful.
 We must not forget the role of enlightenment and political events other than the French revolution.
 Answer 5 (a)
• Basic introduction of Frankfort Congress :-
 A parliament was constituted.
 A constitution was framed.
 Fundamental rights of citizens were provided in the constitution.
 An Independent judiciary was to be established.
 Capital punishment was to be abolished.
 Parliamentary system of democracy under the head ship of a monarch was to be established.
 They decided to constitute the smaller Germany under the headship of Prussian monarch.
• But monarch dined the offer and finally the parliament failed constitution never came in existence.
• After that German unification was accomplished under the leadership of Prussian monarch.
• He unified Germany with the Blood and Iron policy of Bismarck. This new and different version of Germany unlike the
liberals was despotic and the federal structure was heavily dominated by Prussia.
• Constitution, filled with liberal aspiration remained deserted till the end of World War First.
 Answer 5 (b)
• London conference was called upon to decide the course of Italian politics after the revolutionary action of
dethroning the Habsburg princes from their respective states.
• England gave the decision that like the English Duchies, Italian Duchies too have all the rights to decide their political
future.
• This decision was against the idea of Vienna system, which was against the popular sovereignty. It was a death nail
to the European system.
• But it was the last nail not the first one. We can witness their gradual fall from the following points :-
 Conflict of interest in the Vienna congress itself.
 Industrial revolution.
 Growth of enlightenment.
 Revolutions in 1830 and 1848.
• Thus we can say that Vienna system was trying to stop the course of historical evolution, thus their failure was
inevitable. Crimea diplomacy of Cavour prepared the ground for the London convention.
 Answer 5 (c)
• Napoleon claimed himself the child of revolution and some historians believed that he assassinated it also. As far as
Napoleon’s contact with Europe is concerned, it can be witnessed in two forms :-
 Napoleon the emperor and expansionist who ended with his decisive defeat.
 Napoleon, who promoted nationalism in Italy and Germany. He abolished the so called Holley Roman Empire.
He introduced new ideas in Italy and Germany. Ended various states and constituted parliaments in both the
countries to pave the path of unification. Modern Bureaucracy created by Napoleon was the inspiration behind
the administrative reform of almost whole of Europe and for many other countries as well. Codification of law
done by Napoleon contributed in the codification of many countries.
• Finally we can say that Napoleon devastated Europe with a series of wars but reconstructed also.
 Answer 5 (d)
• During the second phase of the revolution Jacobin acquired the power. They came with a republican option but
when the montagnard captured power under Robespierre, their democracy become absolutist.
• National convention was turned into an advisory body and they did not subscribe the constitution framed by the
convention.
• He came with a series of welfare programmes but the personal liberty was curbed and the voice of protest was dealt
with sever punishment. More than thousand people were Guillotined.
• Some historians say that his reign of terror was compulsive result of the circumstances. His government was facing
the state of emergency caused by the external invasion and internal resistance.
• But if we examine the list of persecution, we witness that most of them were from the middle class. In fact they
were the revolutionary people who have been active during the first phase of the revolution.
• In this context we should remember his political ideology also. As he was a disciple of Rousseau, thus dictatorship in
the name of democracy was expected.
 Answer 5 (e)
• Vienna congress was organised in 1815 to redraw political boundary and reconstruct the political system of Europe.
It was an antirevolutionary initiative, committed not only to repulse the changes brought by revolution and
Napoleon but also to counter the prospective revolution.
• Austrian prince Maternick was the most instrumental force in drawing the political map of Europe.
• Why?
• Maternick was the natural leader of the tired and timid princes of Europe.
• Austria was the most suitable state to be the leader of this group because :-
• Austria was monarchic and imperial.
• Austria was a powerful country.
• France was not in a strong position due to revolution.
• But at the same time we have to remember that England was supporting Austria because they found Austria
the most suitable caretaker of Europe. England was following the policy of splendid isolation.
• But every country was not in favour of Austria, France willing to get nice and Savoy but it was not given to
them.
• Prussia and Russia were not in favour of the legalisation of the provisions because Russia wanted to expand it’s
influence in Turkey. Prussia wanted to unify Germany in it’s leadership. That is why Vienna congress was
inherently contradictory ab initio.
 Answer 6 (a)
• Globalization is a process of integration of the world, where economic, cultural and political unification is evolving.
Money mind material and men all move with freedom across the world.
• Process of movement started from the very early age. Traders and travellers across the regions brought various
regions close to each other.
• Role of Industrial revolution :-
 Industrial revolution needed raw material and market throughout the world. It created financial capitalism,
which led the economic integration one more step forward. Revolution in transformation and communication
was the result of industrial revolution which led the process of globalization to the next generation.
 This economic integration led the world to form ITO, World Bank, IMF, WTO.
• Other Factors :-
 Modern World moved towards globalization on account of various factors like :-
 Enlightenment which unified the world intellectually.
 Revolutions helped the world to develop similar constitutions and institutions.
  Colonialism and imperialism also brought the world together but this integration was inherently
contradictory which led the world to decolonisation. This decolonisation paved the path of globalisation.
End of cold war gave it a new impetus.
• Conclusion :-
 All the above factors were like the instruments of the vehicle of globalisation but industrial revolution was the
engine of this vehicle.
 Answer 6 (b)
• Philadelphia Declaration :-
 Every man is born free and equal.
 No body has any right to violate it.
 In case of violation man has the right to change the system.
 It led Americans to revolution. After few years France also entered into a revolution in 1789. During the course
of revolution they came with 26 August 1789, Declaration of rights.
• Declaration of rights of Man and Citizen :-
 Liberty and equality are inviolable rights.
 Law is the expression of common will.
 Nation belongs to the people not a people.
 Power should not be vested in only one body of polity.
 Property right is a sacred right, it can be taken only in the public interest according to the law and with
reasonable compensation in advance.
 Right to protest against the state is fundamental.
• Features :-
 These two declarations remained alive and inspirational in various revolutionary activities in 19th century as
well.
 If we look into the historical process, we find that the whole political history evolved along side the intellectual
movement and commercial and industrial movement.
 Answer 6 (c)

• China faced a distinct form of imperialism in which Chinese government remained in existence but imperial forces
imposed their terms to serve their interest.
• These terms were imposed by the policy of “sphere of influence” implemented in post 1890 years. Different regions
of China were allotted to various imperial powers. They were free to do trade without any tariff. They were allowed
to settle their and purchase land as well. Their people were given extra-territorial rights also.
• These provisions are evident enough of loosening the sovereignty of Chinese government.
• Conclusion :-
 In fact European imperial powers agreed to adopt this policy design because they were apprehensive about
Japanese invasion in China.
 Answer 7 (a)

• In 1866 Prussia defeated Austria. This victory was so decisive that Bismarck was in position to dictate his terms.
• What Bismarck achieved?
• The idea of Greater Germany and Austrian interference ended.
• North Germany was unified.
• Amount of compensation.
• What else Bismarck would have Gained?
• Additional territory of Austria.
• More money from Austria.
• Unification of even the southern states.
• Why he didn’t avail those additional prospects?
• South was Catholic while North was protestant. Southern reaction may have forced them to ally with France.
• Misbehaviour with Austria would have force Austria to move to form an alliance with France.
• Both the above problem would have created extraordinary problem to the German unification.
 Answer 7 (b)
• General introduction of Marx with the name of his books and organizations.
• Purpose of Marxism :-
 End of exploitation to establish just society by bringing economic equality through community ownership of the
means of production.
 To end the alienation by the community life.
• Idea of the dictatorship of proletariat :-
 Marx propounded the idea that a revolution of proletariat will end the present state system because this state
is a class organisation.
 Proletariat will establish their own government which will enjoy the power of a dictator.
• Why dictatorship :-
 Because otherwise they can’t perform the historical responsibility of taking the private property from
bourgeois. Provision of rights and independent judiciary will protect the private property.
 They have extraordinary mass base, thus inherently they are democratic.
 State will wither away after performing the historical responsibility.
• Examine :-
 Marx predicted the revolution every where sooner or later but it never happened and even if it happened, it
was premature based upon violation of Marxist ideology itself. Thus they proved brutal and short lived. Marx
was fixed about the idea of state because of his experience about the state. He did not recognise the inherent
possibility of democracy and role of human heart and mind.
 Answer 7 (c)

• Cold war caused an armed race between the two super powers.
• Give some detail regarding their military preparation, nuclear competition and regarding the making of Missiles.
• This extraordinary focus on the improbable war and impossible peace misdirected the economic resources and
policy priorities of the respective nations.
• Impact of USSR :-
 Socialist planned economy under the misdirected priorities neglected those sectors which were directly related
to the needs of the people like consumer product, healthcare, education, popular art and culture.
 Living standard of the people could not advance after the world War Two, although as a nation state USSR was
the only powerful country which was parallelly balancing America.
 Economic imbalance finally caused economic stagnation and wide spread popular disenchantment which led to
the disintegration of USSR.
• USA :-
 USA is a democratic country and it allowed the people to find their pursuit of happiness, but it also neglected
the standard of living of their people on various fronts, like :-
 Teachers per Lakh.
 Doctors per Lakh.
 Judge per Lakh remained less than most of the western European countries and Canada or Australia.
 Solution of the problems of African American remained neglected.
 Extraordinary Arms preparation has created an arms lobby in America which has an influence over
American polity and foreign policy.
 Answer 8 (a)

• Commonwealth of Australia came into existence in 1901. Australian constitution has established it as a
parliamentary democracy headed by a Governor General appointed by Crown of England. Australia came into
existence as a federation in which centre enjoys very limited authorities. Like External Affairs, Defence,
Transportation and Communication, Trade and Commerce, banking etc. In fact enjoys only those departments which
are given by the states. All the other rights including the residuary list is enjoyed by the states only.
• Weaker centre/union came into existence because Australians followed the American model to bring all the
conflicting six constituents together.
• Governor General as a head of the state appoints the Ministers, Prime Ministers, Judges and other constitutional
authorities. He is the commander in chief of the armed forces and gives assent to the parliamentary legislative
initiatives.
• Yet we have to understand that Governor General is the constitutional and symbolic head only. He is bound to work
according to the advise given by the government (Council of Ministers).
• Statute of the West Minister 1931 abolished almost all the constitutional connects of England and Australia.
• Australia Act 1986 made clear that England will not interfere in the matters of Australia and Australians will not go to
privy council to get the final verdict of justice.
 Answer 8 (b)
• Australia follows the policy of White Australians, which denies Non-Australian’s settlement in Australia.
• Why :-
 Some Australian thinkers believe that their present social, cultural pattern is significantly uniform which gives
stability to their democratic polity. They are free from the socio-cultural contradictions and conflicts. Thus they
can form their policies regarding governance, growth and public welfare with their rational and research.
 Above hypothesis has many shortcomings. Like :-
 Racial approach
 America, India and some other countries have succeeded in democratic experiment, along with their vast
cultural diversity .
 Globalisation and white Australian policy are not compatible.
• In fact this policy is not good even to their Economy, because people from various countries can bring various
expertise and work culture as well. We Should remember that Australia particularly needs additional labour force.
• In this context we can conclude that Australian policy is prima facie a Racial policy.
 Answer 8 (c)
• American constitution contains only seven articles because every American state has it’s own constitution.
Constitution has provided presidential form of democracy in with idea of Lock is adopted in form of popular
sovereignty and bill of rights. Montesquieu was incorporated in form of the provision of separation of power and
independent judiciary. Their republicanism was based upon the idea of Tomas Paine.
• Their constitutional ideology was expressed first time in Philadelphia congress.
• Conflict in the constituent Assembly :-
 Strong centre Vs Weak Centre :-
 Debate between Jefferson and Hamilton.
 Dispute between Big states and Small states.
 Dispute over slavery.
 Dispute over the tariff policy.
 Dispute over the census.
• These disputes were not only ideological :-

 North and South were opposed to each other over the issue of slavery and tariff policy because they were

having different economic interest :-

 Big state and Small state dispute too was based upon their political interest only.

• Solution :-

 Centre was given some duties which looks reasonable if we remember the constitution of confederation.

 Slavery was left to the states.

 Slaves were counted 3/5 during the census.

 Members of the house of representative was fixed according to population while the number of senate was

fixed uniformly.
 Conclusion :-

 American constitution has many short comings which provide fodder to the critics but it has it’s own share of

credit also because first time in the modern world, enlightened ideas were converted into a constitution and

institutions were established to implement it. Wisdom of converting the ideas into reality was facing fierce

protest from the interest groups which emerged from conflicting corners but their constitutional and

constructive temperament can be witnessed in the statement of Franklin Benjamin “Since last sixteen weeks I

was uncertain that sun behind the seat of president was rising or setting. Now I can say that it was rising infect”.