Lecture 27:

Circulatory System
BIOL212 11/10
Ch 10
The Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure
10.1 Patterns and Physics of Blood Flow

● Blood is transported to all parts of the body through a system of vessels

○ Brings fresh supplies to the vicinity of all cells while removing their wastes

● To maintain homeostasis, reconditioning organs receive blood flow in

excess of their needs

○ Adjust the extra blood to achieve homeostasis

Patterns and Physics of Blood Flow

● Blood flow through a vessel depends on:

○ The pressure gradient

○ Vascular resistance
Flow Rate

● Volume of blood passing through per unit of time

○ Directly proportional to the pressure gradient

○ Inversely proportional to vascular resistance

F = ΔP/R

■ F = flow rate of blood through a vessel

■ ΔP = pressure gradient
■ R = resistance of blood vessels
Factors in Blood Flow

● Pressure gradient

○ The difference in pressure between the beginning and end of a vessel

● Resistance

○ Hindrance to blood flow through a vessel

■ Viscosity: friction developed between molecules of a fluid as they slide over each other
during fluid flow

● Poiseuille’s Law

○ Integrates factors affecting flow rate through a vessel

The Vascular Tree

● Consists of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins

○ Arteries transport blood from the heart to organs

○ Arterioles control the amount of blood that flows through each organ

○ Capillaries are vessels where materials are exchanged between blood and tissue cells

○ Veins return blood to the heart

 Airway

Lungs

Air sac
Pulmonary
capillaries

Arterioles Venules
PULMONARY
Pulmonary
CIRCULATION Pulmonary
artery
veins

Aorta
(major
systemic
Systemic
artery)
veins

SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
Systemic
Tissues capillaries

Venules Arterioles

Smaller arteries
For simplicity, only branching off to
two capillary beds within supply various
tissues
two organs are illustrated.
10.2 Arteries

● Arteries serve as rapid-transit passageways to the organs and as a

pressure reservoir

○ Heart contracts to pump blood into arteries and relaxes to refill with blood from veins

● Arterial pressure fluctuates in relation to ventricular systole and diastole

○ Systolic pressure averages 120 mm Hg

○ Diastolic pressure averages 80 mm Hg

Arteries

● Blood pressure can be measured indirectly by using a sphygmomanometer

○ Externally applied inflatable cuff attached to a pressure gauge

● Mean arterial pressure is the main driving force for blood flow

○ Average pressure driving blood forward into the tissues throughout the cardiac cycle
 Arteries

Arterioles

To capillaries
From veins

(a) Heart contracting and emptying

Arteries

Arterioles

To capillaries
From veins

(b) Heart relaxing and filling

10.3 Arterioles

● Arterioles are the major resistance vessels

○ Radius is small enough to offer considerable resistance to flow

○ Vasoconstriction: narrowing of a vessel

○ Vasodilation: enlargement in circumference and radius of a vessel

○ Vascular tone: state of partial constriction of arteriolar smooth muscle

■ Establishes a baseline of arteriolar resistance

Local Control of Arteriole Radius

● Local control of arteriolar radius is important in determining the distribution

of cardiac output

○ The fraction of the total CO delivered to each organ varies depending on demands for blood

○ Differences in flow to organs are determined by differences in vascularization and differences

in resistance offered by arterioles supplying each organ
Local Influences on Arteriolar Radius

● Local metabolic influences on arteriolar radius help match blood flow with
the organs’ needs

○ Active hyperemia: increased blood flow in response to enhanced tissue activity

○ Local metabolic changes that influence arteriolar radius: decreased O2, adenosine release,
and increases in CO2, acid, K+, and osmolarity
Reactive Hyperemia

● Endothelial-derived vasoactive paracrines

○ Endothelin causes arteriolar smooth muscle contraction

○ Angiogenesis: vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulates new vessel growth

● Reactive hyperemia

○ Post-occlusion increase in blood flow

Histamine Release and Myogenic
Response
● Local histamine release pathologically dilates arterioles

○ When organs are injured or during allergic reactions, histamine is released and acts as a
paracrine in the damaged region

● The myogenic response of arterioles to stretch helps tissues autoregulate

their blood flow

○ Local mechanisms keep tissue blood flow fairly constant despite rather wide deviations
Vasodilating NO

● Arterioles release vasodilating NO in response to an increase in shear

stress

○ Longitudinal force applied on the endothelial cells in the direction of the flow

● Local heat application dilates arterioles

● Cold application constricts arterioles

Extrinsic Control of Arteriolar Radius

● Extrinsic control of arteriolar radius is important in regulating blood pressure

○ Influence of total peripheral resistance on mean arterial pressure

○ Norepinephrine’s influence on arteriolar smooth muscle

○ Local controls overriding sympathetic vasoconstriction

○ No parasympathetic innervation to arterioles

The Cardiovascular Control Center and
Hormone Regulation
● The cardiovascular control center and several hormones regulate blood
pressure

○ Influence of epinephrine and norepinephrine

■ Norepinephrine produces generalized vasoconstriction

■ Epinephrine reinforces local vasodilatory mechanisms in tissues
○ Influence of vasopressin and angiotensin II

■ Vasopressin maintains water balance

■ Angiotensin II regulates salt balance
10.4 Capillaries

● Capillaries are ideally suited to serve as sites of exchange

○ Factors that enhance diffusion across capillaries

■ Diffusing molecules have only a short distance to travel between blood and surrounding
cells

■ Each capillary is so narrow red blood cells have to squeeze through

■ Scarcely any cell is farther than 0.1 mm from a capillary
Capillary Velocity

● Slow velocity of flow through capillaries

○ Flow rate: volume of blood per unit of time flowing through a given segment of the circulatory
system

○ Velocity of flow: speed, or distance per unit of time, with which blood flows forward through a
given segment of the circulatory system
 Velocity of flow Anatomical Total cross-sectional Blood flow rate
(mm/sec) distribution area (cm2) (liters/min)

0.3
4.0
3000

200
5

Aorta Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
cavae
Venae
Characteristics of Capillaries

● Water-filled capillary pores permit passage of small, water-soluble

substances

○ Pores: narrow, water-filled clefts

● Many capillaries are not open under resting conditions

○ Role of precapillary sphincters

■ Wisps of spiraling smooth muscle cells

■ Act as stopcocks to control blood flow through the particular capillary that each one
guards
 Interstitial fluid
Endothelial cell
Water-filled pore
Plasma proteins
Endothelial generally cannot cross
cell the capillary wall
Plasma
Plasma
proteins
Plasma
Lipid-soluble membrane
substances pass Cytoplasm
through the O2, CO2
Exchangeable
endothelial proteins
cells
Na+, K+, glucose,
amino acids
Exchangeable
proteins are
Small moved across by
water-soluble vesicular
Pores
substances pass transport
through the pores

(a) Continuous capillary (b) Transport across a continuous capillary wall

Interstitial Fluid and Diffusion

● Interstitial fluid is a passive intermediary between blood and cells

○ Interstitial fluid makes up 80% of extracellular fluid

● Diffusion across capillary walls is important in solute exchange

○ Extent of exchanges for each solute is independently determined by the magnitude of its
concentration gradient between blood and surrounding cells
Bulk Flow Across the Capillary Walls

● Important in extracellular fluid distribution

○ Forces influencing bulk flow

■ Capillary blood pressure, plasma-colloid osmotic pressure, interstitial fluid hydrostatic

pressure, and interstitial fluid–colloid osmotic pressure

○ Net exchange of fluid across the capillary wall

■ Positive and negative net exchange pressure

○ Role of bulk flow

■ Regulate the distribution of ECF between plasma and interstitial fluid

Starling equation
The Lymphatic System

● An accessory route for return of interstitial fluid to the blood

○ Pickup and flow of lymph

■ Lymph vessels
○ Functions of the lymphatic system

■ Return of excess filtered fluid

■ Defense against disease
■ Transport of absorbed fat
■ Return of filtered protein
Edema

● Edema occurs when too much interstitial fluid accumulates

○ Categories

■ Reduced concentration of plasma proteins

■ Increased permeability of the capillary walls
■ Increased venous pressure
■ Blockage of lymph vessels
10.5 Veins

● Venules communicate chemically with nearby arterioles

○ Vital to matching capillary inflow and outflow within an organ

● Veins serve as a blood reservoir and as passageways back to the heart

○ When demands for blood are low, veins can store extra blood in reserve because of their
passive distensibility
 Pulmonary Systemic
vessels 9% arteries Systemic
13% arterioles
Heart
2%
7%
Systemic
capillaries
5%
Systemic
veins
64%

© Cengage Learning; (Source: Part (d) adapted from Physiology of the Heart and Circulation, 4th ed., by R. C. Little and W. C. Little.
Copyright © 1989 Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc., with permission from Elsevier.)
Venous Return

● Venous return is enhanced by several extrinsic factors

○ Sympathetic activity on venous return

○ Skeletal muscle activity on venous return

○ Countering effects of gravity on the venous system

○ Venous valves on venous return

○ Respiratory activity on venous return

○ Cardiac suction on venous return

10.6 Blood Pressure

● Blood pressure is regulated by controlling cardiac output, total peripheral

resistance, and blood volume

○ Determinants of mean arterial pressure

■ CO and TPR
○ Short-term and long-term control measures

■ Short-term adjustments are made by alterations in CO and TPR

■ Long-term control involves adjusting total blood volume by restoring normal salt and
water balance
Regulation of Blood Pressure

● The baroreceptor reflex is a short-term mechanism for regulating blood

pressure

○ Influences the heart and blood vessels to adjust CO and TPR in an attempt to restore blood
pressure toward normal

● Other reflexes and responses influence blood pressure

○ Left atrial volume receptors, hypothalamic osmoreceptors, chemoreceptors, cardiovascular

responses, etc.
Hypertension

● Hypertension is a national public-health problem, but its causes are largely

unknown

○ Types of hypertension: primary and secondary

○ Baroreceptor adaptation during hypertension: adapt to operate at a higher level

○ Complications of hypertension: left ventricular hypertrophy, stoke, heart attack, kidney failure,
and progressive vision loss
Hypertension (cont’d.)

● Treatment of hypertension

○ Lifestyle modifications

○ Antihypertensive drugs

● Prehypertension

○ Category for blood pressures in the range between normal (120/80) and hypertension
(140/90)
Causes of Hypertension

● Orthostatic hypotension results from transient inadequate sympathetic

activity

○ Results from insufficient compensatory responses to the gravitational shifts in blood when a
person moves from a horizontal to a vertical position
Circulatory Shock

● Circulatory shock can become irreversible

○ Blood pressure falls so low that adequate blood flow to tissues can no longer be maintained

○ Consequences and compensations of shock

■ Refer to Figure 10-35

○ Irreversible shock

■ Blood pressure continues to drop rapidly because of tissue damage, despite vigorous
therapy