THE BLOOD-VASCULAR

SYSTEM
DR SUJITA PRADHAN.
Learning objectives
 Purpose and functions
 Types of circulatory system
 Blood vessels : Classification , structure
HEART & BLOOD VESSELS
 A system through which nutrients are transported to
various tissues and from there waste products are
carried to regions for excretory purposes.
 The medium is liquid called blood. The blood
flows through a closed system of tubular channels
called blood vessels and the main force behind this
activity is the pumping organ HEART.
 About 5 litres of blood is contained in this system.
DIFFERENT CONSTITUENT PARTS

 1) HEART

 2) ARTERIES

 3) ARTERIOLES

 4) CAPILLARIES

 5) SINUSOIDS & CAVERNOUS TISSUES

 6) VENULES &VEINS
Blood Distribution

 Largest portion of
blood at rest is in
systemic veins and
venules
 Blood reservoir
 Venoconstriction
reduces volume of
blood in reservoirs and
allows greater blood
volume to flow where
needed
THE HEART
 HEART
Central muscular pump
Has four chambers

Regulates two circuits of blood flow -:

Pulmonary
Systemic
TYPES OF CIRCULATION

(1) SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

(MAJOR\ GREATER LOOP)

(2) PULMONARY CIRCULATION

(MINOR\ LESSER LOOP)
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
 from left atrium  Left ventricle remotest
capillaries through aorta and its branches
 At the capillaries nutritive materials & oxygen
pass from blood to tissues.
 waste products and carbon dioxide return from
tissues to blood.
 Finally blood is returned to heart through venules,
veins, superior and inferior vena cava.
Systemic
Circulation
Pulmonary circulation
 The right atrium receives venous blood from
Superior vena cava ,Inferior vena cava and
coronary sinus and conveys it to the right ventricle.
 Right ventricle pumps the blood to the capillary
plexus of the lungs via pulmonary trunk.
 In the lungs CO2 is exchanged for O2
 The oxygenated blood reaches the left atrium via
pulmonary veins.
Pulmonary Circulation

Figure 19.17b
Classification of blood vessel
 ARTERIES
 Distributing vessels which carry blood away from
heart.
 Branch like trees on their way to different parts of
body.
 Large arteries are rich in elastic tissue but as
branching progresses there is more smooth muscle.
 Minute branches just visible to naked eye are called
arterioles (< 0.5 mm in diameter).
 VEINS
 Draining channels which carry blood from various
parts of body to heart.
 Like rivers, veins are formed by tributaries.
 Small veins join together to form large veins which
in turn unite to form great veins called VENAE
CAVAE
 CAPILLARIES
 Networks of microscopic vessels which connect
arterioles and venules.
 They come in intimate contact with tissues for free
exchange of nutrients and metabolites across their
walls between blood and tissue fluid.
 Capillaries are replaced by sinusoids in organs such
as liver and spleen.
Functions of blood vessels
 1)transport blood for nutrition, respiration and
excretion of waste products of the body.

 2)The vessels maintain the internal environment of

the body constant by keeping a balanced
composition of blood and by thermoregulation.
Basic structure of blood vessels

 3 layers or tunics

1. Tunica interna (intima)

2. Tunica media

3. Tunica externa( adventitia)

 Modifications account for different types of blood

vessels and their structural/ functional differences
 Three coats

 Tunica intima  Endothelium

 Tunica media
 Subendothelial tissue
 Internal elastic lamina
 Circular smooth muscle fibres
 Elastic fibres
 External elastic lamina

 Tunica adventitia
 Fibroelastic tissue
 Tunica intima
 Is made of endothelium, consisting of flattened
cells and basal lamina

 Externally the endothelium is supported by

subendothelial loose areolar connective tissue.
 Outside this there is a fenestrated membrane of
elastic tissue called internal elastic lamina
 Tunica media
 Thickest layer

Alternate layers of circularly arranged smooth muscle

fibres and elastic fibres regulated by sympathetic
nervous system, as many 70 layers . Controls
vasoconstriction/vasodilation of vessels.

 Limited externally by fenestrated membrane of

elastic tissue called external elastic lamina.
Fenestrations of elastic membranes in intima and
media help in diffusion of nutritive material.
 Tunica adventitia
 Thin but strongest of all coats

 Made up of longitudnally arranged elastic

and collagen fibres and connective tissue
cells

 Wall resists the outward pressure of blood

and prevents formation of aneurysm
 Tunica intima
• Endothelium Valve
• Subendothelial layer
Internal elastic lamina
Tunica media
(smooth muscle and
elastic fibers)
External elastic lamina
Tunica externa
(collagen fibers)

Lumen Lumen
Capillary
Artery Vein
network
Basement membrane
Endothelial cells

(b) Capillary

Figure 19.1b
Functional classification of blood vessels

 Conducting vessels  Large arteries arising from

heart and their main branches.
 Distributing vessels  smaller arteries reaching
the individual organs.
 Resistance vessels  arterioles.
 Exchange vessels  capillaries , sinusoids,
postcapillary venules.
 Reservoir \ Capacitance vessels  large venules
and veins.
 Shunts  various types of anastomosis.
 ARTERIES
Word “artery” means air tube.
Used by Aristotle –after death, when rigor mortis
passes over , liquid blood is collected in dilated
veins and arteries are empty and decomposed air
bubbles appear within arteries.
Hence the artery is wrongly named.
 ARTERIES
 Blood vessels carrying blood away from
heart.

 Thick walled, Lumen smaller than vein

 Large arteries are rich in elastic tissue, but

as branching progresses there is more of
smooth muscle.
CONT…
 Accompanied by vein and nerve to form
neurovascular bundle.

 They divide repeatedly like a branch of a tree

and gradually become smaller in size.

 Minute branches just visible to naked eye are

called arterioles

 They have NO VALVES

Types of arteries & structure
 Large arteries of elastic type (aorta and pulmonary
artery)

 Medium and small arteries of muscular type e.g.

temporal, occipital ,radial, popliteal artery.

 Smallest arteries of muscular type (arterioles)

 Arteries

 High compliance – walls stretch and expand in

response to pressure without tearing.
 Vasoconstriction – decrease in lumen diameter.
 Vasodilation – increase in lumen diameter.

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Elastic (Conducting) Arteries
 most large arteries are elastic.
 tunica media consists mostly of elastic fibres.
 E.g .aorta, pulmonary trunk, brachiocephalic
trunk, common carotid and subclavian arteries.
 FUNCTIONS
 Act as reservoir of blood.
 By elastic recoil the arteries convert the
intermittent flow of blood into continuous one.
 Elastic recoil maintains DBP.
 Fig.21.02

Pressure
reservoir
function of
elastic arteries
Muscular (Distributing) Arteries and Arterioles

 Muscular arteries – distal to elastic arteries;

deliver blood to body organs
 Have thick tunica media with more smooth

muscle and less elastic tissue

 Muscles are composed of circularly arranged

smooth muscles which respond to nerve

stimuli
 Active in vasoconstriction
Blood supply of arteries
 Large arteries >1 mm in diameter are supplied by
blood vessels
 These nutrient vessels are called vasa vasorum 
form a dense capillary network in tunica adventitia
 Supply adventitia and outer part of tunica media
 Tunica intima & rest of media are supplied by
diffusion of blood from lumen
 Fenestrations in elastic lamina facilitate diffusion
Nerve supply ofarteries
 Called nervi vascularis

 Non myelinated sympathetic fibres-

vasoconstrictor in function
Fig.21.18b
Fig.21.20
Fig.21.20
Fig.21.22a
Fig.21.23
Arterial pulse

 A pulse is a palpable impulse of pressure

wave of blood flow initiated by ventricular
systole.
 Superficial Pulse Points- arteries, not veins

temporal
60 beats/minute

facial
carotid

•Temporal artery
brachial •Facial artery
•Common carotid artery
•Brachial artery
•Radial artery
radial femoral •Femoral artery
•Popliteal artery
•Posterior tibial artery
•Dorsal pedis artery
popliteal

Posterior
tibial Dorsal pedis
 Carotid –most reliable pulse in physiological shock &
cardiac arrest when other pulses are not palpable.
 Brachial- to auscultate blood pressure.
 Radial- most commonly felt for rate & character.
 Femoral- used to locate vein.
 Popliteal – assess circulation in lower limb.
 Posterior tibial & dorsalis pedis –to assess circulatory status in
foot.
ARTERIOSCLEROSIS
 Hardening of arteries.
 Age related progressive ,generalized, degenerative
disorder of arterial walls.
 Loss of elasticity & thickening of intima due to
collagen deposition.
 Narrowing of lumen & ischaemia of area supplied.
 ATHEROSCLEROSIS
 In abnormal lipid metabolism the cholesterol accumulates
in the form of plaques in the subendothelial coat &
disturbs the diffusion of nutrients to the tunica intima &
partly media.
 Eventual degeneration of portions of intima is known as
atherosclerosis where platelets begin to adhere to rough
inner surface of the vessel & produce the formation of
thrombus.

 An embolus is a thrombus dislodged from vessel wall

& moves in blood stream.
 Blood pressure (BP)

 Force per unit area exerted on the

wall of a blood vessel by the blood

 Expressed in mm Hg

 The pressure gradient provides the

driving force that keeps blood moving
from higher to lower pressure areas
 SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE – results due
to contraction of heart during ventricular systole

 DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE- results due

to elastic recoil of smooth muscle of arterial wall.

 PULSE PRESSURE = SBP--DBP

Sphygmomanometer

Used to estimate pressure

Blood Pressure

120/80 is good
 ARTERIOLES
 Arterioles – smallest arteries; lead to capillary
beds
 Control flow into capillary beds via vasodilation and
constriction.
 The cross sectional diameter of arteriole is ≤ 100
micrometer.
 As arterioles progressively divide into smaller
branches , their coats become thinner,& form
successively terminal arterioles & metarterioles.
 Terminal arterioles are devoid of internal elastic
lamina & are covered by a continuous coat of smooth
muscle cells.

 In meta-arterioles the smooth muscles are replaced

by discontinous non-contractile cells, the pericytes or
rouget cells .
 Meta-arterioles terminate into capillaries.
 In some vascular beds a meta-arteriole is connected
directly with a venule by thoroughfare vessel or
preferred channel & the true capillaries form an
anastomotic network derived from the side branches
of the thoroughfare vessel.
 Entry of blood through the mouths of true capillary
is regulated by precapillary Sphincter
Arteries, Capillaries, and Venule

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Vascular shunt
Precapillary
sphincters Metarteriole Thoroughfare channel

True capillaries
Terminal arteriole Postcapillary venule
(a) Sphincters open—blood flows through true capillaries.

Terminal arteriole Postcapillary venule

(b) Sphincters closed—blood flows through metarteriole
thoroughfare channel and bypasses true capillaries.
Figure 19.4
Functions of arterioles
 Regulate amount of blood entering into capillaries
by constriction or dilation of thick muscular wall.
 Offer peripheral resistance & thereby regulate the
diastolic arterial blood pressure.
CAPILLARIES AND
MICROCIRCULATION
Capillaries
 Capillaries

 Smallest blood vessels connect arterial outflow and venous

return

 Microcirculation – flow from metarteriole through

capillaries and into postcapillary venule

 Exchange vessels – primary function is exchange between

blood and interstitial fluid

 Lack tunica media and tunica externa

 Substances pass through just one layer of endothelial cells and
basement membrane

 Capillary beds – arise from single metarteriole

 Capillaries

 Capillaries are networks of microscopic endothelial tubes ,

 avg diameter 6-8 microns interposed between metarterioles
& venules.
 THE CAPILLARY WALL IS MADE UP OF:

 A single layer of endothelial cells

 Allow only a single RBC to pass at a time

 Pericytes on the outer surface stabilize their walls

 Pericytes are non-contractile ,phagocytic in

function , & stimulate the endothelial cells to
sprout for growth of new capillaries.
 Are absent in ;epithelial cells resting on basement
membrane, epidermis of skin, hair ,nails, cornea of
eye, articular hyaline cartilage
 Types of Capillaries
 3 types
1. Continuous
 Endothelial cell
membranes form
continuous tube

2. Fenestrated
 Have fenestrations or
pores

3. Sinusoids
 Wider and more winding
 Unusually large
fenestrations

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Continuous Capillaries
 Continuous capillaries are abundant in the
muscles ,connective tissue, lung & brain.

 They allow passage of small molecules (upto 10

microns in size)

 Adjacent cells that are held together with tight

junctions
Continuous Capillaries

Figure 19.3a
Continuous Capillaries

 Continuous capillaries of the brain:

 Have tight junctions completely around the

endothelium

 Constitute the blood-brain barrier(BBB)

Fenestrated Capillaries
 Found wherever active capillary absorption or
filtrate formation occurs
 (e.g., small intestines, endocrine glands, and
kidneys)

 Characterized by:
 An endothelium riddled with pores (fenestrations)

 Greater permeability to solutes and fluids than

other capillaries
Fenestrated Capillaries

Figure 19.3b
Capillary exchange
 Movement of substances between blood and
interstitial fluid
 basic methods
1. Diffusion
2. Transcytosis

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Sinusoids
 Highly modified, leaky, fenestrated capillaries with
large lumens

 Found in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, lymphoid

tissue, and in some endocrine organs ( adrenal
and adenohypophysis)

 Allow large molecules (proteins and blood cells) to

pass between the blood and surrounding tissues

 Blood flows sluggishly, allowing for modification in

various ways
 Sinusoids

 They differ from capillaries in following respects:

 Their lumen is wider ( upto 30 microns ) &
irregular.
 Their walls are thinner ,incomplete .
 Lined by endothelium in which phagocytic cells
are often distributed . Adventitial support is absent .
Sinusoids

Figure 19.3c
 Veins
 draining channels which carry blood
from different parts of the body to the
heart.
 Thinner-walled than arteries, Lumen

larger than arteries

 Like rivers veins are formed by

tributaries.
 The small veins(venules) join together to

form larger veins which unite to form

great veins called venae cavae.
Veins
 Structural changes not as distinct as in arteries

 In general, very thin walls in relation to total diameter

 Same 3 layers

 Tunica interna- thinner than arteries ,internal elastic lamina absent.

 Tunica media thinner with little smooth muscle
 Tunica externa  thickest layer, most well developed.

 Smooth muscle totally absent in:-

 Cranial venous sinuses & pial veins
 Retinal veins

 Not designed to withstand high pressure

 Veins

 Arranged in 2 sets—superficial and deep veins.

 Superficial veins run in superficial fascia , not accompanied

by corresponding arteries.

 Deep veins lie under deep fascia & accompany arteries.

Below elbow & knee joints deep veins are arranged in pairs
along sides of arteries & are called venae comitantes.:-

 Help in venous return towards the heart by transmitted pulsation of the arteries.
 They also help in counter-current heat exchange between arteries & veins
Perforator veins
 These veins perforate the deep fascia to connect the
deep & the superficial systems.
This may be:
 Indirect Perforators:
Pass from: superficial veins→ muscular veins→ deep veins.
 Direct Perforators:
Pass from superficial veins→ deep veins.
Perforator veins
 VALVES
 Veins of extremities-have valves
 Veins of trunk –devoid of valves
 Formed by reduplication of tunica intima
 Function of valves permit blood flow in one
direction only, prevents regurgitation of blood .
Venous Valves

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Factors helping venous return

 Negative intra thoracic pressure sucks blood into

heart from all over the body
 Gravity helps venous return in the upper part of
body
 Arterial pulsations press on venae comitantes
intermittently & drive venous blood towards the
heart
 Venous valves prevent backflow of blood
 Muscular contractions press`on the veins & form a
very effective mechanism of venous return. This
becomes still more effective within the tight sleeve
of deep fascia, as seen in lower limbs. The calf
muscles ( soleus) is known as peripheral heart.
One-Way open
Valves in valve

Veins

closed
valve
 Competent Veno-muscular
Pump is composed of:

1. Superficial & deep veins with competent

valves.

2. Competent perforating veins communicating

the deep & superficial systems

3. Powerful lower limb muscles.

A competent
veno-muscular
pump will push
the blood
towards the
heart,
 Applied anatomy
 Varicose vein-
 Dilated & tortuous superficial veins
 Often associated with pigmentation of skin &
varicose ulcer

In the majority of cases, it is caused by valve

incompetence
less commonly by venous obstruction by deep vein
thrombosis

Persistent elevation of intra-abdominal pressure

due to abdominal tumours or multiple pregnancies
Varicose vein
VARICOSE VEINS
VARICOSE VEINS

 Sometimes the valves of perforator veins become

incompetent and the superficial veins, become
dilated and tortuous to develop into VARICOSE
VEINS.
 Sometimes skin over area of varicosity becomes
pigmented & suffers lack of nutrition which forms
varicose ulcers.
VARICOSE ULCERS
Venous systems in Human Body
 Venous systems
4 types:-

 CAVAL SYSTEM

 PORTAL SYSTEM

 AZYGOUS SYSTEM

 PARA-VERTEBRAL
 CAVAL SYSTEM
 Drains blood into right atrium via SVC & IVC
 In caval system certain veins deserve special mention.
 EMISSARY VEINS :- pass through foramina of skull &
communicate intracranial venous sinuses with extracranial
veins.

Devoid of valves hence blood can flow in both directions.

Maintain equilibrium of cerebral blood volume according to

MONRO KELLIE DOCTRINE (cranial box is rigid & contains
brain, blood & cerebro spinal fluid. If one increases in volume the
other 2 must be depleted. They may convey infections from
periphery to intracranial venous sinuses.
EMISSARY VEINS
 Intracranial venous
sinuses:- are dural
sinuses, devoid of
muscular coat & valves.

 Coronary sinus:-
returns about 60%
venous blood of heart
into right atrium.
 Bronchial veins :- draining venous blood from
lungs consists of 2 sets ,superficial & deep.
Superficial veins drain into right atrium via azygous
vein.
Deep veins join with pulmonary veins & drain into
left atrium.
 PORTAL SYSTEM
 Consists of blood vessels which connect 2 sets of capillaries at
their 2 ends
 It begins in capillaries and ends in capillaries.
 Found in liver, kidneys , hypophysis cerebri and
suprarenal glands.
Hepatic portal system
Hepatic Portal System
 Extends from capillary plexus of gut wall to
hepatic sinusoids . Transports absorbed food
materials to liver for their metabolism.
Renal portal system
Renal Portal System
 Connects glomerular plexus with peritubular plexus
through efferent glomerular arterioles. Helps
reabsorption of essential constituents of glomerular
filtrate back to blood.
Suprarenal portal system
Suprarenal Portal System
 Connects cortical sinusoids with medullary
sinusoids and convey some chemical substances
from cortex to medulla for conversion of
norepinephrine to epinephrine.
Hypothalmo-hypophyseal portal system
Hypophyseal Portal System
 Connects capillary plexuses in hypothalamus with
sinusoids of adenohypophysis. Through these
portal radicles the hypothalamus regulates activities
of adenohypophysis by releasing or inhibitory
hormones.
 AZYGOS SYSTEM
the vessels of this system are
 straight in course,

 paravertebral in position

 provided with valves

 & communicate the caval system in front with

vertebral venous plexus behind.

PARA-VERTEBRAL VEINS OF BATSON

 Valveless veins lying within vertebral canal in epidural space

 Communicate with azygos, portal & caval system of veins

 Venous blood from prostate, thyroid & mammary glands

drains into vertebral venous plexus , in addition to caval system

 This explains vertebral deposition of metastasis from

carcinoma prostate.
Paravertebral venous system of batson
ANASTOMOSIS OF VESSELS
 ANASTOMOSIS :- a precapillary or
postcapillary communication between the
neighbouring vessels is called anastomosis.

Circulation through the anastomosis is called

COLLATERAL CIRCULATION
 TYPES OF ANASTOMOSIS
 ARTERIAL
 VENOUS
 ARTERIO-VENOUS
ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSIS
 ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSIS
 Communication between arteries by their trunks ,
branches and sub-branches. of arteries.
 May be actual or potential

1) In actual arterial anastomosis arteries meet by their

trunks so that blood spurts in both directions from cut
ends of anastomotic vessel.
E.g. Palmar arches ,plantar arch ,circle of Willis ,
between gastric arteries of stomach
CONVERGENT ANASTOMOSIS
 CONVERGENT
ANASTOMOSIS
 When two arteries converge and join one another to
form a large artery- two vertebral arteries unite to
form a larger basilar artery.
Potential anastomosis
Potential anastomosis : potential arterial
anastomosis takes place between terminal arterioles.

 Such communications can dilate only gradually for

collateral circulation
 On sudden occlusion of a main artery , the anastomosis
may fail to compensate the loss.
 E.g. coronary arteries, around limb joints , cortical
branches of cerebral arteries.
Venous anastomosis
 It is the communication between veins or
tributaries of veins.

 For e.g. dorsal venous arches of hand and foot

DORSAL VENOUS ARCH OF
HAND
DORSAL VENOUS ARCH OF
FOOT
Arteriovenous anastomosis
 Arterioles directly communicate with venules by a
number of anastomosing channels, in addition to
the capillary

 It is a communication between artery and vein.

 When these shunts are closed, blood circulates
through the capillaries.
 When these shunts are open, blood by passes the
capillary bed.
 AVA regulates the blood flow through the capillary bed by
constriction or dilation of its lumen.

 Found in the tip of nose, lips , lobule of the ear, finger tip, nail
bed, intestinal villi.

FUNCTIONS:-
 regulates temperature between the environment & body by

adjusting the blood flow of the cutaneous capillary bed

 END ARTERIES
 Most arteries anastomose with one another at capillary & pre-
capillary levels.
 End arteries do not form any precapillary anastomosis. An
obstruction of an end artery produces focal death of tissue.
End arteries are found in following areas:
 Central artery of retina
 Cerebral, splenic ,renal & vasa recta of small gut.
 Anatomically coronary arteries are not end arteries, although
functionally they behave like end arteries.
 VASA VASORUM
minute blood vessels which supply nutrition to the
tunica adventitia & outer part of tunica media of
large arteries & veins.
The arterial blood is derived from the branches of the
same artery or from neighbouring arteries.
 Coronary arteries are best example of vasa
vasorum arising from ascending aorta.
 Vasa vasorum supplying walls of veins are more
abundant than arteries. Since venous blood exerts
low pressure ,the vasa vasorum can approach close
to intimal wall.
Differences between arteries and veins

ARTERIES VEINS
 Thick walled  Thin walled
 More muscular  Less muscular
 More elastic
 Less elastic
 Larger lumen (may be
 Smaller lumen(remains
collapsed)
patent)  Tunica media thinner than
 Tunica media thicker tunica adventitia
than adventitia  Valves mostly present in
 No valves in lumen lumen
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