THE

CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Amoguis, Nicole
Aranjuez, Samantha Gwyneth
Berondo, Nica Julliana
Bongcaras, Rhea
Bucod, Romel
Tinaja, Grace Marie
The Circulatory System
The circulatory system pumps and directs blood cells and substances carried in blood to all
tissues of the body. It includes both the blood and lymphatic vascular systems, and in an
adult the total length of its vessels is estimated at between 100,000 and 150,000
kilometers. The blood vascular system, or cardiovascular system, consists of the following
structures:
The heart propels blood through the system.

Arteries, a series of vessels efferent from the heart that become smaller as they branch
into the various organs, carry blood to the tissues.

Capillaries, the smallest vessels, are the sites of O2, CO2, nutrient, and waste product
exchange between blood and tissues. Together with the smallest arterial and venous
branches carrying blood to and from them, capillaries in almost every organ form a complex
network of thin, anastomosing tubules called the microvasculature or microvascular bed.

Veins result from the convergence of venules into a system of larger channels that
continue enlarging as they approach the heart, toward which they carry the blood to be
pumped again.
HEART
The Heart pumps blood through the blood vessels of
the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries
oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying
metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to the lungs.
Cardiac muscle in the four chambers of the heart
wall contracts rhythmically, pumping the blood
through the circulatory system. The walls of all four heart cham-
bers consist of three major
layers:
Epicardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
EPICARDIUM
The epicardium is the outermost layer of the heart. It is actually the
visceral layer of the serous pericardium, which adheres to the
myocardium of the heart. Histologically, it is made of mesothelial cells,
the same as the parietal pericardium.
Nerves and blood vessels that supply the heart are found in the
epicardium. At the roots of great vessels, the epicardium reflects back
and continues as the parietal pericardium, forming an enclosed
pericardial sac. The sac is filled with serous pericardial fluid that
prevents friction during heart contractions.
MYOCARDIUM
The myocardium is functionally the main constituent of the heart and
the thickest layer of all three heart layers. It is a muscle layer that
enables heart contractions. Histologically, the myocardium is
comprised of cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocytes have a single nucleus
in the center of the cell, which helps to distinguish them from skeletal
muscle cells that have multiple nuclei dispersed in the periphery of the
cell.
ENDOCARDIUM
The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart. It lines the inner
surfaces of the heart chambers, including the heart valves. The
endocardium has two layers. The inner layer lines the heart chambers
and is made of endothelial cells. Superiorly, is the second layer: a
subendocardial connective tissue which is continuous with the
connective tissue of the myocardium. Branches of the heart’s
conduction system are immersed into the subendocardial layer.
 PULMONARY CIRCULATION

and
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
The system consisting of the heart, arteries, veins, and micro-
vascular beds is organized as the pulmonary circulation and
the systemic circulation. In the pulmonary circulation the right
side of the heart pumps blood through pulmonary vessels,
through the lungs for oxygenation, and back to the left side of
the heart. The larger systemic circulation pumps blood from the
left side of the heart through vessels supplying either the head
and arms or the lower body, and back to the right side of the
heart.
When the body is at rest, approximately 70% of the blood
moves through the systemic circulation, about 18% through the
pulmonary circulation, and 12% through the heart.
VASCULATURE OF THE HEART

The vascular system, also called the

circulatory system, is made up of the vessels
that carry blood and lymph through the body.
The arteries and veins carry blood
throughout the body, delivering oxygen and
nutrients to the body tissues and taking away
tissue waste matter.
TISSUES
OF
VASCULAR
WALL
Walls of both arteries and veins
have three tunics called the
intima, media, and the
adventitia (or externa), which
correspond roughly to the
heart’s endocardium,
myocardium, and epicardium.

An artery has a thicker media

and relatively narrow lumen.

A vein has a larger lumen and

its adventitia is the thickest
layer.

The intima of veins is often

folded to form valves.

Capillaries have only an

endothelium, with no
subendothelial layer or other
tunics.
 endothelium is specialized epithelium
acting as a semipermeablebarrier
between two major internal
compartments; blood and interstitial fluid

smooth muscle fibers occur in the walls of

all vessels larger than the capillaries and
arranged helically in layers

connective tissue components are present

in the vascular walls of the heart

intima: endothelium and thin subendothelial

layer of loose connective tissue,
sometimes containing smooth muscle
fibers

media: concentric layers of smooth muscle

cells.

adventitia: connective tissues containing

of type 1 collagen and elastic fibers.
VASCULATURE
ELASTIC ARTERIES
MUSCULAR ARTERIES
ARTERIOLES
CAPILLARY BEDS
VENULES
VEINS
 ELASTIC ARTERIES
Role in the Circulatory System: Conduct blood from heart and
with elastic recoil, help move blood forward under steady
pressure

AORTA PULMONARY CONDUCTING

ARTERY ARTERIES
The adult aorta
blood vessels largest branches;
has about 50
that carry these large
elastic lamellae vessels
oxygen-poor
(more if the
blood from the
individual is major role is to
right side of
hypertensive) carry blood to
your heart to
your lungs smaller arteries
 TUNICS OF THE ELASTIC ARTERIES
the most prominent feature of elastic
arteries is the thick tunica media in
which elastic lamellae alternate with
layers of smooth muscle fibers

Simple squamous endothelial cells

(arrows) line the intima (I) also has
subendothelial connective tissue and in
arteries is separated from the media
by an internal elastic lamina (IEL), a
structure absent in all but the largest
veins. The media (M) contains many
elastic lamellae and elastic fibers (EF)

Elastic fibers are also present in the

outer tunica adventitia (A)
A. AORTA B. VENA CAVA
MUSCULAR ARTERIES
Role in the Circulatory System:
Distribute blood to all organs and
maintain steady blood pressure
and flow with vasodilation and
constriction

Figure 11-11: slightly folded intima with only

sparse connective tissue between the
endothelial cells (E) and internal elastic lamina
(IEL). Multiple layers of smooth muscle (SM) in
the media are thicker. Vasa vasorum (V) are
seen in the adventitia.
 ARTERIOLES
The smallest arteries branch as
arterioles, which have only one or
two smooth muscle layers

these indicate the beginning of an

organ’s microvasculature where
exchanges between blood and
tissue fluid occur

Role in the circulatory system:

Resist and control blood flow to
capillaries; major determinant of
systemic blood pressure
 ARTERIOLES
Arterioles (A), capillaries (C), and venules (V)
comprise the microvasculature where, in
almost every organ, the molecular exchange
takes place between blood and the interstitial
fluid of the surrounding tissues.

Capillaries (C) in paraffin sections can be

recognized by nuclei adjacent to small lumens
or by highly eosinophilic red blood cells in the
lumen

the excess is called lymph and collects in

thinwalled, irregularly shaped lymphatic vessels
capillaries

smooth muscle
cells

arterioles
 CAPILLARY BEDS
Capillaries permit and regulate
metabolic exchange between
blood and surrounding tissues.
These smallest blood vessels
always function in networks
called capillary beds, whose size
and overall shape conform to
that of the structure supplied.
Capillaries branch from the
metarterioles, which are
encircled by scattered smooth
muscle cells, and converge into
the thoroughfare channels, which
lack muscle.
Capillaries are composed of the
simple layer of endothelial cells
rolled up as a tube surrounded by
basement membrane.
 pericytes

(P) perivascular
contractile cells

Endothelial cells(E) form the capillary lumen (L),

are covered by a basal lamina (BL), and are
bound tightly together with junctional
complexes (J). One peri c yte (P) is shown,
surrounded by its own basal lamina (BL) Capillaries consist only of an endothelium
rolled as a tube
Continuous capillaries, the Fenestrated capillaries also Sinusoids are found in organs
most common type, have have tight junctions, but where exchange of
tight, occluding junctions perforations (fenestrations) macromolecules and cells
sealing the intercellular clefts through the endothelial cells occurs readily between
between all the endothelial allow greater exchange tissue and blood, such as in
cells to produce minimal fluid across the endothelium. bone marrow, liver, and
leakage spleen.
 VENULES
Postcapillary venules converge into
larger collecting venules that have
more distinct contractile cells.

With increasing size venules become

surrounded by a recognizable tunica
media with two or three smooth
muscle layers and are called muscular
venules.

Role in the Circulatory System:

Drain capillary beds; site of leukocyte
exit from vasculature
(a) Compared to arterioles (A), postcapillary
venules (V) have large lumens and an intima
of simple endothelial cells, with occasional
pericytes

(b) Larger collecting venules (V) have much

greater diameters than arterioles (A), but
the wall is still very thin, consisting of an
endothelium with more numerous pericytes
or smooth muscle cells.
 (d) Postcapillary venule (V) from an infected
small intestine shows several leukocytes
adhering to and migrating across the intima.

(c) The muscular venule cut lengthwise here

has a better defined tunica media, with as
many as three layers of smooth muscle (M) in
some areas, a very thin intima (I) of endothelial
cells (E), and a more distinct adventitia
 VEINS
Veins carry blood back to the heart
from microvasculature all over the
body.

Blood entering veins is under very low

pressure and moves toward the heart
by contraction of the smooth muscle
fibers in the media and by external
compressions from surrounding
skeletal muscles and other organs.

Most veins are classified as small or

medium veins.
SMALL VEINS
(a) Micrograph of small vein
(V) shows a relatively large
lumen compared to the small
muscular artery (A) with its
thick media (M) and adventitia
(Ad).

The wall of a small vein is very

thin, containing only two or
three layers of smooth
muscle.
MEDIUM VEINS
(c) Micrograph of a medium
vein (MV) shows a thicker
wall but still less prominent
than that of the
accompanying muscular
artery (MA).

Both the media and

adventitia are better
developed, but the wall is
often folded around the
relatively large lumen
LARGE VEIN VEINS
Large veins have a
muscular media layer (M)
which is very thin
compared to the
surrounding adventitia (A)
of dense irregular
connective tissue.
LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM

The lymphatic vascular system collect and drain

interstitial fluid from the tissue into the large veins
(subclavian veins).

Components:
Lymph
Lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic ducts
 WHAT IS LYMPH?

Fluid in the lymphatic system which contains

lymphocytes, immunoglobulins, plasma, foreign
antigens, and other substances.

Lymph collects fluids from your tissues and returns

them to your blood. It carries nutrients and
proteins to your cells and tissues. It also collects
any harmful substances found in your cells and
tissues.
 LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
A system of very thin-walled channels, which
collect excess interstitial fluid from the tissue
spaces as lymph and return it to the blood.
Lymph capillaries help to keep consistent
blood pressure and volume and prevent fluid
buildup.
Features of structure:
Blind end
Single layer of overlapping endothelial
cells
More permeable than that of blood
capillary
Absent from avascular structures,
brain, spinal cord, splenic pulp, and bone
marrow
Lymphatic capillaries drain interstitial fluid produced when the
plasma forced from the microvasculature by hydrostatic pressure
does not all return to blood by the action of osmotic pressure.
 LYMPHATIC VESSELS
Lymphatic vessels are tube-like structures
that carry fluid (called lymph) away from the
tissues to deliver it back into the blood’s
circulation. Unlike blood vessels, lymphatics
carry fluid in one direction.

Lymphatic vessels help maintain the body’s

fluid balance, absorb fats from the digestive
tract, and provide immune defense against
microorganisms and disease.

Features of structure:
Three layered wall but thinner than vein
More numerous valves than in vein
Interposed by lymph nodes at intervals
Arranged in superficial and deep sets
Has thin walls
Normally do not contain RBCs
 LYMPH NODES
Lymph nodes filter lymph and expose lymphocytes to
antigens as part of the immune response.

Structure
Small, bean-shaped
Located along the
pathways of lymph
vessels
Has two general regions:
capsule and cortex
Function
Phagocytic action
Production of antibodies
Activate T and B
lymphocytes
Filtration of lymph
After filtration, the lymph is transported via large lymphatic
vessels to lymphatic ducts (the thoracic and right lymphatic
ducts) and finally enters the subclavian veins and becomes
part of the blood plasma.

The thoracic duct connects with
the blood circulatory system near
the junction of the left internal
jugular vein with the left
subclavian vein
The right lymphatic duct enters
near the confluence of the right
subclavian vein and the right
internal jugular vein.
Besides gathering interstitial fluid as
lymph and returning it to the blood, the
lymphatic vascular system is a major
distributor of lymphocytes, antibodies,
and other immune components which are
carried through many organs to and
from lymph nodes and other lymphoid
tissues.
 BLOOD
Is a special type of fluid connective
tissue derived from mesoderm

It has four main components—red

blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets and plasma.
 BLOOD
Our blood has four main components:

Red Blood Cells Platelets

carry oxygen, gather at the site
nutrients and wastes of injury and help
the clotting process

White Blood Cells Plasma

fight diseases and straw-coloured

protect the body liquid where the
from infection other components
float in
 PLASMA
Plasma is a
pale yellow
coloured
liquid
component
of a blood
that holds
the cellular
elements of
blood in
suspension
 BLOOD
plasma

When someone has a blood test, a white blood cells

small amount of blood is taken and and platelets
kept in a tube for testing. red blood cells

To closely examine it, blood undergoes

component separation. One common
method involves spinning it at very high Blood is divided into its
speeds in a centrifuge. components, with the heaviest
parts at the bottom.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA

Constituent Function

Water Absorbs, transports, and releases heat

Albumins Osmotic balance

Globulins Defense mechanism

Fibrinogen Blood clotting

Electrolytic ions pH buffering

 RED BLOOD CELLS

Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs) are

terminally differentiated structures lacking nuclei
and completely filled with the O2 -carrying
protein hemoglobin. RBCs are the only blood cells
whose function does not require them to leave
the vasculature.
 Circular, biconcave, non-
Shape
nucleated

Diameter = 7 – 8 μm
Size
Thickness = 2.5 μm

Color Red (hemoglobin pigment)

Count Adult male = 5.4 million RBCs/μL

Adult female = 4.8 million RBCs/μL

Lifespan 120 days

 b. Diagram of an erythrocyte giving the
cell’s dimensions. The biconcave shape
gives the cells a very high surface-to-
volume ratio and places most hemoglobin
within a short distance from the cell
surface, both qualities that provide
maximally efficient O2 transport.
Erythrocytes are also quite flexible and can
easily bend to pass through small
capillaries.

c. In small vessels red blood cells also

a. Colorized SEM micrograph of often stack up in loose aggregates
normal erythrocytes with each side called rouleaux. The standard size of
concave. (X1800) RBCs allows one to estimate that the
vessel seen is approximately 15 mm in
diameter. (X250; H&E)
 HEMOPOIESIS

Hemopoiesis, also known as hematopoiesis, is the complex

process by which all blood cells are formed and developed.

Blood cells have a relatively short lifespan and must be

continuously replenished to maintain normal physiological
functions such as oxygen transport, immune response, and
blood clotting.
 MATURATION OF ERYTHROCYTES

The process begins with stem cells in the bone marrow. These stem cells are like
the body's building blocks and can turn into different types of blood cells,
including red blood cells.
BONE MARROW
Bone marrow is found in the medullary canals of long bones and in the
small cavities of cancellous bone, with two types based on their
appearance at gross examination:

yellow bone marrow, which is filled with adipocytes that exclude

most hemopoietic cell;

and blood-forming red bone marrow, whose

color is produced by an abundance of blood
and hemopoietic cells;
 RED BONE
MARROW ACTIVE
IN HEMOPOIESIS
At higher magnification the flattened nuclei
of sinusoidal endothelial cells (E) can be
distinguished, as well as the variety of
densely packed hemopoietic cells in the
cords (C) between the sinusoids (S) and
adipocytes (A). Most stromal cells and
specific cells of the hemopoietic lineages
are difficult to identify with certainty in
routinely stained sections of marrow.
(X400; H&E
 Yolk Sac
EMBRYONIC HEMOPOIESIS
Mesoderm:
Blood cells initially Concentration
arise in the yolk sac in Bone
mesoderm during Marrow:
early embryonic
development. By the third trimester,
hemopoiesis becomes
concentrated in the
Shift to Liver bone marrow as
Hemopoiesis: skeletal elements
ossify.
In the second trimester,
hemopoiesis primarily
occurs in the developing
liver.
 CHILDHOOD AND
ADULT HEMOPOIESIS

Throughout childhood and

adulthood, erythrocytes, Stem cells differentiate into
granulocytes, monocytes, specific blood cell types
platelets, and lymphocytes are through processes like
continuously produced from stem erythropoiesis, granulopoiesis,
cells in the bone marrow. monocytopoiesis, and
lymphopoiesis.
STEM CELLS, GROWTH FACTORS,
& DIFFERENTIATION
Hemopoietic stem cells possess the unique ability to differentiate
into multiple types of blood cells, making them crucial for the
maintenance of the blood cell population.

Experimental techniques such as in vivo transplantation and in

vitro culture have been developed to study the mechanisms
underlying hemopoiesis and the factors influencing blood cell
differentiation.

Insights gained from research on hemopoietic stem cells have

paved the way for clinical applications such as bone marrow
transplants, which are used to treat various hematological
disorders.
HEMOPOIETIC STEM CELLS

Hemopoietic stem cells residing in the bone marrow

have the remarkable ability to give rise to both
lymphoid and myeloid lineages, ensuring the
production of all types of blood cells.

Within the myeloid lineage, hemopoietic stem cells

differentiate into precursor cells that eventually
mature into granulocytes, monocytes, erythrocytes,
and megakaryocytes (the precursor of platelets).
 PROGENITOR & PRECURSOR CELLS
• Progenitor cells, often referred to as colony-forming units (CFUs),
are specialized cells capable of generating colonies of specific
blood cell types under appropriate culture conditions.

• These progenitor cells give rise to distinct blood cell lineages,

including the erythroid lineage (for red blood cells), thrombocytic
lineage (for platelets), granulocyte-monocyte lineage (for
granulocytes and monocytes), and lymphoid lineage (for
lymphocytes).

• Precursor cells derived from progenitor cells gradually acquire

the morphological characteristics and functional capabilities of
mature blood cells through a process known as hematopoietic
maturation.
 HEMOPOIESIS MICROENVIRONMENT &
GROWTH FACTORS

Niche Hemopoietic Growth Clinical

Requirement Factors Significance
Hemopoiesis depends Cytokines stimulate Understanding growth
on a microenvironment proliferation, factors has led to
provided by local cells differentiation, and clinical applications in
and extracellular maturation of blood cells. treating hemopoietic
matrix. disorders.
 MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
Clinical Use of Enhancing Marrow Improving Host
Growth Factors Transplants Defenses

Hemopoietic Growth factors can They also play a

growth factors are enhance the efficiency of role in improving
used to increase marrow transplants by host defenses in
marrow cellularity promoting cell infectious and
and blood cell proliferation. immunodeficient
counts in various diseases.
clinical conditions.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC)
Also called as leukocytes
Body’s defense against viruses,
bacteria and other foreign
bodies
Lack hemoglobin
Can perform diapedisis (wbc comes out from blood
vessels into surrounding area for battling pathogens/
maintaining homeostasis)
Phagocytosis
Divided into two types:
Granulocytes and agranulocytes
Two types:
granulocytes consist of a
granular cytoplasm
whereas agranulocytes
do not consist of a
granular cytoplasm
1. GRANULOCYTE
NEUTROPHILS
BASOPHILS
EOSINOPHILS

LYMPHOCYTES (T & B CELLS)

2. AGRANULOCYTE MONOCYTES (MACROPHAGES)
Granulocytes and monocytes are
formed from bone marrow, which
is derived from CFU-GM (colony
forming units of granulocytes &
monocytes).
Progenitor cells (CFU-GM)
form different cells named as
--> CFU-G = neutrophil FU
-->CFU-E = eosinophil FU
--> CFU-B = basophil FU
-->CFU- M = monocyte FU
GRANULOPOIESIS &
MONOCYTOPOIESIS
Development of granulocytes -
includes various stages called Myeloid
series
Development of monocytes - includes
various stages called Monocytes-
macrophages series
 There is structural changes during
GRANULOPOIESIS differentiation & maturation
1. A decreased in cell size
2. Condensation of nuclear chromatin
3. Changes in nuclear shape
4. An accumulation of cytoplasmic
granule
STAGES OF GRANULOPOIESIS
1. MYELOBLAST
The earliest recognizable cell of the
granulocyte series
Cytoplasm- basophilic, devoid of
granules
Nucleus- large, nearly filling the cells,
round to oval, fine chromatin, with 2-5
well defined pale nucleoli
STAGES OF GRANULOPOIESIS
2. PROMYELOCYTE
Cytoplasm- increased in amount,
presence of azurophil granules

Nucleus- round or oval, slightly smaller

than myeloblast and has less prominent
nucleoli
Mitosis- characteristic feature process
by which a cell replicates its
chromosomes and then segregates
them, producing two identical nuclei in
preparation for cell division
3. MYELOCYTE
has specific secondary granules present
identified at this stage :
Neutrophil myelocyte
Eosinophil myelocyte
Basophil myelocyte
Primary granules are also present but
formation of them has stopped
Nucleus is eccentric, round or oval,
coarse nuclear chromatin, nucleoli not
present
Mitosis- continues up to this stage
4. METAMYELOCYTE
Cytoplasm- increased in amount, more
liquid
Primary and secondary granules are
present according to secondary granules,
it is distinguished as
Neutrophil metamyelocyte
Eosinophil metamyelocyte
Basophil metamyelocyte
Nucleus- decreased in size, lobed
(horseshoe shaped), dense nuclear
chromatin, absent clumped ncleoli
Mitosis- stopped at this stage
5. BAND OR STAB FORM
Also called juvenile granulocytes
Smaller than metamyelocytes
Cytoplasm- pink and fine evenly
distributed granules
Nucleus- has further condensation of
chromatin
Shape- band configuration (v-
shaped) of uniform thickness, may
be twisted
6. MATURE GRANULOCYTE
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Basophil
GRANULOCYTE:
NEUTROPHIL
Most numerous WBC in blood
Multilobed nucleus
GRANULES - azurophilic & spefic
granules
FUNCTION - 1st batch of cells in
acute inflammation, phagocytose
bacteria
2. EOSINOPHIL
Large granules which stain red

Bilobed nucleus

2-4% of total WBC

Granules contain digestive enzymes,

are antiparasitic, phagocytize
immune complexes, and anti allergy
 GRANULOCYTE: BASOPHILS
Rare, 0.5-1% of total WBC
Lobulated nucleus often covered by
granules.
GRANULES - large granules that stain
blue , contain histamine, which induces
inflammation and vasodilation, and
heparin, which is an anticoagulant
FUNCTION - Defend body against
antigens and parasites
STAGES OF MONOCYTOPOIESIS

1. MYELOMONOBLAST
It is the larger cell, similar to
myeloblast

Blasts in the blood are

associated with cancers such as
myelodysplastic syndromes and
acute myelogenous leukemia
2. PROMONOCYTES

A young monocyte
Nucleus- larger, one kidney shaped
nucleoli, loose network of nuclear
chromatin
Cytoplasm- basophilic, no azurophilic
granules, fine granules that are larger
than mature monocytes
 3. MONOCYTES
Nucleus is U or kidney shaped
Pale blue cytoplasm
3-8%of total WBC
Phagocyte
Develop into macrophages when
they migrate to connective tissue
4. MACROPHAGES
Monocytes turn to macrophages
when they migrate to connective
tissue
Cytoplasm- gray-blue and displays
ragged edges, vacuoles common
Nucleus- purplish with finer clumped
chromatin, and is sometimes pushed
to the side due to ingested material
within the cytoplasm
STAGES OF LYMPHOPOIESIS

1. LYMPHOBLAST
Cytoplasm- Blue/scanty, no
granules
Nucleus- Purple, smooth
chromatin, round, central or
eccentric
1-2 nucleoli
2. PROLYMPHOCYTE

Cytoplasm- Blue, scanty, usually

granules are absent, but a few
azurophilic granules may be present
Nucleus- Purple, condensed
chromatin, round or indented,
eccentric
0-1 nucleoli
 3. LYMPHOCYTES
Thin rim of pale blue cytoplasm
Large, deep blue or slightly indented
nucleus
20-25% of total WBC
Lymphocytes in Thymus- T-Lymphocytes
fight antigens directly
Lymphocytes in Bone and Liver- B-
Lymphocytes
divide to produce plasma cells that
secrete antibodies
 4. PLASMA CELLS
End stage of B Lymphocyte
Function is synthesis and
excretion of antibodies
Cytoplasm- dark blue with
perinuclear halo and may
contain vacuoles indicating
antibody synthesis
Nucleus- round, eccentric,
dark purple with dense
clumped chromatin
 2 VARIANTS OF PLASMA CELL
1. Grape or Mott cell-
2. Flame cell- cytoplasm stains
cytoplasm completely filled
bright red-staining
with red, pink or colorless
proteinaceous material
globules called Russel bodies
 ROLE OF CYTOKINES

The cytokines, which control the formation of different

types of granulocytes are called colony stimulating factor
(CSF)
CSF is a glyoprotein formed by T and B lymphocytes
Also forms
G-CSF- stimulate granulocyte precursors
M-CSF- stimulate monocytic precursors
GM-CSF- both granulocytes and monocytic precursors
 ROLE OF CYTOKINES

The cytokines that control lymphocyte formation are called

interleukins Ex. - IL-1, IL-3, etc.

The interleukins are formed by Monocytes, Macrophages

and Endothelial cell
 PLATELETS
Also known as thrombocytes are
formed elements of blood.
Platelets are small , dumbbell,
comma/cigar shaped non-nucleated
and moderately refractive bodies.

These formed elements of blood are

fragments of cytoplasm of the
megakaryocyte

Primary function is to prevent and

stop bleeding
 PROPERTIES OF PLATELETS During
change
activation,
their
platelets
shape with
Adhession: elongation of long filamentous
pseudopodia which are called
-is the property of sticking processes/ filopodia.
through a rough surface
Aggregation:
- is the grouping of platelets.
-“Filopodia” help the platelets
aggregate together.
Agglutination:
-is the clumping together of
platelets .
THROMBOPOEISIS
Is the process of formation or
development of platelets from its
progenitor stem cells.

The pluripotent stem cell destined to

form platelet is converted into colony
forming units called Meg-CFU, which
develop into platelets after passing
through various stages
STAGES IN PLATELET PRODUCTION
1. MEGAKARYOBLAST

The earliest recognizable precursor

of platelets in the bone marrow.
Cytoplasm is blue & granular
Nucleus is large , oval and has
several nucleoli
Arises from the Meg-CFU by a
process of differentiation.
STAGES IN PLATELET PRODUCTION
2. PROMEGAKARYOCYTE

arises from a megakaryoblast and

develops into a megakaryocyte

cytoplasm is less basophilic

than the megakaryoblast

multiple lobes
STAGES IN PLATELET PRODUCTION
3. MEGAKARYOCYTE
Large & multilobed
cytoplasm is abundant, light
blue in color and contains red-
purple granules

Cell margin is irregular and

shows PSEUDOPODIA
STAGES IN PLATELET PRODUCTION
3. MEGAKARYOCYTE

Each megakaryocyte may form

up to 400 platelets
The formation of platelets from
the stem cell takes about 10 days

Platelets are formed from

pseudopodia of megakaryocyte
cytoplasm which get detached into
the blood stream
 THROMBOPOEISIS
Thrombopoiesis is regulated by : thrombopoietin,
megakaryocyte-colony stimulating activity (Meg-CSA)

Life span - 5-9 days .

Normal count - 2,500/cu mm of blood

 PHYSIOLOGICAL PATHOLOGICAL
VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
AGE : platelets are less in Thrombocytosis - an increase in
infants (150,00 - 200,000/cu number of platelets more than
mm) & reaches normal level at 4.5 /uL.
3rd month after birth. Causes thrombocytosis:
SEX : no difference between 1. After splenectomy
males & females, yet it is
2. After hemorrhage
reduced during menstruations'. severe injury
AFTER MEALS: after taking major surgical
food ,platelet increases. operation; &
parturition