Histology

The circulatory system

first stage
2024
Dr. Kawther Tuma Khalaf
 The circulatory system
The circulatory system is composed of two separate but
related components:
 The cardiovascular system or blood vascular system.
 The lymphatic vascular system.
The function of the cardiovascular system is to carry
blood in both directions between the heart and the
tissues.
The function of the lymphatic vascular system is to
collect lymph, the excess extracellular fluid (tissue fluid)
and return it to the cardiovascular system.
The circulatory system
 The cardiovascular system.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and
blood vessels.
The blood vessels that take blood from the heart to various
tissues are called arteries.
The smallest arteries are called
arterioles.
Arterioles open into a network of
capillaries that pervade the tissues.
In some situations, capillaries are
replaced by slightly different vessels
called sinusoids.
Blood from capillaries (or from sinusoids) is collected by
small venules that join to form veins which return blood
to the heart.
 Tissues of the vascular wall
Walls of all blood vessels except capillaries contain
smooth muscle and connective tissue in addition to
the endothelial lining.
The amount and arrangement of these tissues in
vessels are influenced by:
 mechanical factors,
 blood pressure,
 metabolic factors reflecting the local needs of
tissues.
1- The endothelium is a specialized epithelium
( simple squamous ) that acts as semipermeable barrier.
Besides their key role in metabolite exchanges between
blood and tissues , the endothelial cells have several other
functions:
- Endothelium produce factors that control coagulation of
blood.
- Endothelium has several roles in inflammation and local
immune responses.
- Endothelial cells secrete various growth factors, as
vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).
2- Smooth muscle fibers occur in the walls of all vessels
larger than capillaries and are arranged helically in layers.
In arterioles and small arteries, the smooth muscle cells are
connected by many more gap junctions and permit
vasoconstriction and vasodilation which are of key
importance in regulating
the blood pressure.
3- Connective tissue components are present in vascular
walls in a variable amounts and proportions based on local
functional requirements.
- Collagen fibers are found in the subendothelial layer,
between the smooth muscle layers, and in the outer
covering.
- Elastic fibers provide the resiliency required for the
vascular wall to expand under pressure.
All walls of larger vessels have three concentric layers (tunics):
1. Tunica Intima : consists of one layer of endothelial cells ,
lining the lumen of the blood vessel, supported by
subendothelial layer of loose connective tissue containing
smooth muscle cells.
In arteries, the intima is separated from the media by an internal
elastic lamina, This lamina, composed of elastin, has gaps
(fenestrae) that allow the diffusion of substances to nourish
cells deep in the vessel wall.
2.Tunica Media : Is the thickest layer of the vessel, consists
of concentric layers of helically arranged smooth muscle
cells . Interposed among these cells are a variable
amounts of elastic fibers, reticular fibers and lamellae.
In arteries, the media has an external elastic lamina, which
separates it from the tunica adventitia.
3. Tunica adventitia : Is the outer layer and consists mainly
of connective tissue.
The adventitia of large vessels (arteries and veins) contains
small vessels (vasa vasorum) that penetrate the outer
portion of the tunica media to supply oxygen and nutrients.
This layer becomes continuous with the connective tissue
elements surrounding the vessel.
 Types of blood vessels
Arteries
Are efferent vessels that transport blood away from the
heart to the capillary beds.
Arteries can be classified into three major groups based on
their size : 1- Large-sized ( elastic arteries).
2- Medium-sized ( muscular arteries).
3- Small-sized arteries and arterioles.
On the basis of the kind of tissue that predominates in the
tunica media, arteries are divided into:
- Elastic arteries (conducting arteries).
- Muscular arteries (distributing arteries) .
 Elastic Arteries:
Include the aorta , the pulmonary artery and their largest
branches.
The elastic arteries are called conducting arteries as their
main function is to conduct the blood from heart to
muscular arteries.
The most prominent feature of elastic arteries is:

- The tunica intima is well developed, with many smooth

muscle cells in the subendothelial connective tissue. The
internal elastic lamina is not easily discerned because it is
similar to the elastic lamina of the next layer.
- The tunica media consists of many elastic lamellae
alternating with circularly layers of smooth muscle cells.
The number of elastic lamellae increases with age.

The numerous elastic lamellae of these arteries contribute

to their important function of making blood flow more
uniform.

- The adventitia is much thinner than the media. Vasa

vasorum are abundant throughout the adventitia.
 Muscular Arteries
Muscular arteries include most vessels arising from the
aorta.
A muscular artery has the ability to alter the size of its
lumen by contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle in its
wall , therefore they can regulate the amount of blood
flowing into the regions supplied by them, hence they are
called as distributing arteries. Example : Coronary , Radial
and splenic arteries.
Structure of muscular arteries differ from elastic arteries in
having more smooth muscle fibers than elastic fibers in the
media.
- The tunica intima is thinner than that in the elastic arteries,
the subendothelial layer contains a few smooth muscle cells;
the internal elastic lamina is prominent.

- Tunica media is composed mostly of smooth muscle cells

is arranged circularly. An external elastic lamina is present
only in the larger muscular arteries.

- The adventitia consists

of connective tissue.
 Arterioles
Arterioles are the terminal arterial vessels that regulate
blood flow into capillary beds.
All the three layers are thin as compared to arteries.
- The endothelium of the tunica intima is supported by a thin
subendothelial connective tissue layer. A thin, fenestrated
internal elastic lamina is present in larger arterioles but
absent in small and terminal arterioles.
- The tunica media in small arterioles, is composed of a
single smooth muscle cell layer that completely encircles
the endothelial cells .
In larger arterioles, the tunica media consists of two to
three layers of smooth muscle cells.
Arterioles do not have an external elastic lamina.

- The tunica adventitia of arterioles is scant and is

represented by fibroelastic connective tissue housing a few
fibroblasts.
Arteries that supply blood to capillary beds are called
metarterioles.
They differ structurally from arterioles in that their smooth
muscle layer is not continuous; rather, the individual
muscle cells precapillary sphincters which regulate the
flow of blood to the capillaries.
 The Capillaries
Small vessels are composed of a single layer of squamous
endothelial cells rolled up as a tube .
Capillaries permit and regulate metabolic exchange between
blood and surrounding tissues.

Capillaries are generally grouped into three histologic

types, depending on the continuity of the endothelial cells
and the external lamina.
1- The continuous or somatic capillaries

Are characterized by the absence of fenestrae in their

wall. They are found in all types of muscle tissue,
connective tissue, exocrine glands, and nervous tissue.
2- The fenestrated or visceral capillaries

Are characterized by the presence of several pores in their

walls called fenestrae.

Fenestrae are limited by the cell membrane. The basal

lamina of the fenestrated capillaries is continuous. are
found in the kidney, the intestine and the endocrine
glands.
3- The discontinuous or sinusoidal capillaries:

The endothelial cells form a discontinuous layer and are

separated from one another by wide spaces. The basal
lamina is discontinuous.

Sinusoidal capillary permits maximal exchange of

macromolecules as well as cells between tissues and blood,
are found mainly in the liver , bone marrow and spleen.
The transition from capillaries to venules occurs gradully,
postcapillary venules (pericytic venules) are characterized
by the presence of pericytes.
- The tunica intima of these vessels is composed of
endothelium and a very thin subendothelial layer.
- The tunica media may contain only contractile pericytes.
Postcapillary venules converge into larger collecting
venules . The venules become surrounded by a
recognizable tunica media with two or three smooth muscle
layers and are called muscular venules. Most venules are
muscular, with at least a few smooth
muscle cells in their walls.
- The intima has a thin subendothelial
layer, may be absent at times.
- The media consists of small bundles
of smooth muscle cells intermixed with
reticular fibers and a delicate network
of elastic fibers. The collagenous adventitial layer is well developed
The big venous trunks close to the heart (The superior and
inferior venae cavae ) are large veins, have a well-developed
tunica intima, but the media is thin, with few layers of
smooth muscle cells and abundant connective tissue.
The adventitial layer is the thick and best-developed tunic in
veins; it contains longitudinal bundles of smooth muscle.
These veins have valves in their interior to prevent back-
flow of blood. Valves consist of paired semilunar folds of
the tunica intima projecting across part of the lumen. They
are rich in elastic fibers and are lined on both sides by
endothelium.
The heart
The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest cavity, is
separated into four chambers.
The walls of all four heart chambers consist of three major
layers:
- The internal endocardium
- The middle myocardium
- The external epicardium
1.The endocardium: Inner layer of the heart lines the atria
and ventricles , it corresponds to the tunica intima of blood
vessels , has three sublayers:
- Endothelium: innermost portion a simple squamous
epithelium.
- Middle layer of the endocardium is mix of connective
tissue and smooth muscle.
- Subendocardial layer: outer layer of the endocardium is
loose connective tissue joining the endocardium and
myocardium.
2.The myocardium Is the middle and thickest layer of the
heart wall and contains the cardiac muscle .
The myocardium consists of three cell types:
1. Contractile cardiocytes, which contract to pump blood
through the circulation.
2. Myoendocrine cardiocytes, producing atrial natriuretic
factor.
3. Nodal cardiocytes, modified cardiac muscle cells make
up the impulse conducting system of the heart.
3.The epicardium Is the outer layer of the heart wall (simple
squamous mesothelium) supported by a layer of loose
connective tissue containing blood vessels and nerves.
The epicardium corresponds to the visceral layer of the
pericardium (the membrane surrounding the heart).
The pericardium is a two layered sac that surrounds the
heart:
A- The fibrous pericardium is the
outside layer of the pericardium,
made up of dense and loose
connective tissue, is lined by
a double inner membrane called serous pericardium.
B -The serous pericardium : double inner membrane, the
part of the serous membrane attached to the fibrous
membrane is called the parietal pericardium, while the part
of the serous membrane attached to the heart is called the
visceral pericardium (epicardium) .
The space between the two
layers is the pericardial
cavity contains serous fluid.
( pericardial fluid) to lubricate
the surface of the heart.
 The lymphatic vascular system
Is composed of a series of vessels that remove excess
extracellular fluid from the interstitial tissue spaces and
return it to the cardiovascular system.
Lymphatic vessels are present
throughout the body.
The lymphatic vascular system
begins with the lymphatic capillaries
(lymphatics) which are closed-ended
tubules that merge to form lymphatic
vessels that conduct lymph between
different parts of the body.
lymphatic capillaries are closed-ended vessels consisting of
a single layer of very thin endothelial cells rest on an
incomplete basal lamina.
Openings between these cells are held open by bundles of
anchoring filaments containing elastic fibers that also bind
the vessels to the surrounding
connective tissue.
Folds of the endothelial cells
across the openings prevent
most backflow of lymph out of
the vessels.
Lymphatic capillaries converge into larger lymphatic
vessels.
Interposed in the path of these lymphatic vessels are lymph
nodes ( to filter the lymph) , the larger collecting vessels –
the right lymphatic duct and the
thoracic duct (the left lymphatic duct)
which terminate in the blood vascular
system emptying into the large veins
near the heart.
The structure of larger lymphatic vessels resembles that of
veins except:
- Thinner walls and no distinct separation among tunics .
- They also have more numerous internal valves than veins.
As in veins, lymphatic circulation is aided by external
forces (eg, contraction of surrounding skeletal muscle),
with the valves responsible for keeping lymph flow
unidirectional. Contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of
larger lymphatic vessels also helps propel lymph toward the
heart.