MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue is highly specialized to contract or shorten forcefully and is responsible for the
mechanical processes in the body.
There are three major types of muscle tissue: Skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle.

Skeletal muscle with its associated connective tissue comprises approximately 40% of the
body’s weight and is responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture and many other
body movements. Its function, to a large degree is under voluntary or conscious control by the
nervous system.

Smooth muscle, the most variable type of muscle in the body with respect to distribution and
function, is in the walls of hollow organs and tubes, in the internal muscles of the eye, in the
walls of the blood vessels, and in other areas. Smooth muscle performs a variety of functions
including propelling urine through the urinary tract, mixing food in the intestine and stomach,
dilating and constricting the pupil and regulating the flow of blood through blood vessels.

Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, and its contractions provide the major force for
propelling blood through the circulatory system.
Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are autorhythmic i.e. they contract
spontaneously at somewhat regular intervals. Nervous or hormonal stimulation is not always
required for them to contract. Smooth muscles and cardiac muscle are not under direct conscious
control but are innervated and in part regulated unconsciously or involuntarily by the autonomic
nervous system and the endocrine system.

Histology of Skeletal Muscle

Surrounding each muscle is a delicate external lamina composed primarily of reticular fibers.
This external lamina is produced by the muscle fiber and when observed through the light
microscope, cannot be distinguished from the muscle fiber’s cell membrane, the sarcolemma.
The endomysium a delicate network of loose connective tissue with numerous reticular fibers
surrounds each muscle fiber outside the external lamina.
A bundle of muscle fibers with their endomysium is surrounded by another, heavier connective
tissue called the perimysium.
Each bundle unsheathed by perimysium is a muscle fasciculus.
A muscle consists of many fasciculi grouped together and surrounded by a third and heavier
layer, the epimysium, which is composed of dense, fibrous connective tissue and covers the
entire surface of the muscle.
The fascia, a layer of fibrous connective tissue outside the epimysium separates individual
muscles and in some cases surrounding muscle groups.
The connective tissue components of muscles are continuous with each other.
At the end of muscles the connective tissue components of muscle are continuous with the
connective tissue of tendons or the connective tissue sheaths of bone.

 Perimysium surrounds each fascile

 Endomysium envelopes each single muscle cell
 Epimysium surrounds the entire muscle formed by groups of fascicles
 Sarcolemma is the plasma membrane of the muscle cell

SMOOTH MUSCLE
-Smooth muscle cells are smaller than skeletal muscle cells ranging from 15 to 200µm in length
and from 5 to 10µm in diameter.
-They are spindly shaped with a single nucleus located in the middle of the cell.
-Compared to skeletal muscle, they have less actin and myosin myofilaments.
-Although the myofilaments approximate a longitudinal orientation within the smooth muscle
cell, they are not organized into sarcomeres and consequently, smooth muscles do not have a
striated appearance.
-Sarcoplasm reticulum is sparse in smooth muscle cells and there is not T-tubule system.
-Shallow invaginated areas called caveolae are found along the surface of the cell membrane and
their function may be similar to both the T tubules and the sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal
muscle.
-Ca2+ ions required to initiate contraction usually enter the cell from the extracellular fluid.
-Smooth muscle contraction is slower than skeletal muscle.
Ca2+ ions bind to a protein called calmodulin in smooth muscle cells.
SMOOTH MUSCLE TYPES
-They are two types of smooth muscle, visceral and multiunit.
-Visceral or unitary smooth muscle is more common than multiunit smooth muscle.
-It normally occurs in sheets and includes smooth muscle of digestive, reproductive and urinary
tracts.
-Visceral smooth muscle exhibits numerous gap junctions which allow action potential to pass
directly from one cell to another. As a consequence, sheets of smooth muscle cells function as a
single unit, and a wave of contraction traverses the entire smooth muscle sheet.
-Visceral smooth muscle is often autorhythmic, but some contracts only when stimulated e.g.
visceral smooth muscles of the digestive tract contract spontaneously and at relatively regular
intervals, whereas the visceral smooth muscle of the urinary bladder contracts when stimulated
by the nervous system.
-Multiunit smooth muscles occurs as sheets (e.g. the walls of blood vessels), in small bundles
(e.g. a rector pili muscles and iris of the eye) or as single cells (e.g. the capsule of the spleen.
-They have few gap junctions and each cell acts as an independent unit.
Multiunit smooth muscle normally contracts only when stimulated by nerves or hormones.

The circulatory system functions to pick up, transport, and deliver gases, nutrients, hormones,
cells, and other materials throughout the body. It consists of several continuous component parts
each with a basically tubular shape that is modified to carry out a function subservient to the
central purpose of the system — exchange across the walls of the capillaries and the post
capillary venules.

The blood vessels that take blood from the heart to various tissues are called arteries. The
smallest arteries are called arterioles. Arterioles open into a network of capillaries that pervade
the tissues. Exchanges of various substances between the blood and the tissues take place
through the walls of capillaries.

In some situations, capillaries are replaced by slightly different vessels called sinusoids. Blood
from capillaries (or from sinusoids) is collected by small venules that join to form veins. The
veins return blood to the heart

Blood vascular system consists of the following parts.

 1. Heart is a modified blood vessel functioning as a powerful pump for circulating the
blood.
2. Arteries which are of the following types;
a) Large arteries having a diameter of 25 mm and a wall thickness of 2 mm. large
arteries include aorta and its main branches. These large arteries have elastic walls
b) Medium and small arteries which are of muscular type
c) Arterioles
d) Capillaries
e) Sinusoids
3. Veins
a) Large veins e.g. vena cavae and their main tributaries.
b) Medium sized veins
c) Small veins and venules

General Structural Organization of Blood Vessels

The walls of all blood vessels larger than capillaries are composed of three concentric layers or
tunics.The inner tunica interna (intima), a middle tunica media, and an external tunica externa
(adventitia)

Arteries and veins are distinguished from each other on the basis of the composition of the
various tunics, particularly the tunica media.
The tunica interna (tunica intima) is lined with a simple squamous epithelium known as
endothelium and its underlying basal lamina. A subendothelial layer includes collagen and
elastic fibers, fibrocytes, and in some vessels, smooth muscle cells. The outermost layer of the
tunica interna is the internal elastic membrane. This membrane is a sheet of elastin that has
gaps that permit diffusion of nutrients into the tunica media; it is usually absent in the smaller
veins and thin or inconspicuous in the larger ones. The tunica interna is avascular and is
nourished through transendothelial transport of substances from the circulating blood.

The tunica media consists of several layers of smooth muscle in helical arrangement,
interspersed with varying numbers of elastic laminae, elastic fibers, and collagen fibers. Most of
the inner half of the tunica media receives nutrients from the tunica interna; the remainder is
supplied by vasa vasorum (small blood vessels that supply the vessel wall). An external elastic
membrane, similar in structure to the internal elastic membrane, is clearly distinguishable in
only the largest muscular arteries

The tunica media consists of several layers of smooth muscle in helical arrangement,
interspersed with varying numbers of elastic laminae, elastic fibers, and collagen fibers. Most of
the inner half of the tunica media receives nutrients from the tunica interna; the remainder is
supplied by vasa vasorum (small blood vessels that supply the vessel wall). An external elastic
membrane, similar in structure to the internal elastic membrane, is clearly distinguishable in
only the largest muscular arteries

In the outermost tunica externa (adventitia), collagen and elastic fibers predominate, and
smooth muscle cells may be present. This tunic also contains vasa vasorum that extend into the
outer layers of the tunica media. Vasomotor nerves (nervi vasorum) form plexuses in the
externa of most large blood vessels. A few axons penetrate the tunica media and terminate near
smooth muscle cells

Large Elastic Arteries

These are the largest diameter arteries and are often called conducting arteries. The pressure is
relatively high in these vessels and it fluctuates between systolic and diastolic values. A greater
amount of elastic tissue and a smaller amount of smooth muscle are in their walls when
compared to other arteries. The elastic fibres are responsible for the elastic characteristics of the
blood vessel wall, but collagenous connective tissue determines the degree to which the arterial
wall can be stretched.
The tunica intima is relatively thick. The internal and external elastic membranes merge with the
elastic fibres of the tunica media and are not recognizable as distinct layers.
The tunica media consists of a meshwork of elastic fibers with interspersed circular smooth-
muscle cells and some collagen fibres.
The tunica adventia is relatively thin.

Medium-sized and small arteries (muscular arteries)

Their walls are relatively thick when compared to their diameter mainly because of the smooth-
muscle cells in the tunica media. The tunica intima has a well developed internal elastic
membrane. The tunica intima contains 25 to 40 layers of smooth muscle. Only the larger
medium-sized arteries have an external elastic membrane.
The tunica adventitia is composed of a relatively thick layer of collageneous tissue that blends
with the surrounding connective tissue.
Medium-sized arteries frequently are called distributing arteries because the smooth muscle
allow these vessels to partially regulate blood supply to different regions of the body by either
constricting or dilating.
The small arteries vary in diameter from approximately 40 to 300µm. Arteries that are 40µm in
diameter have approximately three or four layers of smooth muscle in their tunica media whereas
arteries that are 300µm have essentially the same structure as the medium-sized arteries.
Arterioles
These transport blood from small arteries to capillaries and are the smallest arteries in which the
three tunics can be identified. The tunica intima consists of endothelium and the underlying
connective tissue, but there is no observable internal elastic membrane. The tunica media
consists of one or two layers of circular smooth-muscle cells. The tunica adventitia consists of
collagenous connective tissue.
Venules and small veins
Venules with a diameter of 40 to 50µm are tubes composed of endothelium resting on a delicate
basement membrane. Their structure, except for their diameter, is very similar to that of
capillaries. A few isolated smooth muscle cells exist outside the endothelial cells, especially in
the larger venules. As the vessels increase to 0.2 to 0.3mm in diameter, the smooth muscle cells
form a continuous layer, the vessels then are called small veins. The small veins also have a
tunica adventitia composed of collagenous connective tissue.
Medium-sized and large veins
They collect blood from small veins and deliver it to the large venous trunks. The large veins
transport blood from the medium sized veins to the heart. Their tunica intima is thin and consists
of endothelial cells, a relatively thin layer of collageneous connective tissue and a few scattered
elastic fibers. There may be poorly developed internal elastic membrane.
The tunica media is also thin and is composed of a thin layer of circulatory arranged smooth
muscle cells and collagen fibers plus a few sparsely distributed elastic fibres. The tunica
adventitia is composed of collagenous connective tissue and is the predominant layer.

CAPILLARIES
All blood vessels have an internal lining of simple squamous epithelial cells called endothelium,
which is continuous with the endocarcardium of the heart.
The capillaries walls consist primarily of endothelial cells which rest on a basement membrane.
Outside the basement membrane is delicate layer of loose connective tissue called the adventitia
that merges with the connective tissue surrounding the capillary. Along the length of the
capillary are some scattered cells that are closely associated with the endothelial cells. These
scattered cells lie between the basement membrane and the endothelia cells and are called
pericapillary cells. They are apparently fibroblast, macrophages, or undifferentiated smooth
muscles.
Most capillaries range from 7 to 9 mm in diameter and they branch without a change in diameter.
Capillaries are variable in length, but in general they are approximately 1.0 mm long. Red blood
cells flow through most capillaries in a single file and frequently are folded as they pass through
the smaller diameter capillaries.
Types of capillaries
Capillaries can be classified as continuous, fenestrated, or sinusoidal, depending on the
diameter and there permeability characteristics.
a) Continuous capillaries are approximately 7 to 9 mm in diameter, and their walls exhibit
no gaps between the endothelial cells. Continuous capillaries are less permeable to large
molecules than are other capillary types and are in muscle, nervous tissue, and many
other locations.
b) In fenestrated capillaries (Visceral capillaries) commonly occur in the gastrointestinal
tract. The endothelial cells have numerous fenestrae. The fenestrae are areas
approximately 70 to 100 nm in diameter in which the cytoplasm is absent and the cell
membrane consists of a porous diaphragm that is thinner than normal cell membrane.
Fenestrated capillaries are in tissues in which capillaries are highly permeable e.g. in the
intestinal villi, ciliary process of the eye, choroid plexuses of the central nervous
system, and glomeruli of the kidney.

c) Sinusoidal capillaries are larger in diameter then either continuous or fenestrated

capillaries and their basement membrane is less prominent. Their fenestrae are larger
then ones in fenestrated capillaries. They are found in places such as endocrine glands
where large molecules cross the wall of the capillary. Sinusoids are large diameter
sinusoidal capillaries. Their basement membrane is sparse and often missing and their
structure suggests that large molecules and sometimes cells can move readily across their
walls between endothelial cells. Sinusoids are common in the liver and the bone
marrow.
Characteristics of Blood Vessels

Vessel Diameter Tunica intima Tunica Media Tunica adventitia

Large atery >10mm Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue
(elastic artery) Connective Elastic lamellae Elastic fibers
tissue Thinner than
Smooth muscle tunica media
Medium artery 2–10 mm Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue
(muscular artery) Connective Collagen fibers Some elastic
tissue Relatively little fibers
Smooth muscle elastic Thinner than
Prominent tissue tunica media
internal elastic
membrane
Small artery 0.1–2 mm Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue
Connective (8–10 cell Some elastic
tissue layers) fibers
Smooth muscle Collagen fibers Thinner than
Internal elastic tunica media
membrane
Arteriole 10–100 μm Endothelium Smooth muscle Thin, ill-defined
Connective (1–2 cell sheath of
tissue layers) connective tissue
Smooth muscle
Capillary 4–10 μm Endothelium None None

Veins
Postcapillary 10–50 μm Endothelium None None
venule Pericytes
Muscular venule 50–100 μm Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue
(1–2 cell layers) Some elastic