Introduction to Anatomy

Dr.Raja'a Al-Adhami (2) January 28 , 2021

The Skin :
The skin covers the entire surface of the body. In an adult , the
skin has a surface area of about 1.8 square meters. The skin
sometimes called cutaneous membrane or the integument.
Because the skin has several accessory organs, it is possible to
speak of the integumentory system. The appendages or the
accessory structures found in the skin are:

1- Nails 2- Hair 3- Arrector pilli muscles 4- Sweat

glands 5- Sebaceous glands.

The skin consists of two layers:

1- A superficial layer of avascular ,stratified, squamous
epithelium , called the Epidermis , and
2- A deeper ,vascular , dense fibrous tissue called, the
Dermis , which sends small peg-like protrusions into the
epidermis. These form the minute bleeding points which
appear when a thin layer is cut from the surface of the skin
and they help to bind the epidermis to the dermis. The skin is
separated from the deeper structures (muscles and bones) by
two layers of fibrous tissue or Fascia.

Fascia :
Fascia is a connective tissue which acts as a packing material.
There are two types of fascia:

1- Superficial Fascia.
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It is a fibrous mesh, filled with fat, which connects the
dermis to the underlying sheet of deep fascia. It is
particularly dense in the scalp, the back of the neck , the
palm of the hands ,and the sole of the feet. In other part
of the body its looseness and elasticity allow the skin to
move freely and return back to its original position.
The thickness of the superficial fascia varies with the
amount of fat in its meshes. It is thinnest in the
eyelids, the nipples and areola of the breast, and some
parts of the external genital organs where there is no
fat. The fat in the superficial fascia varies in sexes. The
smoother outline of the woman's figure, is due to the
greater amount of subcutaneous fat which is a
secondary sex character. The fat is an insulator layer and
accounts for the increased resistance of the female to
cold weather in comparison with male. The superficial
fascia also contains small arteries, lymph vessels , and
nerves of the skin.
2- The Deep Fascia:
It is the dense, inelastic membrane, which separate the
superficial fascia from underlying structures. It is
continuous with the superficial fascia superiorly, and
sends wide partitions or septa between the muscles
from its deep surface which becomes continuous with
the periosteum of the bones. Also the deep fascia forms
tunnels between the muscles for the passage of vessels
and nerves. Such tunnels are frequently thickened to
form restraining bands or RETINACULA that hold the
tendons of muscles in position.
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Fascia reacts readily by laying down collagen fibers
parallel to any force applied to it. Thus it becomes
thickened to form:
a- Aponeuroses, where muscles are attached to it.
b- Retinacula , where it is stretched by tendons curving
round it.

c-Ligaments where there are forces tending to separate

bones which meet at a joint.

Blood Vessels :

These are tubes which convey blood from the heart to the
tissues at high pressure. For this purpose, arteries contain
smooth muscle fibers and sometime elastic fibers in their
wall. According to their sizes, arteries are divided into:

a- Very large arteries (contains elastic fibers in their wall)

e.g. aorta.
b- Large arteries.
c- Medium arteries.
d- Small arteries.
e- Arteriols

In many tissues the smaller arteries may unite with one

another, forming tubular loops called anastamoses. Such
anastamoses occur especially around the joints of the limb, in
the gastrointestinal tract, at the base of the brain, and
elsewhere. They are of importance in maintaining the
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circulation when one of the arteries to the tissue is blocked.

In these circumstances the remaining arteries enlarge
gradually to produce what is called a collateral circulation.

Capillaries:
These are microscopic tubes forming a network through
which the arterioles discharge blood into the smallest
tributaries of the veins. The capillary walls consist of a single
layer of flattened endothelial cells through which substances
(oxygen and nutrients ) are exchanged between the blood and
tissues.

Veins :
Blood return back from different parts of the body to the
heart by veins. Because the walls of the veins doesn’t contain
muscles, blood move slowly. The more sluggish flow of blood
in the veins is aided:

1- By the compression from the contracting muscles

surrounding them.
2- By the fall in pressure in the thorax with each inspiration
which draws venous blood into the thorax as well as air.
Some of the superficial veins contain valves to prevent
the tendency to backward flow of the blood. The deep
veins accompany the arteries are called venae
comitantes.

Lymph:
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Lymph is usually a clear, transparent, watery fluid. Sometimes
it is a faintly yellow and slightly opalescent fluid. Usually more

tissue fluid is produced at the arterial ends of the capillaries

than is absorbed at their venous ends. This extra fluid is
drained away by the lymph capillaries. Lymph contains the
same constituents as blood plasma. Lymph coming from the
intestine also contains fat , fatty acids , glycerols, amino acids
, and glucose.

Functions of the Lymphatic System:

The lymphatic system consists of the lymphatic vessels and
lymph nodes. The functions of the lymphatic system are:

1- Drainage of tissue fluid.

2- It is part of the defensive mechanisim of the body. The
lymph in its way back to the circulatory system passes
through many lymph nodes where particulate matter is
largely filtered out by the phagocytic activity of the
scavenger cells called Macrophages.

When minute amounts of foreign protein are drained from

infected area by the lymph capillaries, immunological
competent cells produce specific antibodies to the foreign
protein. The antibodies are carried to this area via the blood
stream and tissue fluid. This is referred to as the humeral
mechanism of the immune reaction.