Assignment no.

2
ABU BAKAR.
1st Year (BDS)
Roll # 02

Q1. Briefly describe different types of capillaries in a tabulated form.

Ans. Capillaries are tiny blood containing structures that connect arterioles to venules.
They are the smallest and most abundant form of blood vessel in the body.
There are three different types of capillaries which are discussed as under:

1. Continuous capillaries

2. Fenestrated capillaries
3. Discontinuous or sinusoidal capillaries
 1.Continuous Fenestrated Sinusoidal capillaries
capillaries capillaries

1. Its measure about 7- They are about 60-80nm They are a special type of open-
9um. in diameter. pore capillary ranging from 30-
40um in diameter.
2. They only allow smaller They are spanned by a They allow red and white blood
molecules(water etc.) to diaphragm of radially cells and..various serum proteins
pass through their oriented fibrils that to pass, aided by a
intercalated clefts. allows small molecules discontinuous basal lamina.
and limited amounts of
protein to diffuse
3. There are no pores and There have pores sinusoids lack a diaphragm and
cells have tight just have an open pore.
occluding junctions.
4. Those with numerous They are found in those These capillaries lack pinocytotic
transport vesicles, which areas where rapid vesicles, and therefore utilize
are found primarily exchange between blood gaps present in cell junctions to
in skeletal muscles, and tissue is required. permit transfer between
fingers, gonads, and endothelial cells, and hence
skin across the membrane.
5. Those with few vesicles, They are usually found in They are mainly found in
which are primarily Renal glomeruli the liver, bone marrow, spleen,
found in the central ,Intestinal villi, Endocrine and brain circumventricular
nervous system. These glands , Pancreas organs.
capillaries are a
constituent of the blood–
brain barrier.
6. They doesn’t have They have Glycocalyx Sinusoids are irregular spaces
Glycocalyx layer and layer present which is filled with blood.
allow least leakage helpful in transport
through them. molecules.

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Q2. What do you understand by the following terms:

Ans.

a. End Anastomosis:
In medicine, an anastomosis typically refers to a connection between blood
vessels or between two loops of the intestine.It refers to how structures are
connected biologically in the body. For example, many veins and arteries are
connected to each other. This helps us efficiently transport blood and nutrients
throughout the body.
b. Atherosclerosis:
Atherosclerosis is a disease in which the inside of an artery narrows due to
the build up of plaque.It can result in coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral
artery disease when severe Risk factors include abnormal cholesterol
levels, high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, obesity.
c. Venae commitments :
It refers to a vein that is usually paired, with both veins lying on the sides
of an artery. Because they are generally found in pairs, they are often referred to
by their plural form: venae comitantes.
Examples of arteries and their venae comitantes:

 Radial artery and radial veins

 Ulnar artery and ulnar veins
 Brachial artery and brachial veins

d. Aneurysm:
An aneurysm is an outward bulging, likened to a bubble. Aneurysm occurs
when part of an artery wall weakens, allowing it to widen abnormally. Some may
be congenital and some aortic diseases or an injury may also cause an aneurysm.
A family history of aneurysm may increase your risk for developing an
aneurysm. Other risk factors include high blood pressure, high cholesterol and
smoking.
Most common Aneurysms are:

 Aortic aneurysm occurs in the major artery from the heart

 Cerebral aneurysm occurs in the brain
 Mesenteric artery aneurysm occurs in the intestine

e. Capillary bed:
 capillary bed is a network of capillaries supplied by a single arterioles. The
circuit supplies oxygen and nutrients to all organs and removes their metabolic
wastes. Blood from the capillary bed is drained by the venules, which carry blood
back toward the heart.
 The capillary bed is an interwoven network of capillaries that supplies an
organ. The more metabolically active the cells, the more capillaries required to
supply nutrients and carry away waste products.

f. Thoroughfare channels:
Metarterioles exist in the mesenteric microcirculation, and the name
was originally conceived only to define the "thoroughfare channels "
between arterioles and venules. In recent times the term has often been used instead to
describe the smallest arterioles directly prior to the capillaries. In some vascular beds
the connection between the arterioles and the venules is also made by

some thoroughfare channels .

g. Pericytes:

Pericytes are multi-functional mural cells of the microcirculation that wrap

around the endothelial cells that line the capillaries and venules throughout the
body. Pericytes are embedded in basement membrane, where they communicate with
endothelial cells of the body's smallest blood vessels by means of both direct physical
contact and paracrine signaling. Pericytes help to
maintain homeostatic and hemostatic functions in the brain and also sustain the blood–
brain barrier.
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Q3. Explain the structure and functions of endothelial cells.

Ans. Endothelial cells line the inside of every blood vessel in the body. They form a
one-cell-thick layer called the endothelium, which is also found on the inner walls of the
heart chambers and lymphatic vessels, which carry excess blood plasma around the
body. The endothelium is very extensive. If all the endothelium tissue in an adult body
were to be spread out, it would take up the area of eight tennis courts.

In the larger vessels, such

as
the veins and arteries , the
endothelium forms the blood vessel
wall along with much thicker layers of
muscle cells and elastic fibers. In
the capillaries, however, the endothelium makes up the entirety of the blood vessel
wall.

Main Function:
The main job of endothelial cells is to provide a barrier between the blood and the rest
of the body tissues. Blood must be contained inside the transporting vessels, but
substances need to move in and out of it in a controlled manner. The endothelium
provides this selectively permeable layer across which chemicals and white blood
cells move according to where they are needed.

The role of the endothelium as a barrier is particularly critical around the brain. The
endothelial cells are part of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a layer that separates the
blood flowing through vessels surrounding the brain from the brain tissue itself.
Endothelial cells line the inside of every blood vessel in the body. They form a one-
cell-thick layer called the endothelium, which is also found on the inner walls of the
heart chambers and lymphatic vessels, which carry excess blood plasma around the
body. The endothelial cells act like a sieve, restricting the passage of large molecules,
toxic substances, and bacteria into the brain tissue while allowing necessary molecules
like oxygen, enzymes, and hormones to go through. They also allow waste substances
like carbon dioxide produced by neurons to diffuse out of the brain and back into the
blood

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Q4. Give the differences between medium size artery and vein in relation to
their tunics in tabulated form.

Ans.

Sr. ARTERY VEIN

1. It carries blood away from heart It carries blood towards heart
2. Carry oxygenated blood except Carry de-oxygenated blood except
 pulmonary artery
3. Arteries are red in color because
they carry oxygenated blood
4. It usaually located deep in the body
5. Artery is a resistance blood vessel
6. Middle layer of artery i.e; Tunica
media is thick
7. Tunica media composed of elastic
and smooth muscle tissue
8. Wall of artery is elastic
pulmonary vein
Veins are blue in color because they
carry de-oxygenated blood
It usually located close to the skin
Vein is a capacitance blood vessel
Tunica media relatively thin in veins
Tunica media composed of few elastic
fibres and it is less muscular
Wall of vein is not elastic

9. Semilunar valves are absent except Semilunar valves present at regular

where the artery leaves the heart
10. Arteries possess narrow lumen
11. Pressure of blood flowing through
the artery is high
12. Pulse is detectable in the atery
13. Blood flow rate is quick and rapid
14. Blood volume in the artery is
relatively low
15. It carries about 30% of the
systemic circulation of blood in
human
16. Arteries are emptied up at the
time of the death
17. Atherosclerosis is the main disease Deep vein thrombosis is the main
afeecting the arteries
intervals to prevent the back-flow of
blood
Veins possess wide lumen
Pressure of blood flowing through the
artery is low
Pulse is not detectable in the artery
Blood flow rate is steady
Much higher blood volume than
cappilaries and arteries
It carries about 65% of the systemic
blood circulation in human
Veins are filled up at the time of death
disease affecting the veins

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Q5. What is vasa vasorum and what role does it play in the blood vessel
network?

Ans. Vasa vasorum is a network of small blood vessels that supply blood to the walls of
large blood vessels, for example elastic arteries (aorta) and large veins (vena cava).
The vasa vasorum are found in large veins and arteries such as the aorta and its
branches. These small vessels serve to provide blood supply and nourishment for
tunica adventitia and outer parts of tunica media of large vessels.

The structure of the vasa vasorum varies with the size, function and location of the
vessels. Cells need to be within a few cell-widths of a capillary to stay alive. In the
largest vessels, the vasa vasorum penetrates the outer (tunica adventitia) layer and
middle (tunica media) layer almost to the inner (tunica intima) layer. In smaller vessels it
penetrates only the outer layer. In the smallest vessels, the vessels' own circulation
nourishes the walls directly and they have no vasa vasorum at all.

Vasa vasorum are more frequent in veins than arteries. Some authorities hypothesize
that the vasa vasorum would be more abundant in large veins, as partial oxygen
pressure and osmotic pressure is lower in veins. This would lead to more vasa vasorum
needed to supply the vessels sufficiently. The converse argument is that generally
artery walls are thicker and more muscular than veins as the blood passing through is of
a higher pressure. This means that it would take longer for any oxygen to diffuse
through to the cells in the tunica adventitia and the tunica media, causing them to need
a more extensive vasa vasorum.
 There are three different types of vasa vasorum:

 Vasa vasorum internae, that originate directly from the main lumen of the artery
and then branch into the vessel wall.
 Vasa vasorum externae, that originate from branches of the main artery and
then dive back into the vessel wall of the main artery.
 Venous vasa vasorae, that originate within the vessel wall of the artery but then
drain into the main lumen or branches of concomitant vein. [1]

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Q6. Name the organ/tissues in the body where lymph capillaries are absent and
why?

Ans. Lymphatic vessels occur throughout the body alongside arteries (in the viscera) or
veins (in the subcutaneous tissue).
  Lymphatic capillaries are NOT found in the neural tissue of the central nervous
system, in cartilage or in the cortex of the thymus gland. They are absent from
the central nervous system,epithelium, bone marrow, teeth, and avascular
tissues. Lymph capillaries, the smallest lymphatic vessels, begin as dead‐
end vessels. Main tissues of liver & spleen (fibrous tissues of both organs have
lymphatics).

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Q7. During street fight a young boy received a blow on his right eye after which
he developed ecchymosis/black eye. What could be the possible anatomical
reason behind this condition?

Ans. Ecchymosis occurs when blood leaks from a broken capillary into surrounding
tissue under the skin. This causes discoloration,bleeding beneath the skin. As the tissue
heals, the area of ecchymosis may change from purple or blackish blue to yellow or
green.

This dark purple spot forms on your skin when blood leaks out of your blood vessels into
the top layer of your skin. It's usually from an injury, and it’s 1/2 inch long or bigger. The hit
or fall breaks blood vessels just under your skin's surface. If the injury causes a cut in your
skin, you bleed. When there is no cut, the blood can't get out, so it pools underneath your
skin.
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Q8. Describe the route of spread of scalp infection to meninges of brain in flow
chart.

Ans.Scalp is refered to multi-layered structure

•S-skin

•C-connective tissue (dense)

•A-aponeurotic layer

•L-loose connective tissue

•P-pericranium

The meninges refer to the membranous coverings of the brain and spinal cord. There are three
layers of meninges, known as the dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.
Skin of scalp

Bone of skull
Periosteum

The outermost meningeal

layer DURA
Periosteal layer

The middle meningeal layer

The inner most
ARACHNOID and SUB
PIA layer ARACHNOID

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Q9. Tabulate the boundaries and contents of subdivisions of anterior triangle of
neck (Submental, Digastric, Carotid, Muscular).

Ans. The anterior triangle is situated in front of the neck.

Superiorly: inferior border of jaw bone mandible

Laterally: anterior border of sternocleidomastoid

Medially: sagittal line down to the middle of neck

Investing fascia covers the roof of the triangle, while visceral fascia covers the floor.
It can be sub-divided into four triangles.

Contents:

The contents of the anterior triangle include muscles, nerves, arteries, veins and

lymph nodes.
The muscles in this part of the neck are divided as to where they lie in relation to
the hyoid bone. The suprahyoid muscles are located superiorly to the hyoid bone, and
infrahyoids inferiorly.

Suprahyoid Muscles Infrahyoid Muscles

Stylohyoid Omohyoid

Digastric Sternohyoid

Mylohyoid Thyrohyoid

Geniohyoid Sternothyroid
There are several important vascular structures within the anterior triangle.
The common carotid artery bifurcates within the triangle into the external and internal
carotid branches. The internal jugular vein can also be found within this area – it is
responsible for venous drainage of the head and neck.
Numerous cranial nerves are located in the anterior triangle. Some pass straight
through, and others give rise to branches which innervate some of the other structures
within the triangle. The cranial nerves in the anterior triangle are the facial
[VII], glossopharyngeal [IX], vagus [X], accessory [XI], and hypoglossal [XII] nerves

Subdivisions:
The anterior triangle is subdivided by the hyoid bone, suprahyoid and infrahyoid
muscles into four triangles.

Carotid Triangle:
The carotid triangle of the neck has the following boundaries:

Superior posterior belly of the digastric muscle.

Lateral medial border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
Inferior Su perior belly of the omohyoid muscle.

CONTENTS:
  The main contents of the carotid triangle are the  common carotid
artery (which bifurcates within the carotid triangle into the external and internal carotid
arteries), the internal jugular vein, and the hypoglossal and vagus nerves.

Submental Triangle:
The submental triangle in the neck is situated underneath the chin. It
contains the submental lymph nodes, which filter lymph draining from the floor of the
mouth and parts of the tongue.

It is bounded by:

Inferiorly hyoid bone.

Medially midline of the neck.
Laterally  anterior belly of the digastric
  –The base of the submental triangle is formed by the mylohyoid muscle, which
runs from the mandible to the hyoid bone.

Submandibular Triangle:
The submandibular triangle is located underneath the body of the mandible. It contains
the submandibular gland (salivary), and lymph nodes. The facial artery and vein also
pass through this area.

The boundaries of the submandibular triangle are:

Superiorly anterior belly of the digastric muscle.

Anteriorly  medial border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
PosteriorlySu posterior belly of the digastric muscle.
 Muscular Triangle:
The muscular triangle is situated more inferiorly than the subdivisions. It is a slightly
‘dubious’ triangle, in reality having four boundaries. The muscular triangle contains
some muscles and organs – the infrahyoid muscles, the pharynx, and
the thyroid, parathyroid glands.
The boundaries of the muscular triangle are:

Superiorly By hyoid bone

Medially  By imaginary midline of the neck.

Supero-  By superior belly of the omohyoid muscle.

laterally 
 Infero-  By inferior portion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

laterally 
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