Anatomy of Human Respiratory System

The respiratory system may be

divided into the upper respiratory tract
and the lower respiratory tract. The
upper respiratory tract consists of
the parts outside the chest cavity: the
air passages of the nose, nasal
cavities, pharynx, larynx, and upper
trachea. The lower respiratory tract
consists of the parts found within the
chest cavity: the lower trachea and the
lungs themselves, which include the
bronchial tubes and alveoli. Also part
of the respiratory system is the pleural
membranes and the respiratory
muscles that form the chest cavity: the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

NOSE AND NASAL CAVITIES

Air enters and leaves the respiratory system through the nose, which is made of
bone and cartilage covered with skin. Just inside the nostrils are hairs, which
help block the entry of dust.
The two nasal cavities are within the skull, separated by the nasal septum,
which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer. The nasal mucosa
(lining) is ciliated epithelium, with goblet cells that produce mucus. Three shelf-
like or scroll-like bones called conchae project from the lateral wall of each
nasal cavity. The conchae increase the surface area of the nasal mucosa. As air
passes through the nasal cavities it is warmed and humidified, so that air that
reaches the lungs is warm and moist. Bacteria and particles of air pollution are
trapped on the mucus; the cilia continuously sweep the mucus toward the
pharynx. Most of this mucus is eventually swallowed, and most bacteria present
will be destroyed by the hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice.
In the upper nasal cavities are the olfactory receptors, which detect vaporized
chemicals that have been inhaled. The olfactory nerves pass through the
ethmoid bone to the brain.
Paranasal sinuses are air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and
ethmoid bones. These sinuses are lined with ciliated epithelium, and the mucus
produced drains into the nasal cavities. The functions of the paranasal sinuses
are to lighten the skull and provide resonance (more vibrating air) for the voice.
PHARYNX
The pharynx is a muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and
anterior to the cervical vertebrae.
The pharynx may be divided into three parts: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx.
The uppermost portion is
the nasopharynx, which
is behind the nasal
cavities. The soft palate
is elevated during
swallowing to block the
nasopharynx and prevent
food or saliva from going
up rather than down.
The uvula is the part of
the soft palate you can
see at the back of the
throat. On the posterior
wall of the nasopharynx
is the adenoid or
pharyngeal tonsil, a
lymph nodule that contains macrophages. Opening into the nasopharynx are the
two eustachian tubes, which extend to the middle ear cavities. The purpose of
the eustachian tubes is to permit air to enter or leave the middle ears, allowing
the eardrums to vibrate properly.
The nasopharynx is a passageway for air only, but the remainder of the pharynx
serves as both an air and food passageway, although not for both at the same
time. The oropharynx is behind the mouth; its mucosa is stratified squamous
epithelium, continuous with that of the oral cavity. On its lateral walls are the
palatine tonsils, also lymph nodules. Together with the adenoid and the lingual
tonsils on the base of the tongue, they form a ring of lymphatic tissue around the
pharynx to destroy pathogens that penetrate the mucosa.
The laryngopharynx is the most inferior portion of the pharynx. It opens
anteriorly into the larynx and posteriorly into the esophagus. Contraction of the
muscular wall of the oropharynx and laryngopharynx is part of the swallowing
reflex.

LARYNX
The larynx is often called the voice box, a name that indicates one of its
functions, which is speaking. The other function of the larynx is to be an air
passageway between the pharynx and the trachea. Air passages must be kept
open at all times, and so the larynx is made of nine pieces of cartilage connected
by ligaments:

Thyroid cartilage - The largest cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

Epiglottis - The thin elastic cartilaginous lid-like structure (elastic cartilage)

located at the root of the tongue which folds posteriorly over to close the glottis
to prevent food and liquid from entering the larynx and trachea.

Glottis - The opening between the vocal cords at the upper part of the larynx
and the vocal apparatus of the larynx; it is protected by the epiglottis.

Cricoid cartilage - The second largest and lower most cartilage (hyaline
cartilage).

Arytenoid cartilages - The pair of small pyramidal cartilages (hyaline

cartilage) which articulate with the cricoid cartilage; the vocal cords and several
skeletal muscles are attached to them; their movement produces tension or
relaxation of the vocal cords resulting in a variety of sound pitches.

Corniculate cartilages - The pair of small conical nodules of elastic cartilage.

Cuneiform cartilages - The pair of small nonarticulating rods of elastic

cartilage.
Cartilage is a firm yet flexible tissue that prevents collapse of the larynx. In
comparison, the esophagus is a collapsed tube except when food is passing
through it.
The mucosa of the larynx is ciliated epithelium, except for the vocal cords
(stratified squamous epithelium). The cilia of the mucosa sweep upward to
remove mucus and trapped dust and microorganisms.
The vocal cords (or vocal folds) are on either side of the glottis, the opening
between them. During breathing, the vocal cords are held at the sides of the
glottis, so that air passes freely into and out of the trachea. During speaking, the
intrinsic muscles of the larynx pull the vocal cords across the glottis, and
exhaled air vibrates the vocal cords to produce sounds that can be turned into
speech. It is also physically possible to speak while inhaling, but this is not what
we are used to.
TRACHEA AND BRONCHIAL TREE
The trachea is about 4 to 5 inches
(10 to 13 cm) long and extends
from the larynx to the primary
bronchi. The wall of the trachea
contains 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces
of cartilage, which keep the trachea
open. The gaps in these incomplete
cartilage rings are posterior, to
permit the expansion of the
esophagus when food is swallowed.
The mucosa of the trachea is
ciliated epithelium with goblet
cells. As in the larynx, the cilia
sweep upward toward the pharynx.
The right and left primary bronchi
are the branches of the trachea that
enter the lungs. Their structure is
just like that of the trachea, with C-
shaped cartilages and ciliated
epithelium. Within the lungs, each
primary bronchus branches into
secondary bronchi leading to the
lobes of each lung (three right, two
left). The further branching of the
bronchial tubes is often called the
bronchial tree. Imagine the
trachea as the trunk of an upside-
down tree with extensive branches
that become smaller and smaller;
these smaller branches are the bronchioles. No cartilage is present in the walls
of the bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles terminate in clusters of alveoli, the
air sacs of the lungs.

Alveoli
The functional units of the lungs are the air sacs called alveoli. The flat alveolar
type I cells that form most of the alveolar walls are simple squamous
epithelium. In the spaces between clusters of alveoli is elastic connective tissue,
which is important for exhalation. Within the alveoli are macrophages that
phagocytize pathogens or other foreign material that may not have been swept
out by the ciliated epithelium of the bronchial tree. There are millions of alveoli
in each lung,. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of pulmonary
capillaries. The capillaries are also made of simple squamous epithelium, so
there are only two cells between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
pulmonary capillaries, which permits efficient diffusion of gases.
Each alveolus is lined with a thin layer of tissue fluid, which is essential for the
diffusion of gases, because a gas must dissolve in a liquid in order to enter or
leave a cell.
LUNGS AND PLEURAL MEMBRANES
The lungs are located on either side of the heart in the chest cavity and are
encircled and protected by the rib cage. The base of each lung rests on the
diaphragm below; the apex (superior tip) is at the level of the clavicle.
On the medial surface of each lung is an indentation called the hilus, where the
primary bronchus and the pulmonary artery and veins enter the lung.
The pleural membranes are the serous membranes of the thoracic cavity. The
parietal pleura line the chest wall, and the visceral pleura are on the surface
of the lungs. Between the pleural membranes is serous fluid, which prevents
friction and keeps the two membranes together during breathing.