 What is Biomechanics?

Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement of living things using the science
of mechanics (Hatze, 1974).
The study of internal and external forces acting on the body segments, and the effects produced
by these forces.
Biomechanics can help us understand sport performances by suggesting better teaching and
coaching techniques, comparing different techniques for performing the same skill, and
improving error detection and correction techniques.

Areas of Biomechanics
i. Clinical Biomechanics - is a branch of biomechanics that applies physical principles to treat
patients (e.g., by orthopedic specialists or physical therapists). Clinical bio mechanists
analyze the mechanics of injured patients and provide feedback (biofeedback) to restore
normal function.
ii. Occupational Biomechanics - is the study of movement related to the act of performing
occupational duties. It is the study of the physical interaction of workers with their tool,
machines, and materials so as to enhance the worker’s performance while minimizing the
risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
iii. Sports Biomechanics - studies human motion during exercise and in sports. By understanding
and applying mechanical concepts, sports bio mechanists assess the most optimal way to
move the body in order to achieve maximal performance, whilst minimizing risk of injury

 Advantages of Biomechanics in Sports

1. Sport Biomechanics can be applied to individuals, analyzing their movements and coaching
them for more effective movement during exercise and sports movement.
2. Biomechanics can be used in the design of sports equipment, clothing, shoes, and the fields
and facilities where sports are played.
3. Biomechanics can study sports techniques and training systems and develop ways to make
them more efficient.
4. Biomechanics can be applied to studying the causes, treatment, and prevention of sports
injuries.

 Careers in Sport Biomechanics

a. Exercise and Sports Science: Applying biomechanics to human performance in athletics. The
Teaching role
b. Health Sciences: Researching causes, treatment, and prevention of injury and using
biomechanics to design rehabilitation programs and equipment. The Research role
c. Engineering and Applied Science such as research and design by sports companies, athletic
research and testing, workplace testing and design of interfaces between humans and
equipment. The Consulting role
 Sub-branches of Biomechanics

Statics: study of systems in constant motion, (including zero motion)

Dynamics: study of systems subject to acceleration
Kinematics: study of the appearance or description of motion
Kinetics: study (analyzing) of the actions of forces (Force can be thought of as a push or pull
acting on a body.)

 Kinematics
Kinematics: study of the variables that describe or quantify motion: Time, Displacement,
Velocity, Acceleration
What we visually observe or describe a body in motion is called the kinematics of the movement.
Kinematics is the study of the size, sequencing, and timing of movement, without regard for the
forces that cause or result from the motion. The kinematics of an exercise or a sport skill is
known, more commonly, as form or technique.

 Kinetics
Kinetics – study of the variables that cause or influence motion. It is the identification of these
forces that cause motion: Forces, Torque, Mass
Kinetics is the study of forces, including internal forces (muscle forces) and external forces (the
forces of gravity and the forces exchanged by bat and ball).

 Human Body Models

Particle Model: Used when the object of interest (the human body or an object) is airborne after
being thrown, struck or kicked.
Stick Figure Model: Used when the object is in contact with its environment.
Rigid Segment Model: Used for more sophisticated quantitative analyses.

 Particle Model:
A simple dot representing the center of mass; used when the human body or an object is airborne,
e.g.: ball in flight, human diving or tumbling (projectile). Only forces impacting these bodies are
gravity and air resistance.
Limitations: Ignores the human form; easy to lose track of the movement
Use is limited to bodies in flight

 Stick Figure Model

Also known as free body diagrams. 2D body segments are represented by rigid bars (sticks)
linked together by joints; used when the athlete is in contact with the ground or other earth-
bound objects. Used to represent the total body configuration for gross motor skills that occur in
2 dimensions, e.g.: sprint starts, running, somersaults.
Limitations: cannot represent complex actions (grip on ball, rotations)
Cannot be individualized for specific athletes, not adequate if the movement is not 2-
dimensional.
Longitudinal rotational movements cannot be represented by this model.
A sequence of stick figures is known as a composite diagram. Composite diagrams give a quick
picture of the body’s actions throughout the full movement range, but they cannot be
individualized to the athlete.

 Rigid Segment Model

Body segments begin to represent true human form (irregularly shaped 3D volume). These
models simplify the analysis of complex movement; used for more sophisticated quantitative
analyses.
Limitations - These models are expensive to design and construct.
Subtle soft tissue movement cannot be represented or measured in this way.

 Biomechanical Analysis
Quantitative analysis involves the measurement of biomechanical variables and usually requires
a computer to do the voluminous numerical calculations performed. Even short movements will
have thousands of samples of data to be collected, scaled, and numerically processed.
Qualitative analysis in contrast has been defined as the “systematic observation and introspective
judgment of the quality of human movement for the purpose of providing the most appropriate
intervention to improve performance”

 Equilibrium
Equilibrium is a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
A body or object is said to be in equilibrium when (a) the sum of the forces acting on it is equal
to zero and (b) the sum of the torques acting on it is equal to zero. In other words, there are no
unbalancing forces or torques.

Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate

 Stability
Stability is the resistance to a change in the body's acceleration or more appropriately the
resistance to a disturbance of the body's equilibrium. Stability may be enhanced by determining
the body's center of gravity (C.G) and changing it appropriately.
The C.G of a body is the point from which the body can have perfect balance; it can be
considered as the center of weight of the body.
  Balance
Balance is the ability to control equilibrium, either static or dynamic.

Static Equilibrium
The ability to control the body while the body is stationary (when at rest and motionless). It is
the ability to maintain the body in some fixed posture.

Dynamic Equilibrium 
The ability to control the body during motion. Dynamic equilibrium is the ability to transfer the
vertical projection of the center of gravity around the supporting base of support while the body
parts are in motion.
Dynamic equilibrium occurs when all the applied and inertial forces acting on the moving body
are in balance, resulting in movement with unchanging speed or direction.

 Five Factors of Equilibrium

1. Stability is directly proportional to the area of the base on which the body rests. Stability
depends upon area of the base. If the base increases, the stability increases and vice-
versa.
Degrees of Stability: Standing on toes; both feet together < both feet apart < both hands and feet
on the ground < lying on the floor with the arms and feet spread

2. Stability is dependent on the distance of the center of gravity of the body above the base.
As the height of the C.G increases the stability decreases and vice- versa e.g. if standing
person raises his hands upwards, the C.G will move high and stability decreases.

 Location of the C.G depends on:

i. The proportion of body parts

ii. The distribution of fat and muscle mass in the body
iii. Posture
iv. Structural deformities
v. Movement
vi. External forces (e.g. carrying a shoulder bag)
vii. Line of Gravity- An imaginary gravitational line that is drawn from the center of gravity to
the body’s base of support.
viii. Base of Support- The area beneath an object or person that includes every point of contact
that the object or person makes with the supporting surface.

3. For equilibrium to exist the C.G must fall within its base of support. Stability will be
more when the C.G falls within the base of the body or object.

4. Stability is dependent on the horizontal distance of the C.G to the edge of the base in a
given direction of movement in sport
 5. Stability is dependent on the weight on the base. The heavier a body or object is, the
more stable it will be on its base e.g. If two individuals of different weights are standing, it is
difficult to move the equilibrium of heavier person.

 Types of Equilibrium
All objects at rest are in equilibrium. That means all the forces acting of them are equally
balanced and sum of all the forces and of all torques equal zero. But that does not mean that all
the objects are equally stable.
The two main types of equilibrium are static and dynamic equilibrium:
Static Equilibrium refers to the body balanced and at rest or motionless.
Dynamic equilibrium is when all the forces acting on an object are balanced but the
object is moving (it has a velocity).

 Other types of equilibrium

Stable equilibrium- If a person or an object is slightly altered and the object tends to return to its
original position, it is said in stable equilibrium. Stable equilibrium occurs when an object is
placed in such a way that an effort to disturb it would require its C.G to be raised.
When a body is in stable equilibrium, its center of gravity is at the lowest position.
Unstable equilibrium- This exists when it requires only a slight push or force to disturb the
equilibrium. E.g. the swimmers or sprint runners "set" position.
Neutral equilibrium - If a body remains in its new position when disturbed from its previous
position, it is said to be in a state of neutral equilibrium.
Take a ball and place it on a horizontal surface. Roll the ball over the surface and leave it after
displacing from its previous position. It remains in its new position and does not return to its
previous position. This is called a neutral equilibrium.
In neutral equilibrium, all the new states in which a body is moved are the stable states and the
body, remains in its new state. In neutral equilibrium, height, irrespective to its new position.

 Using Equilibrium in Sport

a. To start quickly in one direction, keep the C.G as high as possible and as near as possible
to the edge of the base in the direction of movement.
b. To stop quickly during rapid motion, drop the C.G as low as possible, create greater area
of base as possible and move the C.G away from the edge of base nearest to the direction
of movement.
c. When the body is free of support and in the air, the movement is not affected by the
height of C.G, but the C.G within the body can be changed by the body movement.

Balance and its components of equilibrium and stability are essential in all movements. Walking
is an activity in which a person throws the body in and out of balance with each step. While
running, the athlete has to lower the C.G to maintain balance when stopping or changing
direction. Athletes will also raise the C.G as high a possible while performing jumping activities.
Equilibrium is a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced. Stability is the
resistance to any disturbance of the body's equilibrium and Balance is the ability to control that
equilibrium.

 Anatomical Reference Position

The position with the body erect with the feet separated slightly and pointed forward,
arms hanging at the sides and the palms forward.
Anatomic terms such as anterior and posterior, medial and lateral, abduction and
adduction, and so on apply to the body when it is in the anatomical position.

 The Planes
Body planes are points of reference used to assist in the understanding of body segments with
respect to one another. Within each plane an axis can be identified in association with a particular
joint about which the movement takes place. There are three imaginary planes of reference
(known as the cardinal planes), which pass through the center of gravity of the body.

 Axes
An axis is a straight line around which an object rotates; movement at the joint take place in a
plane about an axis. There are three axis of rotation:
1. Sagital axis - passes horizontally from posterior to anterior and is formed by the
intersection of the sagital and transverse planes.
2. Frontal axis - passes horizontally from left to right and is formed by the intersection of
the frontal and transverse planes.
3. Vertical axis - passes vertically from inferior to superior and is formed by the intersection
of the sagital and frontal planes.
 Types of Movement
Abduction- Movement away from the midline.
Adduction- Movement towards the midline of the body. Adduction can also be moving the body
part across the center line and to the other side of the body.
These are movements in the frontal plane about the sagittal axis and involve moving the body
part away or towards an imaginary center line.
Adduction and abduction always refer to movements of the appendicular skeleton.

 Flexion
Flexion occurs when the angle between two adjacent segments in the body decreases.
Movement occurs in a sagittal plane about a frontal axis as in bringing the head toward the chest;
that is, flexing the intervertebral joints of the neck.
An exception is flexion of the thumb, which takes place in a frontal plane about a sagittal axis.

 Extension
Extension occurs when the angle between two adjacent segments in the body increases and
occurs in the same plane as flexion, except that it increases the angle between articulating
elements.
An exception is extension of the thumb, which takes place in a frontal plane about a sagittal axis.
Hyperextension is a continuation of movement past the anatomical position, which can cause
injury.

Circumduction is a special type of angular motion, described as making circular movements as

moving the arm in a loop. It involves flexion, abduction, extension and adduction in a sequence.

Medial/ Lateral Rotation is movement around the long axis of a bone. This may be internal
rotation towards the body axis or external rotation away from the body’s axis.

Rotation movements are in the transverse plane and include any twisting motion. Joints which
permit rotation include the shoulder and hip. These are both ball and socket joints.

We can also rotate our necks and backs due to a series of smaller joints, including the atlanto-
axial joint which is a pivot joint in the neck between the first two vertebrae (C1 and C2).

Dorsiflexion- This refers to movements of the foot. Dorsiflexion is the movement of the ankle
while elevating the sole, as if digging in the heel.
Plantar flexion- This is the opposite movement of dorsiflexion, extending the ankle and elevating
the heel, as if standing on tiptoes.
Elevation and Depression- Occurs when a structure moves in a superior or inferior direction, as
the mandible is depressed when the mouth is opened and elevated when the mouth is closed.
Pronation- This occurs at the elbow and involves internal rotation between the radius and
humerus. It typically occurs where the palm of the hand is moved from facing upwards to facing
downwards.
Supination- This is the opposite of pronation and it takes place at the elbow. This time the
movement is lateral rotation between the radius and humerus and generally occurs when the
palm of the hand is turned so that it faces upward.
Inversion- This occurs when the sole of the foot is turned inward towards the midline of the
body.
Eversion- This occurs when the sole of the foot is turned laterally outwards.

 Mass and Weight

The mass of an object is the amount of matter or "stuff" it contains. The more matter an object
contains, the greater its mass.

Weight is a force caused by gravity. The weight of an object is the gravitational force between
the object and the Earth. The more mass the object has the greater its weight will be.
Weight is a force, so it's measured in Newtons. On the surface of the Earth an object with a mass
of 1 kg has a weight of about 10 N.

 Gravity
All objects have a force that attracts them towards each other. This is called gravity. Even you
attract other objects to you because of gravity, but you have too little mass for the force to be
very strong.

Gravitational force increases when:

1. the masses are bigger
2. the objects are closer

Gravity only becomes noticeable when there is a really massive object like a moon, planet or
star. We are pulled down towards the ground because of gravity. The gravitational force pulls in
the direction towards the centre of the Earth.

 Centre of Mass
In every object, there is a unique point called 'center of mass (CM)' around which the object's
mass is equally distributed in all directions. In other words, mass is balanced at the CM in all
directions.
The centre of gravity is the point at which gravity appears to be acting upon an object; this is for
the most part the same as the point around which the mass of an object or person is equally
distributed in all directions.
The centre of mass moves according to the athlete’s body position, for example, in the runner in
the image his centre of mass is in the lower region of the pelvis and in front of his body, because
his upper body is leaning forwards. Having the centre of mass lower and in front of his lower
body is advantageous for acceleration.

 Fluid Biomechanics
Mechanically, fluids are defined as substances that flow or continuously deform when acted upon
by shear forces.

The fluids we are most concerned about in sport biomechanics are air and water.
When an object is placed in a fluid there is a resultant upward force or supporting fluid force
called buoyancy and The fluid force related to how the fluid flows past the object is resolved into
right-angle components called lift and drag.

Two types of forces are exerted on an object by a fluid environment:

a. a buoyant force due to the object’s immersion in the fluid and
b. a dynamic force due to its relative motion in the fluid. The dynamic force is usually resolved
into two components: drag and lift forces. The buoyant force, on the other hand, always acts
vertically.

 Buoyancy
What is buoyancy?
Also known as upthrust, it is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an
immersed object based on Archimedes’ principle.
The Archimedes Principle states that the size of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object.

What makes an object float, sink, or remain neutrally buoyant when compared to the weight of
the object?
When an object sinks, the weight of the object is greater than the upward buoyant force
exerted by the fluid (negative buoyancy.)
When an object floats, the upward buoyant force exerted by the fluid is greater than the
downward force of the weight of the object (positive buoyancy).
When an object is neutrally buoyant (meaning it neither sinks nor floats) then the weight
of the object is equal to the upward buoyant force exerted by the fluid.

 Buoyancy in sports

A floating body at rest (position A) will rotate until the buoyant force and weight force are
vertically aligned (position B) so that zero torque is present.
Torque is the force that causes objects to rotate.

Centre of Buoyancy- The point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
 How do swimmers float?
a. Swimmers float if they are less dense than the water they are in
b. Swimmers float if they weigh less than the buoyant force pushing up on them
c. Swimmers float if they are shaped so their weight is spread out

 Drag
The fluid force resisting motion between an object and a fluid is called drag. Drag acts in the
same direction (parallel) as the relative flow of the fluid past an object and in the opposite
direction of the object's motion in the fluid.

 Types of Drag
Surface Drag
It can be thought of as a fluid friction force. Surface drag is also commonly called friction drag
or skin friction drag. It results from the frictional force between fluid molecules moving past the
surface of an object and the frictional force between the various layers of the fluid.

 Factors that affect Surface Drag

i. The density of the fluid
ii. The cross-sectional area of the object
iii. The roughness of the surface (rougher surfaces create larger friction forces between the
fluid molecules and the object)
iv. Drag is also influenced by the viscosity of the fluid.
Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow. Viscosity is a measure of the internal
friction between the layers of molecules of a fluid or the resistance of a fluid to shear
forces. Slower-flowing fluids are more viscous than faster-flowing fluids. Motor oil is
more viscous than water, which is more viscous than air.

 Pressure drag/Form drag/Profile drag

This is the resistance force to fluid flow that is created by a pressure differential when the fluid
flows around a submerged object. The collision of the object and molecules of fluid creates a
high pressure on the front of the object, while a lower-pressure region or wake is formed behind
the object.

 Factors affecting Form Drag

The two major techniques employed to decrease pressure drag in human movement are:
(a) Decreasing the frontal area
The smaller the frontal area, the less the fluid must be accelerated to flow around the object.
Extending the downstream lines of an object also decreases pressure drag by delaying separation
and decreasing the turbulent wake behind the object.
(b) Streamlining.
The shape of the object has the greatest influence on the form drag. To reduce form drag, then an
aerodynamic or streamlined shape is one that is long in the direction of flow so that the surface
curvature of the object is gentle and not sudden. The tail of the streamlined object essentially fills
up the vacuum or empty space created by the turbulent flow.

 Lift
Lift force is the dynamic fluid force component that acts perpendicular to the relative motion of
the object with respect to the fluid. Rather than opposing the relative motion of the object
through the fluid, the effect of lift force is to change the direction of the relative motion of the
object through the fluid.
The word lift implies that the lift force is directed upward, but this is not necessarily the case. A
lift force can be directed upward, downward, or in any direction.

 Bernoulli's Principle
Daniel Bernoulli. Bernoulli's Principle states that the pressure in a fluid is inversely proportional
to the velocity of the fluid.
In other words, the faster the fluid flow, the lower the pressure the fluid will exert.
In many textbooks this has been used to explain how lift forces are created on airplane wings.
Airplane wings are designed to create lift forces from airflow over the wing.
Fluid molecules passing over the top of the wing cover a greater distance than molecules passing
under the wing in the same amount of time and, therefore, have a greater average speed than the
airflow under the wing. The lower pressure above the wing relative to below the wing creates a
lift force toward the top of the wing.

 The Magnus Effect

In 1852, the German scientist Gustav Magnus noticed that lift forces are also generated by
spinning balls. This effect is called the Magnus effect, and a lift force caused by a spin is called a
Magnus force.
When an object in fluid (including air) spins, the air molecules in contact with the object spin
with it, creating a boundary layer. When air molecules spin with the object, they eventually
collide head on with the mainstream air flow on one side of the object only. This head-on
collision causes a decrease in velocity and a higher pressure results. This causes a pressure
differential with the opposite side of the ball, since on this side the boundary layer flows in the
same direction as the mainstream air flow. The pressure differential causes a Magnus force,
directed from the high pressure region to the area of low pressure.
 Force
Force is the 'push' or 'pull' exerted upon an object or body, which may either cause motion of a
stationary body or a speeding up, slowing down or even a change of direction of a moving body.
Forces can either be generated internally to the body via muscular contractions or externally
through the action of gravity, friction and the forces of air and water.
All forces are measured in Newtons. One Newton represents the force required to give a 1 kg
mass an acceleration of 1 m per second squared.

 Types of Forces
i. Internal forces are forces that act within the object or system whose motion is being
investigated.
ii. External forces are those forces that act on an object as a result of its interaction with the
environment surrounding it. We can classify external forces as contact forces or
noncontact forces.
iii. Contact force - Most of the forces we think about are contact forces. These occur when
objects are touching each other. The objects in contact can be solid or fluid. Air resistance
and water resistance are examples of fluid contact forces.
iv. Noncontact forces are forces that occur even if the objects are not touching each other.
The gravitational attraction of the earth is a noncontact force. Other noncontact forces
include magnetic forces and electrical forces.

 Types of Contact Forces

a. Applied force - Force due to the action of muscles is called applied force. It is also called
muscular force.
b. Normal force - It is a contact interaction force between surfaces. It always acts
perpendicular to the surfaces and out of the surface.
c. Frictional force - Frictional force comes from interactions with a surface as an object
moves or tries to move relative to the surface.
d. Tension force - An applied force where the force is applied through a string, cable, rope,
etc. tension force Note that a tension force can only pull, it cannot push.
e. Air resistance force - The force that acts in a direction opposite motion through a gas is
called air resistance force. It comes from cumulative interaction with air molecules. It
increases as the velocity through the gas increases. It also increases as the area normal to
the direction of motion increases.

 Non- Contact Force

1. Gravitational force - Attractive force exerting between two objects is called gravitational
force. It originates with the presence of matter.
2. Electromagnetic force - the electromagnetic force which includes basic electric and
magnetic interactions and is responsible for the binding of atoms and the structure of
solids.
 Effects of force
i. Sets objects in motion
ii. Changes velocity of an object
iii. Stops the motion of an object
iv. Changes direction of an object
v. Changes shape of an object

 Gravity
Gravity is a force which tries to pull two objects toward each other. Anything which has mass
also has a gravitational pull. The more massive an object is, the stronger its gravitational pull is.
Earth's gravity is what keeps you on the ground and what cause objects to fall.
In sports and exercise, the only noncontact force we will concern ourselves with is the force of
gravity. The force of gravity acting on an object is defined as the weight of the object.
If the only force acting on an object is the force of the earth’s gravity, then the force of gravity
will accelerate the object.
This acceleration is called gravitational acceleration or the acceleration due to gravity and is
abbreviated as g.
W = mg
Where:
– W = weight (measured in Newtons)
– m = mass (measured in kilograms), and
– g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2.

 Friction

Friction is a force which acts on the interface of surfaces which are in contact, and acts in the
opposite direction to the direction of motion.

The magnitude or size of the frictional force will determine the relative ease or difficulty of
movement for the objects in contact.

There are four types of friction: static, sliding (or dynamic), rolling, and fluid friction.

Static, sliding, and rolling friction occur between solid surfaces. Static friction is strongest,
followed by sliding friction, and then rolling friction, which is weakest.

Fluid friction occurs in fluids, which are liquids or gases.

When dry friction acts between two surfaces that are not moving relative to each other, it is
referred to as static friction. Static friction is also referred to as limiting friction.
When dry friction acts between two surfaces that are moving relative to each other, it is referred
to as dynamic friction. Other terms for dynamic friction are sliding friction and kinetic friction.

The coefficient of friction indicates the ease of movement.

Factors that increase the coefficient of friction /friction force:

1. The amount of molecular interaction between the two surfaces in contact. For example:
The coefficient of friction between a rugby boot and grass will be much larger than that
between an ice skater's skate and an icy surface.
2. The coefficient may also be increased by maximizing the force that presses the surfaces
together:
Mountain bikers often sit back over the driving wheel when riding up a muddy
slope in order to gain a better grip of the tyre on the surface.
3. Friction forces can further be increased by increasing the surface area in contact with
another:
An athlete wears spikes when running on a tartan track.
A racket player may wear a glove in order to maintain a firm grip.

 Ground Reaction Force (GRF)

Ground reaction force is the force exerted by the ground on a body in contact with it. A person
standing motionless on the ground exerts a contact force on it (equal to the person's weight in
Newtons) and at the same time an equal and opposite ground reaction force is exerted by the
ground on the person. GRF is closely linked to Newton’s 3rd Law and is normally measured by a
force-plate.
(Law of Reaction: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction)
During sporting movements an athlete will create GRF’s by pushing against the ground and the
ground in turn pushing against the athlete. So when we walk or run, every time our foot lands,
there is what is called a GRF produced.

 Resultant Force
A resultant force is the single force and associated torque obtained by combining a system of
forces and torques acting on a rigid body.
The single force that will produce the same effect on an object as two or more forces applied to
that object.
Net force (also known as resultant force) is the overall force acting on an object when all the
individual forces acting on the object are added together.
Any time a stationary object stays still, its' resultant force is zero.
Force is a vector quantity - it has both magnitude and direction which, when considered with the
point at which the force is applied, determines the resultant action or direction of the resultant
force.
Where forces act in different directions, the resultant can be found by constructing a
parallelogram of forces, with the resultant force lying along the diagonal of the parallelogram.
 Centripetal Force
Centripetal Force is a force which acts on a body moving in a circular path and is directed
towards the centre around which the body is moving. The word centripetal is Latin for "center
seeking".
The force that is necessary to keep an object moving in a curved path and that is directed inward
toward the center of rotation.
In order for circular motion to be possible, some resultant force must be acting on the body with
a direction always to the center of the circle.
Imagine discus throwing for example, the force that acts as the centripetal force is that exerted by
the hand of the thrower onto the discus.
Notice that the centripetal force is always pointing in the direction towards the center. If you let
go the object will no longer be kept in that circular path and it will be free to fly off on a tangent,
perpendicular to the centripetal force.

 Centrifugal Force
An object traveling in a circle behaves as if it is experiencing an outward force. This force is
known as the centrifugal force. This force depends on the mass of the object, the speed of
rotation, and the distance from the center. The more massive the object: the greater the force; the
greater the speed of the object: the greater the force; and the greater the distance from the center:
the greater the force.
The Centrifugal force is the reaction force to the Centripetal force.

It is important to note that the centrifugal force does not actually exist. Nevertheless, it appears
quite real to the object being rotated. For instance, a child on a merry-go-round is not
experiencing any real force outward, but he/she must exert a force to keep from flying off the
merry-go-round.

When you are running around the curve in an event like the 200- or 400-meter dash, you cannot
run as fast as you can on the straight portions of the track.
However, you are running just as hard and your concentration needs to be focused on each step.
As you run the curve, you must lean into it. The forces of centripetal and centrifugal force will
pull you inward and push you outward, respectively, and you must factor those in as you run or
you will lose your balance.
Track coaches will train their sprinters to lean into the curve as they run to have the most
efficient run.
 Resistive Force
A resistive force is one that inhibits or resists the motion of an object. It acts in a direction
opposite of any motion or applied force that is trying to move the object. It is considered passive
in that it is not active or applied and there is no apparent agent of force.
The most common resistive force is friction, where an object is held back from sliding across a
surface. Another form of resistive force is fluid resistance, where the object is trying to plow
through a fluid material.

 Resistive Forces – Drag

Air resistance, also known as drag, is a force that is caused by air, the force acts in the opposite
direction to an object moving through the air. It is where air particles hit the front of the object
slowing it down. It is the force on an object that resists its motion through a fluid. When the fluid
is a gas like air, it is called aerodynamic drag (or air resistance). When the fluid is a liquid like
water it is called hydrodynamic drag.
In swimming, skin-tight clothing reduces the athlete’s body's profile and keeps clothing from
acting like a parachute in the water. Most competitive swimmers either wear a swimming cap
over their hair or shave their head to minimize drag at the front of their body. Both male and
female competitor swimmers usually shave the hair on their arms, legs and anywhere skin is in
contact with the water
Cyclists will try and keep the torso as flat as possible, use aerobars to keep the forearms around
15-20cms apart and kept roughly horizontal, ensure their knees stay close to the bike frame all in
an attempt to minimize drag.

 Newton’s Laws of Motion

1st Law – An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at
constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
2nd Law – Force equals mass times acceleration.
3rd Law – For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 Newton’s First Law
The sprinter in the set position in the blocks; s/he will remain stationary unless a force is exerted
upon the blocks. The force exerted must be great enough to overcome this inertia, and in doing
so the sprinter will move forward out of the blocks.
The law states that a body continues in a state of inertia and a force must be applied to it before
any change in velocity can occur. The greater the mass of a body the more force is needed to
overcome inertia. You can throw a 5kg shotput further than you can throw a 7kg shotput using
the same force.
 Newton’s Second Law
The net force of an object is equal to the product of its mass and acceleration, or F = m a

This law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force causing it
and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The speed that a person can throw a tennis
ball is proportional to the amount of force applied by the muscles and the inertia of the ball. In
sport we often refer to the momentum of an object, this is the product of velocity times mass.

 Newton’s Third Law

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. When an object exerts a force on a
second object, the second object exerts an opposite and equal force back to the first.
According to Newton, whenever objects A and B interact with each other, they exert forces upon
each other. When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a downward force on the chair and the
chair exerts an upward force on your body.
Flying gracefully through the air, birds depend on Newton’s third law of motion. As the birds
push down on the air with their wings, the air pushes their wings up and gives them lift.
The most common sporting illustration of this law is when an athlete pushes against the starting
blocks at the beginning of a sprint race (exerting a force on the blocks), causing the opposite and
equal reaction of being pushed forward out of the blocks.
 Levers

Levers are: Simple machines that help us apply force.

Rigid structures, hinged at some part with forces applied at two other points.

All levers have three parts: Fulcrum, Resistance, and Effort.

 Fulcrum: The pivot point.
Resistance (or load): The weight
that needs to be moved.
Effort: The force that is applied to
move the resistance (or load).

 Functions of a Lever
Levers perform two main functions:
To increase the resistance (or force) that can be moved with a given effort e.g. a crowbar.
To increase the velocity at which an object will move with a given force e.g. a golf club.
The extent to which this can increase depends upon the relative lengths of the resistance arm and
the effort arm:
a. The resistance arm (RA) or weight arm (W A) is the part of the lever between the fulcrum
and the resistance. The longer the resistance arm, the greater speed can be generated.
b. The effort arm (EA) is the distance between the fulcrum and the effort; the longer the
effort arm, the less effort required to move a given resistance.

In sport, implements are often used such as rackets or bats to increase the length of the effort arm
which will increase the force that an object such as a ball is struck. However, the optimal length
of an implement should be determined by the strength of the person handling it which is why, for
example, junior tennis rackets have been designed.
The relative efficiency of the lever system is expressed as the mechanical advantage (MA) which
can be determined as follows:

effort arm
MA = _____________
resistance arm

 Classes of Levers
There are 3 classes of levers. Each is structured in a different manner and has different
advantages.

 First Class Levers

The fulcrum lies between the effort and the resistance.

 Second Class Levers

The resistance lies between the fulcrum and the point of effort.

 Third Class Levers

The effort lies between the resistance and the fulcrum.

 Summary
There are three types of lever system in the body; each is determined by the relevant positions of
the fulcrum (F), effort (E) and load (L). A useful way of determining the different types of lever
system operating during a particular movement is to remember the following rhyme.

“For 1, 2, 3 think F, L, E” This rhyme helps us to identify the middle component of each lever
system.
For a 1st class lever system, F is the middle component.
For a 2nd class lever system, L is the middle component.
For a third class lever system, E is the middle component.

 Application
Long levers: provide amplified power at the expense of speed of movement of the object being
moved. Examples:
a. Using a jack to lift a crashed car.
b. Using a knife to get the lid off a tin.

Short levers: provide speed at the expense of power

Example: Levers designed to accelerate objects include most body limbs used for throwing
or kicking because the muscle inserts near the pivot point.

 Energy
Energy is basically defined as the ability to do work.
Energy comes in different forms:
Heat (thermal) Light (radiant) Nuclear energy
Sound Electrical Gravitational
Mechanical Chemical
There are two types of energy:
i. Stored (potential) energy
ii. Working (kinetic) energy

For example, the food a person eats contains chemical energy (stored/ potential), and a person's
body collects this energy until he or she uses their muscles that pull on bone and produces
movement (working/ kinetic) during work or play.

Joule is the unit of measurement of energy. 1 kilojoule (kj) = 1000 joules

Energy is denoted by the letter E

 Work
Work can be defined as transfer of energy.
Work is product of force and displacement of a body along the same line as that force is acting.
Lifting a weight from the ground and putting it on a shelf is a good example of work. The force
is equal to the weight of the object, and the distance is equal to the height of the shelf.

Mathematically, this can be expressed as: W = F(d)

where W is work (J), F is the magnitude of force (N), and d is displacement of the body (m).

Work is also defined by the formulae weight x height

 Power
Power is defined as the amount of work performed per unit of time.
Power is the rate of doing work. Power is measured in Watts.

Power = work (joules)

___________
time (seconds) = Watts (joules/second)

Power can be thought of as how quickly or slowly work is done

 Types of Energy
Mechanical Energy - have two forms: kinetic energy and potential energy.
Energy of motion
The total energy of motion and position of an object (potential energy + kinetic energy)
Mechanical energy can be all potential energy, all kinetic energy, or some of each.

Kinetic energy is energy due to motion.

The kinetic energy of an object is affected by the mass and velocity of the object.
If we made more precise measurements, we would discover that the kinetic energy is
proportional to the square of the velocity.
KE = ½mv² where: KE = kinetic energy, m = mass (in kg), v = velocity

Potential energy is the energy (capacity to do work) that an object has due to its position.
There are two types of potential energy:
i. Gravitational potential energy, which is energy due to an object’s position relative to the
earth;
ii. Strain energy, which is due to the deformation of an object.

Gravitational potential energy of an object is related to the object’s weight and its elevation or
height above the ground.
Potential energy can be easily calculated with the formula: PE = Wh or PE = mgh.
PE = gravitational potential energy,
W = weight,
m = mass,
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2, and
h = height.

How much gravitational potential energy does a 700 N ski jumper have when taking off from the
90 m jump?
PE = Wh = (700 N)(90 m)
PE = (700 N)(90 m) = 63,000 Nm
PE = 63,000 J

Strain energy is the energy stored in an object when an external force deforms that object.
Strain energy can be viewed as a form of potential energy.
When a fiberglass vaulting pole bends, strain energy is stored in the bent pole.
Likewise, when an archer draws his bow or a diver deflects a diving board, strain energy is
stored in the deformed bow or diving board.
The greater the deformation of the object, the greater the strain energy stored in the object.
The strain energy of an object is related to its stiffness, its material properties, and its
deformation.

SE = ½ƙΔ x 2

SE = strain energy,
k = stiffness or spring constant of material, and
Δ x 2 = change in length or deformation of the object from its under formed position.

 Heat (Thermal) Energy

Energy that is created in the movement of particles (atoms) that produces heat.
Heat (thermal) energy increases as temperature increases
The faster the particles (atoms) move, the greater the kinetic energy and the greater the object’s
thermal energy. The opposite is also true.
Thermal energy also depends on the number of particles. If there are more particles, there is
more thermal energy.

 Light (Radiant) Energy

Energy created by vibrating particles that create waves that travel through space and time (These
waves are called electromagnetic waves).
Light (Radiant) energy can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected.
Includes energy from gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwave
and radio bands

 Examples of Light (Radiant) Energy

1. Radio waves
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared radiation
4. Visible light
5. Ultra violet
6. X-rays
7. Gamma-rays

• Sound Energy
Sound energy is caused by an object’s vibrations
A vibrating object transmits energy through the air around it in waves (longitudinal waves)

• Electrical Energy
Energy that is carried by an electrical current (the movement of electrons, the negatively charged
particles of atoms)
The electrical energy used in your home can be thought of as potential energy that is used when
you plug in an electrical appliance and use it.

• Chemical Energy
Energy stored in chemical bonds
When chemical bonds are broken, new chemicals are formed and some of it is released energy
Examples: Food, Battery, Burning candle or Wood, Fireworks, Fossil Fuels, Gasoline

• The Law of Conservation of Energy

This law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it is just transferred from one form to
another. The kinetic energy of a tossed ball will be converted to potential energy or possibly
strain energy when it collides with another object. A tumbler taking off from a mat has kinetic
energy in the vertical direction that is converted into potential energy on the way up, and back
into kinetic energy on the way down.

 Law of Thermodynamics
1. The First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. This is the good
news: when energy is added into a machine, we get an equal amount of other forms of
energy out.
2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics: that it is impossible to create a machine that
converts all input energy into some useful output energy. In other words, man-made
devices will always lose energy in some non-useful form and never achieve 100%
efficiency.

 Principles of Motion
We might define motion as the action or process of a change in position.
Two things are necessary for motion to occur: space and time - space to move in and time during
which to move.
To make the study of movement easier, we classify movements as linear, angular, or both
(general).
In sport, a mix of linear and angular movement is most common. Angular movement plays the
dominant role because most of an athlete’s movements result from the swinging, turning action
of the athlete’s limbs as they rotate around the joints.

 Linear Motion
Linear motion simply means motion in a straight line (as opposed to circular motion or rotation).
Linear motion is also referred to as translation. It occurs when all points on a body or object
move the same distance, in the same direction, and at the same time.
This can happen in two ways: rectilinear translation or curvilinear translation.

Rectilinear translation is motion of an object along a straight line e.g. sprinter running, sliding
your cell phone on a table, car driving along a straight road.

Curvilinear translation is motion of an object along a curved path e.g. a kicked football, a car
driving around a corner.

 Angular Motion
Angular motion is also referred to as rotary motion or rotation.
It occurs when all points on a body or object move in circles (or parts of circles) about the same
fixed central line or axis.
Angular motion can occur about an axis within the body or outside of the body.
A child on a swing is an example of angular motion about an axis of rotation external to the
body.
An ice-skater in a spin is an example of angular motion about an axis of rotation within the body.
 General Motion
General motion is a combination of linear and angular motions.

 Translator Motion
Translator motion is the motion by which a body shifts from one point in space to another. It
occurs when the body moves in a linear path rather than rotational one. One example of
translator motion is the motion of a bullet fired from a gun. While translator motion is along a
straight path, the movement can occur along a curved path or along the straight lines.

 Momentum
Momentum refers to the quantity of motion that an object has. Momentum can be defined as
"mass in motion." All objects have mass; so if an object is moving, then it has momentum - it has
its mass in motion.
Momentum depends upon the variables mass and velocity. In terms of an equation, the
momentum of an object is equal to the mass of the object times the velocity of the object.
Momentum = Mass x Velocity
L = mv
L = linear momentum, m = mass, and v = instantaneous velocity

 Continuity
When a movement is performed, look for a smooth continuity of body parts, starting from the
larger, more proximal parts and flowing outward toward the smaller, more distal parts. Body
parts should not all move as one unit and any pause (evident as a jerkiness or hesitation in the
motion) disrupts the smooth proximal-to-distal flow and causes a reduced impulse.

 Counterforce
Counterforce is the movement with balanced and unbalanced forces impacting an object. A
bicycle has a driving force (from muscles) pushing it forwards. There are always counter forces
of air resistance and friction pushing backwards. Counterforce will produce a resultant force.

 Leverage
A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide
leverage. Leverage is calculated by dividing the output force by the input force.

 Follow-Through
To follow through is to carry a stroke to its natural completion usually after hitting or releasing a
ball/ object. The follow-through affects direction and power as well as can avoid injury.

 Force Application
The point to where a force is applied to a object or body will cause movement, torque or no
movement. Force application produces a resultant force during sport.
 Speed
Speed is how fast an object is moving without regard to direction.
Speed (s) is defined as the rate of change of distance (s = l/t)
l = distance
t = time
Typical units are m/s, ft/s, km/hr, or miles/hr
Speed is a scalar quantity where direction is never really considered.

 Velocity
Velocity is rate of motion in a specific direction. More specifically it is the rate of displacement.
Since displacement is a vector quantity, so is velocity. Velocity has a magnitude (number) and a
direction associated with it.
Average velocity is displacement of an object divided by the time it took for that displacement.
(V = d/t)
Its units are the same as speed, and are usually qualified by a directional adjective (i.e.,
horizontal, vertical, resultant).
Velocity is a vector quantity and has both size and direction.

 Acceleration
Acceleration represents the rate of change of velocity (is how quickly velocity is changing); as
such it is a vector quantity, possessing both magnitude and direction.
Remember that velocity changes when speed or direction change.
Average acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time it took for that
velocity change to take place.
Acceleration = change in velocity or v-u
time taken t
where: v = final velocity; u = initial velocity; t = time

 Types of Acceleration
Positive acceleration occurs when the acceleration is in the direction of motion of object. If the
velocity of an object increases, then the object is said to be moving with positive acceleration.
If the velocity of an object decreases, then the object is said to be moving with negative
acceleration. Negative acceleration is also known as retardation or deceleration.
Zero acceleration means there is no change in velocity over time, in other words constant
velocity.

 Types of Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity and is an example of a vector quantity.
Following are the types of acceleration:
Uniform acceleration: When an object is travelling in a straight line with an increase in velocity
at equal intervals of time, then the object is said to be in uniform acceleration. Free falling of an
object is an example of uniform acceleration.
Non-uniform acceleration: When an object is travelling with an increase in velocity but not at the
equal intervals of time is known as non-uniform acceleration. Bus moving or leaving from the
bus stop is an example of non-uniform acceleration.
Instantaneous acceleration: Acceleration of an object at any instant of time is known as
instantaneous acceleration.

 General Principles of Force in Sport

Total force is the sum of all the forces contributed by each body part
Force is used more economically when it is applied constantly and evenly
All forces should be applied in the intended direction
Greater velocity is generated if force is applied over a longer distance

 Projectile Motion
This refers to the motion of either an object or the human body being ‘projected’ into the air at an
angle.
The flight path is called a trajectory.

Examples in sport: a ball as a projectile

long jump (human body as a projectile)
gymnastic vault (human body as a projectile)

 Forces influencing Projectile Motion

Propelling Force
Gravity
Air Resistance

 Propelling Force
It is the force at impact or release
It is the most important force that affects the projectile in how far and/or how high it travels

 Gravity
Acts equally on all objects, accelerating the object towards the ground
Gravity acts on the vertical component of the objects motion while in projectile

 Air Resistance
Air particles through which the object travels and opposes it forward motion
Air resistance opposes the horizontal component of the projectiles motion
The lighter the object or the larger its surface, the more it is affected by air resistance
Air resistance also increases with speed, e.g. a golf ball drive is more affected than a chip shot
onto the green

 Parabolic Curves
Mathematically speaking a parabolic curve is a curve where any point is at an equal
distance from a fixed point (the focus) and a fixed straight line (the directrix)
You see this line when you throw a ball and it follows the motion shown here:

 Factors affecting the shape of the curve

Gravity and Air resistance affect the vertical component

 Distorted Parabolic Flight Curve

Air resistance causes projectile to veer away (little weight)
Asymmetrical
Badminton/Golf Ball

 Badminton
Struck hard – AR very large, resultant force close to air resistance, first part of flight slow
Later in flight – AR much less

 Trajectory
Shot Put (parabolic)
Table Tennis Ball (distorted parabolic)

 Trajectory of a Projectile
Trajectory is the projectile’s flight path
Factors that influence the trajectory are: Velocity of release, Angle of release, Height of release
and Spin

 Spin
Imparting spin on the projectile (e.g. top spin or back spin in tennis) will alter the projectiles
flight path towards the direction of the spin. This is called the “Magnus effect”.

 Height of Release
Increase leads to an increase in the horizontal displacement (distance) of the projectile.
e.g. Taller shot putters have an advantage over shorter ones

 Velocity of Release
Increase leads to an increase in the horizontal displacement (distance) of the projectile.
E.g. the shift in shot putt is to ensure that the shot leaves the performers hand at maximum
velocity

 Angle of Release
For any given velocity and height of release, there is an optimal release angle which maximises
the horizontal displacement.
When both the release height and the landing height are equal then the optimum angle of release
is 45o.

 Factors affecting Distance

Landing height
If the release height is greater than the landing height, the optimum angle of release needs to be
less than 45o e.g. shot putt.
If the release height is below the landing height then the optimum angle of release needs to be
greater than 45o e.g. Shooting in basketball (assuming the ring is the landing height).

 Graphical Representations of Motion

A graph is a pictorial representation of the relation between two sets of data of which one set is
of dependent variables and the other set is of independent variables.

 Distance Time Graphs

The change in the position of an object with time can be represented on the distance-time graph.
In this graph, time is taken along the x-axis and distance is taken along the y-axis.
Distance time graphs of a moving body can be used to calculate the speed of the body as they
specifically represent velocity.
The distance time graph for a body moving at uniform speed is always a straight line as distance
travelled by the body is directly proportional to time.
The distance time graph for a body moving with non-uniform speed is a curve.
The distance time graph is parallel to time axis when the object is at rest
To calculate speed of the body from distance time graph say at point A first draw a perpendicular
AB on time axis and a perpendicular AC on distance axis so that AB represents the distance
travelled by the body in time interval OB and since we know that:

 Velocity time graphs

The variation in velocity with time for an object moving in a straight line can be represented by a
velocity-time graph.
In this graph, time is represented along the x-axis and the velocity is represented along the y-
axis.
The product of velocity and time give displacement of an object moving with uniform velocity.
The area enclosed by velocity-time graph and the time axis will be equal to the magnitude of the
displacement.

If a body moves with a constant velocity then velocity time graph for this body would be straight
line parallel to time axis.
The velocity time graph of uniformly changing velocity is a straight line. We can find out the
value of acceleration using the velocity time graph.

For calculating acceleration at time corresponding to point R draw a perpendicular RP from point

Here change in velocity is represented by PR and time taken is equal to OR. So

The distance travelled by moving body in a given time will be equal to area of triangle OPR

When the velocity of a body changes in an irregular manner then velocity time graph of the body
is a curved line.

 Stride
Your stride length and the frequency of your foot strike determine your speed. A runner with a
longer stride length will have a lower frequency than a runner with a shorter stride length when
their overall speed is identical.

 Stride Length
Your stride length is a function of many different factors including your height, speed and foot
strike.
A stride is actually two steps; the length of your stride is a measure of the initial contact of one
foot and the second initial contact of the same foot, with a step in between by your other foot.
 A longer stride length usually accompanies a reduced stride frequency. Stride length isn't set in
stone; some shorter runners use longer stride lengths than athletes much taller than they are.

 Stride Frequency
Frequency, the other side of the coin for a sprinter's speed, is dependent on how frequently a
runner contacts the ground over a set distance or time.
A higher frequency requires the leg muscles to work harder, but it also ensures a good foot strike
for maximum efficiency. Runners with a lower frequency usually incorporate a longer stride
length and are at risk of over-striding, which can result in heel striking.
A frequency that is too high or too low negatively impacts your efficiency, so a balance between
the two becomes essential for maximizing your sprinting speed.

 Balancing Stride Length and Frequency

Your ideal stride length and frequency are mutually dependent. When you increase your
frequency, you sacrifice stride length and when you increase your stride length, you sacrifice
frequency.
In order to maximize your speed, you'll want the longest stride length that doesn't cause you to
over-stride and heel strike, coupled with the highest frequency that doesn't force you to reduce
the length of your stride.
Once you've found the best foot strike and stride length and corrected your running form, you
can progressively train your leg muscles and extend your aerobic capacity to increase frequency
and reach a higher speed.

Stride length and frequency are not critical details for distance runners. In the World
Championship 10k race, the three top runners all usually had varying combinations of stride
length and frequency, and ultimately performed at a very similar capacity.
In sprinting, these seemingly minute factors that have little effect on distance running become
critical, since a 100-meter or 200-meter race offers little time to compensate for inefficiency.
Mastering stride length and frequency coefficients to maximize speed is what sets top sprinters
apart from their peers.

 Management
What is Management?
Management is a coordinated and integrated process of utilizing an organization’s resources to
achieve specific objectives through the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and
controlling. (DuBrin, Ierland and Williams, 1989)

 Early Management Theories

Two early phases of management theory are the scientific management and the human relations
movement.
Scientific management theory states that workers should not be doing the same job in different
ways, but instead there existed “one best way” to perform a job most efficiently.
The Human Relations Movement found that social factors in the workplace were important, and
that job satisfaction and output depended more on cooperation and a feeling of worth than
physical working conditions. The HR movement looked at the behaviour of people and its human
components.

 Theories of Human Resource Management

1. Behavioural
2. Multi-dimensional
3. Kaizen
4. Chaos

 Behavioural Theory
Management sees employee satisfaction and working conditions as a way to increase
productivity
Looks at employee motivation and behaviour
Often called the human relations movement
Attempts to explain the behaviour of individual employees
Addresses the human dimension of work
Theorists believed that a better understanding of human behaviour improved productivity
Theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and assets
to be developed and worked with unlike machines
This approach states that the leader uses three skills to lead his followers. These skills are:
technical (refers to a person's knowledge of the process of technique), human (refers to ability to
interact with people) and conceptual (refers to manager's ideas which enable a manager to set up
models and design plans).

This approach assumes that a particular behaviour of a manager will make him a good leader
while its opposite would discard him as a leader. Determining goals, motivating employees for
achieving the goals, effective communication ability to interact effectively, building team spirit,
etc. are the functional behaviour of a successful leader.

 Main Theorists of the Behavioural Theory

Elton Mayo: Mayo theorized that human relations and the social needs of workers are crucial
aspects of business management.
Abraham Maslow: Maslow developed one of the most widely recognized needs theories (a
theory of motivation) based upon a consideration of human needs. His theory of human needs
had three assumptions: Human needs are never completely satisfied, human behaviour is
purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction and needs can be classified according to
a hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to highest: Physiological needs, Safety
needs, Belonging/ love need, Esteem needs and Self‐actualization needs.

 Multidimensional Theory
The multidimensional model of leadership is an attempt to synthetize and to reconcile existing
theories of leadership.
It stipulates that the degree of consistency among leader behaviors that is required by the
situation and preferred by the members, and the actual behavior that is presented is related to
group performance and member satisfaction.
Multidimensional leaders stay objectively alert in order to make strategic decisions within a
context of ever-changing circumstances, parameters and variables.

Such leaders are developed to possess multiple leadership facets. They understand that great
leadership requires a range of competencies and skills and know their own personality traits can
work both for and against them.

 Kaizen Theory
Kaizen is defined as a continuous effort by each and every employee (from the CEO to field
staff) to ensure improvement of all processes and systems of a particular organization.
“Kaizen” refers to a Japanese word which means “improvement” or “change for the better”.
Kaizen works on the basic principle that “Change is for good” and believes in the continuous
improvement of processes and functions of an organization through change.
When observing the Kaizen philosophy in practice within a company, you’ll notice that the root
causes of problems are identified, improvements are suggested and changes are made by each
individual employee, whether they’re the CEO or a worker on the floor.
Rather than revamping the machinations of an organization with a plan created solely at the top,
a leader practicing the Kaizen philosophy takes note of feedback and insights from every
member of the organization and supports the implementation of positive change at all levels.
In a nutshell, this is how the Kaizen leadership process works – it’s a continuous cycle in which
all employees are looking out for ways in which processes can be refined and actively applying
the relevant improvements.
 Chaos Theory
Chaos theory is a scientific principle describing the unpredictability of systems. Its premise is
that systems sometimes reside in chaos, generating energy but without any predictability or
direction.
The theory provides evidence that seemingly random activities and systems are in fact evidence
complex, replicated patterns.
A specific change in an organization does not merely have one linear effect on variables; instead,
the web of relationships has nonlinear effects that are created through multiple feedback loops.
These ideas form the basis for the phenomenon known as the “butterfly effect”.

 Leadership Styles
i. Laissez-Faire
ii. Autocratic
iii. Democratic
iv. Transactional
v. Transformational

 Laissez-Faire
A laissez-faire leader lacks direct supervision of employees and fails to provide regular feedback
to those under his supervision. Highly experienced and trained employees requiring little
supervision fall under the laissez-faire leadership style. However, not all employees possess
those characteristics. This leadership style hinders the production of employees needing
supervision. The laissez-faire style produces no leadership or supervision efforts from managers,
which can lead to poor production, lack of control and increasing costs.

 Autocratic
The autocratic leadership style allows managers to make decisions alone without the input of
others. Managers possess total authority and impose their will on employees who need close
supervision. No one challenges the decisions of autocratic leaders.

 Democratic
Called the Participative leadership style, this style of leadership values the input of team
members and peers. Democratic leadership boosts employee morale because employees make
contributions to the decision-making process. This style meets challenges when companies need
to make a decision in a short period.

 Transactional
Managers using the transactional leadership style receive certain tasks to perform and provide
rewards or punishments to team members based on performance results. Managers and team
members set predetermined goals together, and employees agree to follow the direction and
leadership of the manager to accomplish those goals. The manager possesses power to review
results and train or correct employees when team members fail to meet goals.
Employees receive rewards, such as bonuses, when they accomplish goals.
 Transformational
The transformational leadership style depends on high levels of communication from
management to meet goals. Leaders motivate employees and enhance productivity and efficiency
through communication and high visibility.
Transformational leaders are innovators. They usually believe change and growth is the only way
to stay ahead of the curve, so they push their employees past their comfort zone, making them
realize they’re more capable than they originally thought. This motivates employees to keep
raising the bar, leading to improved team performance.

 Visionary
A visionary manager communicates a purpose and direction that her/his employees believe in,
which convinces her/his team to work hard to execute her/his vision.

 Coaching
Just like a sports coach, a coaching manager strives to improve their employees’ long-term
professional development. They have a passion for teaching and watching their employees grow.
And they’re more willing to deal with their employees’ short-term failures, as long they learn and
get better because of them.

 Servant
Servant managers put people first and tasks second. They prioritize their employees’ well-being
over their team’s results, so they can foster a harmonious relationship with their employees and
keep them as happy as possible. They do everything they can to support and encourage their
team, and, in return, they expect their employees to be motivated to work hard.

Key Functions and Factors of Management within a Sporting Organization

Organizational chart
An organizational chart is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the
relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs.

Organizational charts are useful in a number of ways:

a. Show work responsibilities and reporting relationships
b. Allow leadership to more effectively manage growth or change
c. Allow employees to better understand how their work fits into the organization's overall
scheme
d. Improve lines of communication
e. Create a visual employee directory
f. Present other types of information, such as business entity structures and data hierarchies

 Goal Setting
All business organizations should have written goals that are part of their business plan. These
goals can describe what the company plans to accomplish in terms of market share, growth and
profitability.
 Goals may also be set for internal measurement like expanding membership, staff or boosting
employee morale. Businesses should aim to have goals that are specific, measurable, attainable,
relevant and timely (SMART)

Benefits to setting goals:

1. Provides Focus
2. Increases Motivation
3. Improves Group Cohesion
4. Increases Employee Worth
5. Offers Measurability

 Mission and Vision Statements

A mission statement defines the company's business, its objectives and its approach to reach
those objectives.
A vision statement describes the desired future position of the company.

Elements of the mission and vision statements are often combined to provide a statement of the
company's purposes, goals and values.

A sporting company will use its mission and vision statements to:

i. Clearly identify the corporate culture, values, strategy and view of the future
ii. Address the commitment the firm has to its key stakeholders
iii. Ensure that the objectives are measurable, the approach is actionable, and the vision is
achievable
iv. Communicate the message in clear, simple and precise language
v. Develop buy-in and support throughout the organization

 Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making
decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy. It may also extend to control
mechanisms for guiding the implementation of the strategy.

A strategic plan is a document used to communicate with the organization the organizations
goals, the actions needed to achieve those goals and all of the other critical elements developed
during the planning exercise.

 Implementation
Implementation is the process that turns strategies and plans into actions in order to accomplish
strategic objectives and goals. Sadly, the majority of sporting companies (9 out of 10) who have
strategic plans fail to implement them. Sporting companies can gain competitive advantage
through implementation if done effectively.
Some Implementation Pitfalls are:
Lack of ownership, lack of communication, getting mired in the day-to-day, an overwhelming
plan, a meaningless plan, annual strategy, not considering implementation, no progress report, no
accountability and lack of empowerment.

 Monitoring and Evaluation

The strategic plan document should specify who is responsible for the overall implementation of
the plan, and also who is responsible for achieving each goal and objective. The document
should also specify who is responsible to monitor the implementation of the plan and make
decisions based on the results.

Key questions while monitoring and evaluating:

a. Are goals and objectives being achieved?
b. Will the goals be achieved in time?
c. Do personnel have adequate resources?
d. Are the goals and objectives still realistic, should the goals be changed?

 The Four Functions of Management

The four functions of management are:
1. Planning – choose appropriate organizational goals and courses of action to best achieve
those goals. Setting objectives and making long and short term plans for meeting the
objectives
2. Organizing – establish task and authority relationships that allow people to work together to
achieve organizational goals. Obtaining and coordinating resources so that a business’
objectives can be met
3. Leading – motivate, coordinate and energize individuals and groups to work together to
achieve organizational goals. Setting standards for work, evaluating performance and solving
problems that prevent certain tasks’ completion
4. Controlling – establish accurate measuring and monitoring systems to evaluate how well the
organization has achieved its goals. Influencing, guiding and directing people under one’s
management to carry out their assigned tasks.

Some managers may primarily focus on one or two of these functions.

 Managerial Skills
Conceptual Skills
The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and distinguish between cause and effect.

Human Skills
The ability to understand, alter, lead, and control the behaviour of other individuals and groups.

Technical Skills
The specific knowledge and techniques required to perform an organizational role.
 Key Skills of a Sport Manager
a. People Skills
b. Communication Skills (Oral & Written)
c. Managing Diversity
d. Managing Technology
e. Decision Making
f. Understanding Organizational Politics (political behaviour)
g. Managing Change
h. Motivation
i. Taking Initiative

There are basically 5 steps in staffing process:

1. Estimating manpower requirement
2. Recruitment
3. Selection
4. Placement and Orientation
5. Training and Development

 Government
A group that exercises sovereign authority over a nation, state, society or other body of people.
Governments are generally responsible for making and enforcing laws, managing currency, and
protecting the populace from external threats, and may have other duties or privileges.
Governments also typically set tax rates, and may regulate investment practices as well.

 Non-Governmental Organisations
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is
organized on a local, national or international level.
NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian functions, bring citizen concerns to
Governments, advocate and monitor policies and encourage political participation through
provision of information.
NGO’s that exist to manage a country’s involvement and participation in a particular sport or
group of sports are known as a NSO (National Sporting Organization)

 Role of the Government in Sport

a. Design laws and policies that will develop the participation in sport and recreation on a
national level.
b. Support NSO’s and other individuals in their work with sport.
c. Maintain the development of health and fitness in the school and community as a means
of healthy living, the reduction of lifestyle diseases and longevity of life.
 d. Use sport to promote economic development through initiatives like sport tourism and
using sporting heroes as ambassadors.
e. To ensure that there is equal distribution in the access to sport and recreation.

 Role of the NSO in Sport

a. Responsible for overseeing their own sport in a country.
b. Establishes rules and regulations in accordance with international sport federations.
c. Organize local competitions.
d. Develop local coaching programmes.
e. Organize and select of teams to participate in regional and international tournaments.
f. Liaise with local clubs and other organizations for the development of club and club
members.

 Sport Policy
A sport policy is designed around a society’s definition of sport.

Trinidad and Tobago’s- “All forms of physical activities which through casual or organized
participation aim at improving physical fitness and mental wellbeing, forming social
relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels”

The objective of a government sports policy is to ensure that citizens of a nation have access to a
broad range of local sports activities, whether organised by membership-based sports clubs or
independently.

 Objectives of the National Policy

Total Participation in Sport (TPS)
The term “Total Participation in Sport” is based on the "Sport for All" concept in which all
sectors of the society - children, youth, adults, senior citizens and the specially challenged,
regardless of gender, ethnicity or religion are encouraged to be involved in an active lifestyle.

High Performance Sport (HPS)

“High Performance Sport” refers to: “Competitive sport organized in accordance with
International Federations and Olympic Committee rules and conditions at national or
international level to determine winners”. Therefore, tends to focus on an elite set of athletes.

In making provisions for these two broad areas of sporting activity, the National Sport Policy has
eight (8) major related objectives:
1. To develop a healthy, disciplined, united and productive society through greater
participation in sport and physical recreation by all members of the society. In this regard,
special opportunities are to be made available to children, young people, women, girls,
senior citizens and the specially challenged.
 2. To actively encourage the establishment of Physical Education Programmes at all
educational levels and to foster the sport development phase of these programmes
through the provision of sport coaching programmes throughout the education system
3. To encourage and provide for the fullest participation of women and girls in all areas of
sport, consistent with the 1994 Brighton Declaration on Women in Sport.
4. To provide opportunities for the fulfilment of social, psychological, emotional and
physiological needs of the individual through sport and physical recreation.
5. To develop and improve the knowledge and practice of sport in the interest of the holistic
development of the individual and the enjoyment by the public at large.
6. To strive to attain excellence at the highest level of sporting competition, develop
national pride, patriotism and enhance goodwill among nations.
7. To promote and facilitate the development of sport as an industry that will contribute to
the earning capacity of the individual as well as to the national economy.
8. To promote Trinidad and Tobago as a hub of Caribbean sporting activities and by so
doing position the country as a preferred destination for international sports events.

The fundamental thrust and raison d’etre of the policy therefore can be captured in the statement:
“To Enrich Our Lives Through Total participation, Quality Training and Excellence in Sport.”

 Funding Opportunities
Public sector funding
Governments fund sport by giving annual funding to respective NSO’s for the running of its
activities. An organization must be operating for a period of time and recognized by the
international sporting organization in order to qualify for state funding.
Elite athletes also qualify for funding once they possess a world ranking and are not employed
otherwise.

Private sector funding

Private organizations also design their own sport policies to guide themselves who and how
much to sponsor. Private companies receive increased sales, media coverage, having their image/
signage aligned with the athlete, publicity, and hospitality opportunities (among other things).

 Sport Bidding for Major Events.

Sport bidding is an offer (often competitive) to set a price by an individual or business for an
upcoming sporting event product or service or a demand that something be done.
It refers to the production of business plans, including the development of detailed financial
budgets and models and risk analysis tools for bidding for sports events (inclusive of plans for
security, accommodation, transport, etc.).
The major sporting events around the world are the FIFA World Cup and the IOC Olympic
Games. The FIFA World Cup is given to a country or a combination of countries while the IOC
Olympic Games are given to a city.

 Sample Sport Bidding Process

FIFA Event Bidding
1. FIFA sends out requests for expressions of interest
2. Member associations (MA) express an interest in bidding for a specific event
3. FIFA sends out bidding information, including the Bidding Manual and supporting
documents (Hosting Agreement etc.)
4. FIFA workshop for interested bidders
5. MAs return the Bidding Agreement confirming compliance with bid requirements
6. MAs submit bids in accordance with the Bidding Manual
7. FIFA evaluates the bid submissions and identifies the selected candidate for approval.
8. FIFA recommendation
9. FIFA announces the successful host for the event

 Developing a Bid proposal

 Key Concepts in Finance

Finance
Generally refers to two primary activities of an organization:
1. How an organization generates the funds that flow into that organization
2. How these funds are allocated and spent once they are in the organization

 Revenue
Funds raised by an organization through a variety of sources including tickets, merchandise,
services, sponsorships, etc.

 Expenses
Funds spent to operate an organization such as salaries, equipment, utilities, food, travel,
insurance, etc.

 Profit
More revenues than expenses
Can be enhanced by increasing revenues, decreasing costs, or both
 Income Statement
Summarizes an organization’s revenues, expenses, and profits over a given time period (fiscal
year)

 Assets
Anything an organization owns that can be used to generate future revenues (facility, equipment)

 Debt (*liability)
The amount of money an organization borrows from banks or other lenders in the market
Organization is legally obligated to pay back the original amount borrowed (principal) plus
interest

 Bonds
Financial instruments that allow the borrower to both borrow large dollar amounts over an
extended period of time (20 or more years)
Issued by government and/or corporate entities
Often used to fund stadium construction

 Credit
Some professional leagues maintain “credit facilities” (loan pools) backed by league revenues.
Individual teams can borrow from the loan pools at better interest rates.
A sport team with a low credit risk means that the owners can borrow at lowest interest rate

 Balance Sheet
A financial statement that summarizes an organization’s assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity
(financial stake in the business) at any given point in time

 Return on Investment (ROI)

The expected dollar value return on each investment, stated as a percentage of the original cost
of each investment

 Risk
Because the future is uncertain, the future benefits of any investment cannot be known with
certainty at the time the investment is made.
Level of risk must be considered by sport managers prior to any future investment. There is
significant risk associated with how to fund significant investments
Deciding to use Equity vs. Borrowed money will have different risks

 Importance and Function of Fiscal Management in Physical Education and Sport

Ensure the wise and efficient use of resources
Prevent misuse and waste
Focus on achieving objectives
Allocate funding to needs
Engage entire staff in planning
Guarantee integrity and purpose
To use funds to develop the best physical education and sport programs possible.
Ensure that monies allocated are based on research, study and careful analysis.
Coordinate and relate the objectives with the money appropriated for each objective.

 Revenue Sources for Sport and Physical Education

Governmental appropriations
Local taxes, millages, bonds
Gate receipts
Concessions
Activity fees
Television rights
Booster clubs
Fundraising

 Income from Professional Sport

At the highest level, sports with high entertainment value will generate a high proportion of
income from:
i. television broadcasting rights, most of the income from professional sport comes from
this
ii. commercial sponsorships and endorsements
iii. ticketing and spectator fees at events
iv. transfer fees of professional sport players e.g. sale of players to other teams

Professional sports with lesser entertainment value will tend to generate a high proportion of
income from:
i. government funding/ grants
ii. registration fees
iii. commercial sponsorship
iv. services provided to registered participants e.g. coach education programs, merchandising

 Income from Grass Roots Sport

At the grass roots level, sport bodies tend to generate income from:
i. user fees e.g. membership, game fees, facility usage fees
ii. food and drink sales e.g. running a canteen, running a bar in the clubhouse
iii. clothing and equipment sales
iv. fundraising
v. government funding of facility creation projects

The amount of income generated by grass roots organizations is often insufficient to meet all
costs of the desired quality of sports delivery.
 Income from Small Businesses
Small sporting businesses include privately owned sports facilities that employ multiple
employees and provide an income to the owner. Small businesses in the sport industry earn
income through:
i. sale of sporting goods/ services
ii. facility usage fees
iii. equipment hire
iv. coaching and other athlete development services
v. event management services
vi. management of travel tours

 Accounting Principles applied to Events

Just like any other type of organization, there is a need for trained accountants to record financial
data in the books, analyze data and even process salaries to the team and staff.

There are 4 basic accounting principles:

1. Cost Principle
2. Revenue Principle
3. Matching Principle
4. Full Disclosure Principle

 Cost Principle
The cost principle states that the actual cost of assets must be recorded instead of recording the
cost based on market value or inflation adjustment.
This ensures that the recorded cost of inventory and other purchases is reflected accurately in the
accounting ledger.
The principle is sometimes referred to as the "historical cost principle" because costs are
recorded based on the actual cost at the time of purchase instead of being an estimated or
adjusted cost recorded at a later time.

 Revenue Principle
The revenue principle states that revenue should be recorded at the time that it is earned, not at
the time when payment is received.
This prevents errors in accounting caused by delayed payments since any money still owed to the
company is evident within the accounting ledger.

 Matching Principle
The matching concept states that the revenue and the expenses incurred must belong to the same
accounting period.
Thus, if there is a cause-and-effect relationship between revenue and the expenses, record them
at the same time. If there is no such relationship, then charge the cost to expense at once.
Also if the revenue is more than the expenses, it is called profit and if the expenses are more than
revenue it is called loss. This concept ensures that all revenue and expenses are considered and
placed in the appropriate reporting period.

 Full Disclosure Principle

The full disclosure principle states that information that would “make a difference” to financial
statement readers/ users or would be useful in decision-making should be disclosed in the
financial statements and in a form that is easy to understand.
This way investors or creditors can see a total picture of the company before they choose to take
any action. Any information needed to understand financial statements should be included in the
body of the statements, in footnotes or in supplemental documents that are provided alongside
the statements.

 Importance of Accounting Principles

1. Provides relevant, reliable financial data
2. Clear financial rules
3. Easy to compare numbers

 Budgeting
The budget is from the French word “bougette” meaning bag or wallet. Budgeting is the
formulation of a financial plan in terms of work to be accomplished and services to be
performed.
i. Formulates a financial plan that is tied to the mission
ii. Considers program needs, work to be accomplished, and services to be performed
iii. Based on estimated income to be generated and projected expenditures
iv. Should be planned and prepared with though and vision of the future

 Types of Budgets
a. Short term usually 1 year
b. Long term 5 to 10 years

Categorized in various ways:

1. object classification (supplies, travel)
2. organizational unit or fund (football)
3. function (technology, indoor, aquatics)
4. operational
5. capital outlay or fund (state, users fee)
6. human resource

 Purposes of a Budget
a. it expresses the plan and program (size, methods to be used, personnel)
 b. determines what phases are to be emphasized
c. interprets the need and funds necessary
d. improves accounting procedures
e. necessary for fund approvals by proper authority

 Criteria for a Sound Budget

i. clearly presents financial needs
ii. key persons in the unit consulted
iii. is a realistic estimate of income
iv. reflects equitable allocations
v. flexibility to meet emergencies
vi. prepared well in advance
vii. requests are realistic, not padded
viii. meets all essential requirements

 The Process of Budget Preparation

Planning – uses the input power of staff and community
Coordinating – coordinates and integrates staff and community suggestions and
recommendations.
Presenting – presents the budget in a simplified version so it can be readily understood
Interpreting – proper interpretation of plans and actions must be effectively communicated both
within and outside the organization.
Approving – adoption of the budget is the formal approval of many projects
Administering - when approved serves as management guide
Appraising - a continuous process indicating how the budget is functioning

 Contribution of Sports to the Economy

Today sport emerges as an important component of Socio-economic development of a country.
The active participation in sports improves community health and productivity, reduces medical
expenses, imbibes discipline in character, generates great leaders, and enhances social cohesion.
The execution of a mega sporting event helps in developing infrastructure, generates
employment, secure inflow of foreign capital, generates players and athletes, and thus
contributes significantly to the economic development of a country. Therefore, it can be said that
the impact of sports on economy and society is multi-dimensional.

 Financial value of the event to a community

Mega sport events present host countries with a unique opportunity for long-term development
and to maximize economic benefits well beyond the event itself and well beyond their borders.
For example, the economic landscape in South Africa went through significant changes after
hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup. New roads, transport links and telecommunications
infrastructure facilitated commercial life for the country’s citizens. Investment in stadiums
created 6,000 new construction jobs. The social and economic benefits created by hosting the
World Cup would continue to benefit South Africa long after the final whistle has blown.
The community is also able to attract tourists who stay in local hotels, buy local food and
souvenirs and taste in the local cuisine.

 The Value of Sport to an Economy

Gross Domestic Product
The sport sector (including for-profit sport related activities) makes a significant 'per capita'
contribution to a nation’s economy and therefore improving Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
GDP is the total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year.
Sports contribution in England reached to 1.9% of their total GDP in 2010.
FIFA world cup 2014 in Brazil raised business for local players by double.

Number of employees
Sports related employment is on the rise and creating jobs in other industries. While it may be
difficult to average the amount of persons employed directly and indirectly by sport, it is
estimated to be in the billions. From athletes to sport nutritionists, sport managers to PE teachers,
groundsmen to equipment manufacturers, jobs in sport have been able to employ and sustain
families worldwide.

Linkage sectors to sport

Sport continues to be of great value to every economy as even services that are not necessarily
sport related are benefiting. Services like car rental, hotels, concessionaires and security agencies
have all emerged and benefit from the global explosion of sport.

 Sports Marketing
Sports marketing have developed into two major thrusts: the marketing of sports products and
services directly to consumers of sport, and the marketing of other consumer products and
services through the use of sport.
a. When the promotion is about sports in general, the use of this kind of strategy is called
“Marketing of Sports.”
b. When the promotion is not about the sports but sports events, athletes, teams or leagues
are used to promote different products, the marketing strategy is denominated “Marketing
through sports.”
c. When the promotion is about increasing participation among the public, it is called
“Grassroots Sports Marketing”.
d. “Street marketing of sports” considers sports marketing through billboards on the street
and also through urban elements (street lighters and sidewalks, etc.) to help promote and
gain publicity.
 What is a Marketing Plan?
A marketing plan is a comprehensive blueprint which outlines an organization's overall
marketing efforts. It is the tangible result of the strategic planning process and development of
the Sport Marketing Mix.

Marketing of sports follows the traditional four "P"'s of general marketing:

Product, Price, Promotion and Place

Because sport enjoy media attention it adds a 5th “P” - Public relations
However another four "P’s” are added to sports marketing, relating to the fact sports are
considered to be a service: Planning, Packaging, Positioning and Perception.
This addition is called “the Sport Marketing Mix”

 The Sport Marketing Mix

Product
When considering spectator sport, the “core” product is the actual event

Price
Customers usually perceive higher price to mean higher quality, although marketers need to be
careful to balance value vs. perceived quality

Place
The place is where the product is produced (the stadium or the arena) is also the place where the
product is consumed, facility aesthetics play an important role.
The amenities available at the location can be a very important part of the place e.g. restaurants
and bars

Promotion
Promotion typically refers to a variety of functions including advertising, personal selling,
publicity and sales promotion

 Markets for Sport

Local- In your area e.g. St. George East Basketball Tournament
Domestic- In your country e.g. Trinidad and Tobago Cricket League
Regional- Pertaining to a small geographical area e.g. Caribbean Football Championship
International- Involving two or more nations of different geographical locations e.g. World Cup
of Rugby

 Factors that Affect Consumer Behaviour

The factors that affect consumer behaviour can be characterized as either environmental or
individual factors.
Environmental factors may include significant others such as family, peers and coaches; social
and cultural norms; social class structure; race and gender relations; climate and geographic
conditions; technology; behaviour of firms in the industry and sport opportunity structure.
Individual factors include self-concept, stage in life or family cycle, physical characteristics,
learning, perception, motivation, attitude and the complex process of consumer decision making.

 Behaviour of Consumers in Sport

The consumer is the client that uses your product or takes advantage of your service
Consumers can be fans, athletes, coaches and sport firms

Three types of ways that consumers can involve and intertwine themselves within the world of
sports: Affective, Behavioural and Cognitive

1. Affective involvement: The attitude, feelings and emotions that a consumer has toward an
activity or sport. It is what they are most passionate about. It may be positive or negative.
2. Behavioural involvement: Includes hands-on activities such as going to and rooting for a
team or actively participating in a sport. These fans are definitely committed to sports and
it is a major part of their lifestyle.
3. Cognitive involvement: The acquisition of information and knowledge about a sport.
Magazines, newspapers, internet blogs, game programs, radio, and TV are ways that the
cognitive fan can keep up with and learn about a particular sport or the players.

 Assessment and Evaluation of Marketing and Sponsorship Plans

Seeking sponsorships might be imperative to the survival of your sporting event. Potential
sponsors will want to know that they are getting value and mileage for the money/ products/
service that they are offering you. There are 6 major questions that the sport manager needs
to ask when assessing if the potential sponsor is of value to the event.

1. Who is your target audience and what type of activities are most appealing to them?
2. What type of marketing outreach & sponsorships does your competition get involved
with?
3. What is the overall strategic plan for your business & where does a sponsorship fit into
it?
4. What are your specific sponsorship objectives?
5. Which sponsorship program best supports your event?
6. What is the sponsorship’s ROI?

 Role of Media in Sport Marketing

The media don’t tell us what to think but it greatly influences what we think about.
Sports and the media are interconnected parts of our lives. Sports provide valuable media content
and many sports depend on the media for publicity and revenues.

Media has many functions in the marketing of sport. Three major functions are:
1. Media helps you connect with potential customers
2. Media helps get the word out
3. Media helps people come together (awareness)

 Promotional Activities.
Effective promotional activities can build awareness about your event while generating revenue.
An event promotion is a project that requires detailed planning and management. Determine the
goals of your promotion to establish the best promotional activities. Your promotional strategies
could target a specific demographic or reach millions of people.

Promotional activities can include:

1) Advertising
2) Personal selling or telemarketing
3) Publicity
4) Short-term sales promotions
5) Direct marketing

 Definition of Sport Law

Sport Law involves the application of existing laws to sport and recreation.

It is not a separate body of law unto itself but rather relies on the existing principles of law in the
execution of sport law. These principles are taken from Tort Law, Contract Law, Administrative
Law, Constitutional Law and Agency Law.

Sports law touches on a variety of matters, including contract, tort, agency, antitrust,
constitutional, labor, trademark, Sex Discrimination, criminal, and tax issues. Some laws depend
on the status of the athlete, some laws differ according to the sport, and some laws vary for other
reasons.

 Examination of Legal Principles

Tort Liability
A Tort is an injury or wrong suffered as the result of another’s improper behaviour. Through the
law of Tort a person can be ordered to compensate another whom he has injured, either
intentionally or negligently.

Negligence is an unintentional Tort. This occurs when someone engages in an act which causes
damage even though they don’t intend to do so.
 Contract Law

A contract is a verbal or written agreement between two or more parties that creates a legal
obligation to fulfil the promises made by the agreement.

Every aspect of the sport industry operates on contract, from employing players, licensing
properties, leasing facilities, selling tickets, offering scholarships, purchasing equipment etc.

A valid contract must have an offer by one party which is accepted by the other, adequate
consideration; (value) capacity; and legality.

 Sports contracts can be divided into three general categories:

1. Professional services contracts (sometimes called standard player contracts)

the contract usually offered to the athlete and other athletes are all the same other than the
salary and bonus.
2. Endorsement contracts - An endorsement contract is one that grants the sponsor the right
to use (i.e., license) the athlete’s name, image, or likeness in connection with advertising
the sponsor’s products or services.
3. Appearance contracts - An appearance contract compensates the athlete for appearing at
a public function, sports camp, golf tournament, etc.

 Breach of Contract
If any of the parties to the contract breaks their promise it is called a breach. E.g. a coach gets
paid but refuses to perform his duties.

The remedy for a breach is usually monetary damages to compensate the injured party.
Depending on the breach, the injured party can file an injunction to force the Defendant to
comply with the terms of the contract.

Contracts often contain waiver clauses where parties agree to give up their right to sue for
negligence. Not all waivers are enforceable, so sport managers should be careful with such
drafting.

 Memorandum of Understanding (mou)

Is a nonbinding agreement between two or more parties outlining the terms and details of an
understanding, including each parties' requirements and responsibilities. An MOU is often the
first stage in the formation of a formal contract.

A memorandum of understanding (MOU) is not legally binding but is viewed as a serious

document by the law. An MOU signals a legal contract is imminent.
This is an agreement signed between two parties containing terms which both parties have come
to after a conflict has arisen. It is often arrived at after the parties undergo a process of mediation
prior to the injured party proceeding with litigation (the process of taking legal action).

Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas - A revised Treaty of Chaguaramas establishing the Caribbean

Community including the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) was signed in 2001.
One of its objectives was to promote and establish programmes for the development of culture
and sports.

CARICOM Sport Development Policy - operates under the umbrella of the Human Resource
Development Programme and the general goal is to develop sport for the advancement of health,
economic development and regional integration. The activities developed under this programme
are fashioned to reposition sport as an essential element in the development of the Caribbean
community.

UNESCO Sport for Peace - UNESCO as the United Nations’ lead agency for Physical Education
and Sport (PES) considers and adopts Sports as a vital medium for Peace and Development. The
practice of sport is a recognized instrument for promoting peace, as it disregards geographical
borders, ethnic differences and social classes. It also plays a significant role as a promoter of
social integration and economic development in different geographical, cultural and political
contexts.

 UN Millennium Goals
All 191 United Nations member states at that time, and at least 22 international organizations,
committed to help achieve the following Millennium Development Goals by 2015:
a. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
b. To achieve universal primary education
c. To promote gender equality and empower women
d. To reduce child mortality
e. To improve maternal health
f. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
g. To ensure environmental sustainability
h. To develop a global partnership for development

 Intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic
works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.
i. Patents protect the technology used to develop the shoe
ii. Designs protect the “look” of the shoe
 iii. Trademarks distinguish the shoe from similar products and protect the “reputation” of the
shoe (and the company making it)
iv. Copyright protects any artwork and audiovisual creations used to publicize the shoe
v. Brands are critical for creating business value, and the sports business is no exception.
Strong brands command customer loyalty and premium prices, constituting valuable
assets that drive company revenue and growth.
vi. A trademark license underpins all merchandising programmes. It defines the relationship
between the owner of a trademark (licensor) and the producer of the goods or services to
which the mark is to be affixed (the licensee).

 Sport Ethics
Sports ethics addresses specific ethical questions that arise during and around sports
competitions and requires four key virtues: fairness, integrity, responsibility, and respect.

To understand the role ethics plays in sport and competition, it is important to make a distinction
between gamesmanship and sportsmanship.

Gamesmanship is built on the principle that winning is everything. Athletes and coaches are
encouraged to bend the rules wherever possible in order to gain a competitive advantage over an
opponent, and to pay less attention to the safety and welfare of the competition.

Sportsmanship involves healthy competition and is seen as a means of cultivating personal

honor, virtue, and character. It contributes to a community of respect and trust between
competitors and in society. The goal in sportsmanship is not simply to win, but to pursue victory
with honor by giving one's best effort.

 Concepts/ Issues in Sport Ethics

a. Fair play- the positive benefits of playing by the rules, using common sense and
respecting fellow players, referees, opponents and fans.
b. Doping in sport- the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic
competitors.
c. Religious discrimination- denying access to sport and infringing on one’s religious beliefs
through the use and participation of sport.
d. Gender discrimination- when prejudice influences the treatment of a gender. This
discrimination can be shown through unequal wage, unequal viewership, and unequal
opportunities between the difference sexes.
e. Sexual orientation- discrimination of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered (LGBT)
sportspeople, based on their gender expression or sexual choice.
f. Racial discrimination-prejudicial, discriminatory or antagonistic behaviour directed
against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior.
 g. Ethnic discrimination- bias against any category of people who identify with each other
based on similarities such as common ancestry, language, society, culture or nation.
h. Disability discrimination- occurs when a disabled or differently abled athlete is denied
access/ opportunities or is treated less favourably than a person without the disability in
the same or similar circumstances.
i. Sexual harassment- harassment (typically of a woman) in sport, other professional or
social situation, involving the making of unwanted sexual advances or obscene remarks.
j. Transparency in sport- clear, unhindered honesty in the way that sport is managed; a lack
of hidden agendas or conditions, accompanied by the availability of full information
required for collaboration, cooperation, and collective decision making in sport; the full,
accurate, and timely disclosure of sporting information to athletes, coaches and other
stakeholders.
k. Democracy- the sport leader gives up ownership and control of a decision and allows the
group to make it or to be involved in the process.

 Code of Ethics
A code of ethics provides standards of professional conduct. Its primary goal is the welfare and
protection of individuals and groups in sport.

 What is a Sport Facility?

Sport facilities include areas that are constructed or maintained to allow people to participate in
sport and recreation activities, such as a pool, gym or oval, as well as any structures that support
people involved in sport and recreation, such as a change room, canteen, grandstand or
scoreboard.

A facility can be a large multi-use centre with playing surfaces catering for different activities, or
it may be a small hall or room catering for one specific activity.

 Principles of Facilities Management

Most sport and recreation facilities, whether community based or commercially focused, have
the same general management goals: maximizing the use of their facility and operating in an
efficient, safe and fair manner. To achieve these goals numerous factors need to be considered,
including:
a. Access and opportunities
b. Quality, safety and sustainability
c. Multiple-use or sharing

 Access and opportunities

Location and transport
Keys and booking system
Security
Fees and pricing
Hours of operation
Diverse programs

 Quality, safety and sustainability

Asset maintenance plan
Safety and standards

Multiple-use of facilities
Sharing
Management agreements
A management plan

 Types of Sport Facilities

Some sports need really good (and often expensive) facilities (such as ice skating and
swimming). Others don't really need any facilities (such as cross country running), although
having some facilities can make these sports easier, such as changing rooms and showers etc.

 Facilities Maintenance & Safety

Maintenance personnel are essential for periodic inspections, preventive maintenance measures,
and repairs that directly contribute to the safe operation of sport facilities.

The early detection of facility problems and the expedited response by management may directly
influence the success of an event or the cost benefit of the facility.

Facility maintenance not only takes the spectator/ fan into consideration, but also the athlete.
Field maintenance should focus on safety. Maintenance personnel or the groundskeeper should
inspect the playing field surface before each practice or contest.

When potential risks of injury are identified, they should be rectified before athletes are able to
use the area.
 What to Consider When Searching for a Venue?
1) Location
2) Parking
3) Capacity
4) Services and Amenities (kitchen, tables/ chairs, clean up crew, audio visual, etc.)
5) Layout
6) Ambiance
7) Insurance
8) Accessibility (transport to get to venue, disable access, etc.)
9) Acoustics
10) Cost (the major factor for most Caribbean sport event managers)

 Selecting a Location for your Event

Step 1: Analyze the event's need for a venue
Step 2: Investigate possible venue (s)
Step 3: Make site visits
Step 4: Agree on price and terms
Step 5: Make a booking and confirm
Step 6: Make further site visits

 Key Aspects of Facility Management

Ticketing
This includes the methods and mechanisms used to allow fans entry into an event. The ease and
flexibility of buying tickets is essential for your event.

Seating
It’s important for the seats to be comfortable, durable, waterproof and permanently fastened to
the ground.

Security
In terms of sporting venues and arenas, security generally means access control, gates, road
blockers, turnstiles, fencing and barriers.

There are three key security measures that are utilized today at sporting events: strict security
searches, extensive use of CCTV cameras and the employment of sufficient experienced
positioned security

Parking
Parking is known as a sport marketing extension to the core product. Parking can either be free
or paid for or a combination of both.
Solid Waste Disposal
Operations at sport facilities should encourage the immediate collection and routing of materials
found in the waste stream to their best use.

Toilet Accessories
Toilets and washrooms must be large enough to accommodate your expected number of patrons.
Poor quality toilet facilities can result in spectators not enjoying the sporting event and it can
adversely affect revenue from food and drink sales during intermissions.

Noise Levels
Fans who attend stadiums, arenas and other sports venues – as well as the workers in those
venues and the officials in charge of refereeing the game – may be at risk of exposure to
hazardous noise levels. Without controls, players, fans and workers may be at risk of noise-
induced hearing loss.

Environmental Impact
The United Nations Environment Programme reports, “Building and managing a sport facility
and operating an event uses energy and can contribute to air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions
and waste generation, as well as to ozone-layer depletion, habitat and biodiversity loss, soil
erosion and water pollution.”

 Technology in Sports
Technology in sport is the knowledge and application of using specialized equipment and the
latest modern technologies to perform tasks more efficiently. Examples of sporting technologies
include golf clubs, tennis rackets, pole vault poles, athletic sports gear (clothing and footwear),
advanced computer stimulations and motion capture.

 What are the Benefits of Advanced Sporting Technologies?

1) Improving and increasing athletic performance
2) Athletic health can be maintained and observed, and injuries treated
3) Deepened knowledge of the human body and its potential has been recognized
4) Greater safety through the development of certain sporting equipment, such as helmets
and body protection
5) Sporting technologies have also made competition judging easier and more accurate
6) Spectator interest and excitement is enhanced by broadcasting and in-stadium displays
(scoreboards).

 Hand timing to Electronic to FAT.

1. Hand timing is the process of using hand held devices to time racing events of athletes.
The margin of error is very high since it depends heavily on human involvement thus
producing human error
 2. Electronic Timing can be hand held like a digital stopwatch that gives split second
readings. Electronic timings have a human element as races are start and stopped by a
human
3. Fully Automatic Timing (FAT) is a form of race-timing in which the clock is
automatically activated by a starting device, and the finish time is automatically recorded
by analysis of a photo finish. It captures digital race results accurate to at least 1/100th of
a second (0.01). It requires a start signal, running time, and capture device to be digitally
synchronized to ensure accuracy. True FAT also requires the timing device be activated
automatically by a start signal, rather than manually.

 What are the Core Components of a Fully Automatic Timing System?

1. Start Sensor detects the start signal
2. Line-Scan Camera aimed at the finish line captures 1,000 frames per second for accurate,
time-stamped results images.
3. Timing Software captures photo-finish results & integrates hardware like displays, wind
gauges and additional cameras.

 Analog timing device to digital

A clock or watch is called "analog" when it has moving hands, and hours marked from 1 to 12, to
show you the time. Analog timing uses moving hands to time an event.

Converting information into numbers or digits, and displaying that information is digital
technology. Digital is not necessary better or more accurate than analog but digital however
allows for a more precise reading and times (e.g. 10.05.575 seconds)

 Sport apparel (suits, shoe, balls)

The history of sports apparel runs parallel to the general fashion trends and materials available of
the time. The apparel at early organized sport was hardly practical, but fit perfectly with the
accepted fashion sense of the day. As time passed, research and development led to the use of
lighter, durable and stronger materials in the production and design of sport apparels
 Recording of results
Previously the recording of results were placed on paper. This made the retrieval of information
and past records difficult or impossible. Paper can fade or disintegrate, ink can fade, information
gone missing or the rewriting of information done wrong due to human error.
With the introduction of the computer, internet and data management systems recording of
information is instantaneous, accurate and easily shared around the world.
 Seeding and ranking of teams
A seed is a competitor or team in a sports or other tournament who is given a preliminary ranking
for the purposes of the draw. Players/teams are "planted" into the bracket in a manner that is
typically intended so that the best do not meet until later in the competition.
The term was first used in tennis. Historically this was not done in the past and there are many
cases of matches involving the 2 best teams or athletes meeting early in the tournament
 Step 1 of 2: Information gathering
The gathering of relevant and up-to-date sport information is a key process.
Information consists of organized facts and figures that have meaning.
When planning on information gathering, the basic thing that you need to do is to figure out the
information you need.
The more up-to-date, accurate and complete is the information, then the more valuable it will be.
 Step 2 of 2: Distribution of information
The process of distributing information is an activity that allows making relevant information
available for the potential sport market in the portions identified .
This must be done in a timely manner. Knowledge of your market and target audience is very
helpful at this point.
The right distribution use can ensure maximum reach for your information, just as adversely the
wrong distribution channel chosen can be detrimental.

There are three basic forms of communication that define information distribution formats:
 Face-to-face communications (group or individual meetings)
 Hard-copy communications (letters, paper reports)
 Electronic communications (emails, videoconferences, voice chats)
 Awareness:

Emails are messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more
recipients via a network. Emails are delivered extremely fast and cheap and can be sent 24 hours
a day, 365 days a year.

A telegram is a message sent by telegraph and then delivered in written or printed form, used in
the UK only for international messages since 1981.

Telex is an international system of telegraphy with printed messages transmitted and received by
teleprinters using the public telecommunications network.

A fax is an exact copy of a document made by electronic scanning and transmitted as data by
telecommunications links. Faxes are fairly inexpensive and simple to use. The also allow for
hand written copies of documents and can make use of a simple telephone line.

 Event Branding
Event branding offers sport companies, organizations and collectives a chance to massively
amplify awareness – using experiential design best practices to offer an impactful and
unforgettable experience. Through the power of distinctive, dynamic design, businesses can
harness the immense potential of event branding. It is done through an intelligent and cohesive
approach that allow your sport customers to experience the full effect of you event.
 Advertising
Advertising is a form of marketing communication used to encourage, persuade, or manipulate
an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group) to take or continue to take
some action. It is used as a method to disseminate specific information to target sport customers.
 Online streaming of events
Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received by and presented to an end-user while
being delivered by a provider over a very large bandwidth. The verb "to stream" refers to the
process of delivering media in this manner; the term refers to the delivery method of the
medium, rather than the medium itself, and is an alternative to downloading. Sport fans log on to
the many free streaming media sites to see their favorite teams in action, sport businesses can use
this medium to broadcast information to the sport fan while they are logged on.
 Promotional Games
Promotional games increase sponsorship awareness, engage customer interest and create huge
PR opportunities. Not only are promotional games used to reward fans and create excitement
around a sporting activity, they can be used to carefully and strategically inform your target
market concerning aspects of your product, service or event. Many none sporting companies join
with sport franchises or events to promote/ disseminate info about their product. Normally the
event is renamed for that particular night. Promotional games are closely linked to promotional
items.
 Technological tools
Training Ball machines are widely used in almost every other major ball sport. “Muscle
memory” skills are acquired the same way in all sports through quality repetitions in
concentrated periods of time. A ball machine also allows less injury on repetitive actions in sport.
Computer programs that use video motion analysis has been used in sport for calculation of
speeds of projectiles and for improving play of athletes. Programs have been developed to
provide a high level of task, performance and physiological data to coaches, teams and players.
The objective is to improve individual and team performance and/or analyze opposition patterns
of play to give tactical advantage.
Eg Coaches Eye App, or Cric HQ

 Performance/Diagnosis/ Treatment
Technology is being increasingly leveraged by various sports authorities and players in the form
of tools that are able to ultimately improve performance. Devices, software and apps are able to
perform proactive health monitoring and diagnostic tools that prevent injuries or are able to
detect them early.

Stimulation
New advances in neuroscience have pointed the way to performance enhancement by stimulating
the activity of the brain. Mild electrical stimulation using electrodes placed on the head makes
the brain more active, and may lead to long-lasting changes in brain processing and decision
making during sport.

TENS
Stands for (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation) which are predominately used for
nerve related pain conditions (acute and chronic conditions). TENS machines works by sending
stimulating pulses across the surface of the skin and along the nerve strands.
Muscle Stimulators
Muscle stimulators send electronic pulses to your motor nerves in order to create muscle
contractions. When muscle stimulation is added to physical training, it helps maximize muscular
effort by engaging a greater percentage of muscle fibers.

The difference between TENS and muscle stimulators is that TENS simply blocks pain where
muscle stimulators targets muscle to prevent atrophy, relaxes muscle spasm, increases range of
motion and increases blood circulation.

 Reaction equipment
A quick reaction time is key to having explosive athletic performances during game time. Using
sport specific reaction equipment will increase performance by creating scenarios of varying
movement that will occur during the performance of the sport.
 Biofeedback
Biofeedback is a technique to help you learn to control internal functions normally outside of
conscious control.
With biofeedback, you're connected to electrical sensors that help you receive information
(feedback) about your body (bio). This feedback helps you focus on making subtle changes in
your body, such as relaxing certain muscles, to achieve the results you want, such as reducing
pain. Biofeedback is often used as a relaxation technique.
 Wired/wireless monitors
A heart rate monitor is a personal monitoring device that allows an athlete to measure his/her
heart rate in real time or record the heart rate for later study. It is largely used by performers of
various types of physical exercise. They come in both wired and wireless formats.

Technology and event Management

A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables you to store,
modify, and extract information from a database. It is any computer-software application that
interacts with end-users, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data.
The following are examples of database applications:
 business cloud computing
 computerized library systems
 automated teller machines
 flight reservation systems
 computerized parts inventory systems

Game communication The most popular device used for game communication today are
headsets. The advantages of headsets are better and easier to communicate with assistants with
controversial decisions, quicker decision-making, better team work and there’s always an option
to get advice.

Strategy Event management strategy software has the capacity to help plan, organize, and
manage resource tools and develop resource estimates.
Depending on the sophistication of the software, it can manage estimation and planning,
scheduling, cost control and budget management, resource allocation, collaboration software,
communication, decision-making, quality management and documentation or administration
systems.
Results and distribution In today’s fast paced world it is imperative that sport managers find a
way to obtain results and distribute results as quickly as possible. The use of the internet and
various apps has made this possible and seamless today.

Scheduling games is a little more challenging than one might desire. There are 2 well-known
types of tournament formats that sport schedulers use: Single Elimination Tournaments and
Round Robin Tournaments.
There are countless websites that make scheduling easier apps like Team Snap are popular ways
managers use to share information about schedules.
A roster Advancement in technology has caused rostering of teams much easier. There are many
apps and software that make rostering instantaneous, easily updated and sharable. Online rosters
are able to give information on injuries, stats and a bio on teams/ athletes.

Creation of website Nowadays, having a strong online presence can either make or break an
event. A properly designed website will be able to showcase your sport brand, answer questions
about the event, offer opportunities of e-commerce, win customers over and provide information
from data- mining.

Entries/registration Online registration not only improves efficiencies and eliminates unnecessary
paperwork, it also maximises participation and improves marketing capabilities while allowing
participants to sign up when and where it is most convenient for them from any Internet-enabled
computer.

Rankings/seeding
Ranking is decided by total points accumulated by a player/ team from their performance in
various tournaments.
Seeding is given to the players based on their rankings just before the last date of entry to a
tournament.
Software is available to rank and seed players/ teams. Doing this manually can be very tedious.

Teleconferencing - Skype, Lync

A teleconference is a telephone meeting among two or more participants involving technology
more sophisticated than a simple two-way phone connection.
In sport event planning, teleconferencing can be used to plan, share ideas and discuss issues with
groups of persons from various geographical locations.

The Use of Social Media in Sport

Types (Classification) of Social Media

 Social Networking- Using websites and applications to communicate informally with others,
find people, and share similar interests.
 Microblogging- Posting of very short entries or updates on a social networking site.
 Blogging- Recording opinions, stories, articles, and links to other websites on a personal
website.
 Photo Sharing- Publishing a user's digital photos, enabling the user to share photos with
others either publicly or privately (e.g. Instagram, Flickr, Snapchat, Pinterest)
 Video Sharing- Publishing a user's videos, enabling the user to share videos with others either
publicly or privately (e.g. YouTube, Vimeo)

Types of Social Media audiences

 Enthusiasts: 85% of social media updates come from enthusiasts. They are the extroverts of
the internet and they engage often. They are avid users of their mobile devices.
 Lurkers: The introverts of the internet or the "the silent watchers". They are less interested in
sharing their own views with online friends although they will read all posts.
 Dabblers: Dabblers post much less than enthusiasts and account for only 10% of what you
hear/ read on social media.
• No Shows: these are people least involved with social media
• Newcomers: passive users of a single social media network primarily to enhance
relationships that they have offline
• Onlookers: are active only in the sense that watch others via social channels on a regular
basis, but share almost no personal information
• Cliquers: active users of one network
• Mix-n-Minglers: those who regularly share and interact with a diverse group of
connections
• Sparks: most active users of social media; will serve as enthusiastic online ambassadors
for their favourite teams/ athletes

Social Media advantages

• Connectivity
• Education
• Help
• Information and Updates
• Promotion
• Noble Cause
• Awareness
• Helps Government and Agencies Fight Crime
• Improves Business Reputation
• Helps in Building Communities

Social Media disadvantages

• Cyberbullying
• Hacking
• Addiction
• Fraud and Scams
• Security Issues
• Reputation
• Fake news/ information
• Cheating and Relationship Issues
• Health Issues
• Glamorizes Drugs and Alcohol
• Social Media can cause death when persons try to imitate what they see or do things for
likes

The use of Social Media in Sport

 Every team, league, or sports association has at least one social media profile where they
announce all important information.
 Social media is having an increasing influence on the way we now see sporting star's habits,
milestones and personal lives every day on our phones.
 By engaging fans via social media, sports rights holders can open new communication
channels with their audience that can be measured and valued as a new commercial
opportunity with sponsors.
 Every sports event or show has a related hashtag which creates a relationship with the
audience and brings a fast response.
 Athletes use social media to establish their name, communicate with their fans, announce
their activities, and even promote brands and make money, as they have millions of followers