UNIT – 2 DRAINAGE METHODS

UNIT-2
DRAINAGE METHODS: Introduction, Seepage, filter requirements, ground water and seepage control,
methods of dewatering systems, Design of dewatering system including pipe line effects of dewatering.
Drains, different types of drains.
PRECOMPRESSION AND VERTICAL DRAINS: Importance, Vertical drains,Sand drains, Drainage
of slopes, Electro kinetic dewatering, Preloading

DRAINAGE METHODS
Permeability:_ Permeability is the capacity of a permeable media to transmit water through the
interconnected voids. The transmission of water can be due to the following:
 Pressure difference between two points- Flow of water from higher water table level to
lower water table level.
 Dispersion- Flow of water from low concentration of water molecules to high
concentration of water molecules.
Factors on which permeability depends
The permeability depends on the soil type as well as the permeant (water).
Permeant Properties
 Unit weight: Permeability is directly proportional to unit weight of permeant.
 Viscosity: Permeability is inversely proportional to unit weight of permeant.
 Particle size: Permeability is directly proportional to the particle size of soil.
 Void ratio: Permeability is directly proportional to the void ratio of the soil
 Degree of saturation: Permeability is inversely proportional to Degree of saturation of
soil. Lower degree of saturation indicates more air in the voids. Air in the voids act as
obstruction to the flow of permeant.
 Fabric: Permeability is more flocculated structure than in dispersed structure.
Groundwater - The water present beneath the earth’s surface is known as ground water. Water
level or phreatic level means the level of water where pressure is the atmospheric pressure. The
neutral stress on this surface is zero. Water is present in voids above the phreatic surface. This
water may be of the following types:
 Gravity water - The water which is not available to plants. Takes 2 – 3 days to drain from
soil.
 Capillarity water - The water which rises from water table and upwards due to dispersion.
 Hygroscopic water - Water layering the particles as film. Not found in voids.
 Perched water: A water body trapped above the phreatic surface due to an impermeable
layer.

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The zone below the water table is fully saturated in natural formations like aquifers, aquitards
and aquicludes. Water flowing from aquifers into excavations has to be controlled to maintain
dry working conditions or to reduce the uplift pressures on structures. If aquifers are under
artesian pressures there is a danger of larger upward seepage and quicksand condition or piping
or boiling.

Aquifers:

 It is a water containing layer of permeable rock or soil from which water can be
extracted.
 High porosity and permeability.
 Highly interconnected pores for flow of water.
 It can be confined or unconfined.
Aquitards:

 Water containing rock or soil from which water cannot be extracted.

 Highly porous but impermeable like clay.
 The pores are not well interconnected.

Aquicludes:
 Rocks having porosity but no permeability.
 The pores are isolated.
 Water remains trapped.

Aquifuge:
 Rocks having no porosity and permeability.

Seepage Control
Seepage can be controlled by dewatering or by drains.

The seepage controls is required during construction for:

1. To provide a dry excavation and permit the construction to run smoothly.
2. Reduce the lateral loads on bracings and sheeting.

3. Prevent quick sand conditions at the bottom of excavation.

4. Improve the supporting characteristics of foundation soil.

5. Increase stability of excavation slopes.

6. Cut off capillarity rise thus preventing frost heave and piping in pavements.

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After construction seepage control construction is required for:

1. Reduces uplift on structures

2. Reduces lateral pressures on retaining structures.

3. Controls embankment seepage

4. Control seepage and pore pressures under pavements.

5. Prevent ground water contamination from pollutants.

Dewatering is the lowering of the water table to a required elevation. Dewatering is adopted for
excavation needed for constructions of permanent structures below water table. The different
methods of dewatering are
 Sumps and ditches
 Well point system
 Deep well point system
 Vacuum dewatering
 Electro-Osmosis method

Drains
 Drains consists of the following a perforated pipe, filter, disposal system.
 The size of the drain will be larger than the hydraulic discharge it is going to collect in
order to accumulate silting.
 The perforations of the pipe will be 8 mm to 9 mm with gravel filter of maximum size 12
mm to 15 mm.
 The disposal methods include gravity or by pumping.
 The types of drains used during construction stage are Open drains, Closed drains,
Horizontal drains.
 The type of drains used after constructions are foundation drains, blanket drains,
interceptor drains.

Open drains
 The oldest method of draining excavations, roads etc.
 Open drain consists of a ditch or a sump. An inverted filter is required.
Closed drains
 A perforated pipe contained in ditch with filter all around.
 Openings should be provided every 30 m to 50 m to flush out the pipe occasionally.
 Manholes should be provided at change of directions and at intervals of 100 to 150 m
along straight sections.
 The pipes are laid in straight lines.
 Closed drains are used where permanent draining is required or where seepage erosion or
piping is an issue.

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Horizontal drains
 A system of horizontal closed drains connected to a vertical well. The system consist of
RCC vertical shafts from which
 Numbers of horizontal perforated pipes are fixed. These horizontal pipes may extend to
any distance as required.
 Water collected in the well is removed by pumping. The system is not effective in
drainage of stratified soils.
 Adopted in draining areas when we want to avoid open-cut work or to reach towards
adequate submergence.
 Useful for draining a wide area.

Drainage after construction: Drainage after construction prevents the groundwater from seeping
into the structure or to protect it from drainage.

Foundation drains
 When depth to be dewatered is not so large we can use perforated drains at the footing
level (not below the footing level).
 The main intention is to prevent uplift pressures on the footing. A suitable filter is placed
to surround the filter. The water is disposed by gravity or by pumping.

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Blanket drains
 Blanket drains are provided under basement floors, beneath dams and pavements to
prevent uplift pressure and to reduce the seepage through floor.
 Consist of a continuous fine filter layer in contact with the soil followed by a coarse filter
containing perforated drains.
 Disposes water either by gravity or by pumping.

Interceptor drains
 In paved highways and runways trench drains are provided parallel to the shoulder.
 Provided to lower the groundwater level beneath the pavement and to permit easy lateral
drainage for water finding its way into the coarse base material.
 Purpose is to keep the base and sub grade soils dry so as to maintain the adequate
strength and stability.
 It also removes surface water and development of excess pore water pressures.
 A filter is essential for continued efficiency of the drain and to prevent seepage erosion of
fines and clogging of the pipes.

Filter Requirements
The space between the soil and the pipe is filled with a coarse grained material known as filter. If
the voids of the filter are larger than the finest grains of the adjoining soil there is a possibility
for these fines to fill and accumulate and block the flow. If the voids of the filter are smaller than

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the fines in the soil then the filter itself will get washed into the drain. Hence a material which
avoid the above two undesirable conditions is referred to as a filter.

The gradation of the filter material should satisfy the two requirements:

 The pores in the filter should be small enough such that soil particle doesn’t migrate
through it.
 Filter should allow rapid drainage of water without developing large seepage forces.
These requirements are satisfied by adopting a suitable grain-size distribution for the filter
material based on the material to be protected. The following filter criteria should be adopted:

Piping Criteria:-

These voids should block a fraction of coarse material of the soil which will block the smaller
particles. To do this the voids of the filter should be less than D85 of soil. Then 15% coarser than
D85 will be restrained.

k α D102
D15 filter > 5 D15 soil

In a graded filter there will be multiple layers. Every two adjacent layers have to satisfy the
above criteria.
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Also, the opening of perforated pipe should be as follows:

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