Addictive Behaviors 106 (2020) 106364

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Addictive Behaviors
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addictbeh

Investigating the links between fear of missing out, social media addiction, T
and emotional symptoms in adolescence: The role of stress associated with
neglect and negative reactions on social media
⁎
M.A. Fabris, D. Marengo , C. Longobardi, M. Settanni
Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Italy

H I GH L IG H T S

• Fear of missing out (FoMO) is associated with a decrease in emotional well-being in adolescents.
• We explore the mediating role of stress related neglect and negative reactions by social media peers.
• Adolescents high in FoMO experience heightened stress associated with neglect by online peers.
• Stress related to peer neglect (SS-N) is found to predict social media addiction (SMA).
• FoMO shows an indirect effect on emotional distress via both SMA and SS-N.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fear of missing out (FoMO) is known to be associated with a decrease in emotional well-being in adolescents.
Stress However, few studies have investigated the possible mediating factors between FoMO and emotional symptoms.
Neglect In this study, we studied the relationship between FoMO and emotional symptoms in a sample of 472 Italian
Emotional symptoms adolescents aged 11–19. In particular, the study investigated the possible mediating role of perceived stress
Adolescence
associated with experiences of neglect and negative reactions by other social media users, and social media
Social media addiction
addiction. Self-report measures were used. Results show that FoMO directly and indirectly predicts emotional
symptoms. Additionally, FoMO is associated with increased sensitivity to stress associated with experiences of
neglect and negative reactions by online peers, and social media addiction. Sensitivity to stress associated with
neglect (but not to negative reactions) by online peers is found to mediate the relationship between FoMO and
social media addiction, which, in turn, mediates the relationship with emotional symptoms. In general, the study
shows that FoMO is a factor in experiencing higher sensitivity to stress associated with neglect by online peers,
which in turn my act as a trigger for social media addiction, and ultimately showing a negative impact on
emotional well-being of adolescents. Limits and future directions for research are discussed.

1. Introduction acceptance and sense of belonging (Barker, 2009; Badenes-Ribera,

The use of social media has become part of our daily lives, and
adolescents and young adults seem to be the largest group of users
(Marengo, Longobardi, Fabris, & Settanni, 2018; Rideout & Robb, 2018;
Settanni, Marengo, Fabris, & Longobardi, 2018; Kemp, 2017). Through
social media, teenagers can maintain their contacts and extend their
network of knowledge or find and exchange information and materials,
but also contribute to the construction of their social identity in relation
to peer groups, especially in terms of popularity and therefore
Fabris, Gastaldi, Prino, & Longobardi, 2019). However, research also
show significant associations exist between adolescents’ social media
use and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), a construct which can be defined
as a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding
experiences from which one is absent, and it is characterized by the
desire to stay continually connected with what others are doing
(Przybylski, Murayama, DeHaan, & Gladwell, 2013). FoMO can be
conceptualized from the perspective of self-determination theory (SDT;
Deci & Ryan, 1985), and specifically in relation with the psychological

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 TO, Italy.
E-mail addresses: matteoangelo.fabris@unito.it (M.A. Fabris), davide.marengo@unito.it (D. Marengo), Claudio.longobardi@unito.it (C. Longobardi),
michele.settanni@unito.it (M. Settanni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106364
Received 26 November 2019; Received in revised form 11 February 2020; Accepted 22 February 2020
Available online 27 February 2020
0306-4603/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Fabris, et al.
need for connectedness with others as a factor in effective self-regula-
tion and psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Evidence seems
to indicate that adolescents with high levels of FoMO tend to make
greater use of social media in order to compensate for these psycholo-
gical needs (Oberst, Wegmann, Stodt, Brand, & Chamarro, 2017). As
such, it is possible that adolescents with higher levels of FoMO may be
at greater risk for excessive social media use (Al-Menayes, 2016;
Blackwell, Leaman, Tramposch, Osborne, & Liss, 2017; Dhir, Yossatorn,
Kaur, & Chen, 2018; Franchina, Vanden Abeele, van Rooij, Lo Coco, &
De Marez, 2018). Several pieces of evidence suggest that FoMO may
ultimately have an impact on the well-being of individuals, increasing
negative affect and emotional symptoms (Baker, Krieger, & LeRoy,
2016; Milyavskaya, Saffran, Hope, & Koestner, 2018). Adolescents high
in FOMO may be exposed to an increase in emotional symptoms be-
cause of the heightened feeling that they do not belong and that they
are missing out on important shared experiences (Oberst et al., 2017),
as well as a consequence of social media fatigue (Dhir et al., 2018).
However, the mechanisms that connect FoMO to emotional symptoms
are still largely unknown and poorly investigated, or only hypothesized.
One way FoMO appears to be linked to excessive use of social media
is by way of influencing metacognitions concerning the importance of
social media use for maintaining social relationship (Casale, Caplan, &
Fioravanti, 2016; 2018). In view of this, it is reasonable to expect that
adolescents high in FoMO may be particularly sensitive and more prone
to distress due to experiencing neglect and negative reactions by peers
on social media (Beyens, Frison, & Eggermont, 2016). In the online
social media environment, indicators such as the number of received
Likes, comments, and followers (Nesi, Choukas-Bradley, & Prinstein,
2018) are usually assumed as a measure of one's popularity and degree
of acceptance by his/her immediate social network. For teens, and
especially those high in FoMO, the experience of being excluded or
ignored online or receiving negative comments could be a particularly
stressful experience and, in turn, result in a decrease in perceived
emotional well-being (Beyens et al., 2016). Some evidence suggests that
when teenagers receive positive or negative comments about posted
content, this affects their well-being and self-esteem (Valkenburg,
Peter, & Schouten, 2006). The fear of not receiving comments/Likes
(i.e., online neglect), or the fear of receiving negative reactions might
trigger compulsive use of social media in order to fulfill their un-
satisfied need to connect with others and maintain a positive online
social status, e.g., by improving social media metrics (Marengo, Poletti,
& Settanni, 2020). In this way, an adolescent with a high level of FoMO,
as aforementioned, may be considered more of a risk to develop
symptoms of addiction to social media use. These considerations seem
in line with the “Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution” (I-
PACE) model for addictive behaviors recently proposed by Brand and
colleagues (2016, 2019). This model is based on psychological and
neurobiological variables that are potentially involved in the develop-
ment of different forms of addiction. The model foresees an interaction
between predisposing variables (such as psychological and psycho-
pathological characteristics, genetic and biopsychological factors, and
social cognitions) and the subjective perception of situational factors.
The stress deriving from the subjective assessment of situational factors
can activate ‘affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses’ that can
contribute to the development and maintenance of specific forms of
Internet-related behavioral addictions, such as the behavioral addiction
to social media use. As regards the latter, it is worthy to note that de-
bate exists in the literature concerning the operationalization of the
behavioral addiction to social media use as an independent construct,
as well as concerning the terminology used to refer to the construct
itself, a debate that stems in part from its overlap with other Internet-
related behavioral addictions (Bányai et al., 2017). Indeed, a variety of
terms are used in the literature to refer to the construct, including Social
Media Addiction, Problematic Social Media Use, Social Media Overuse,
Social Media Use Disorder, and Social Networking Use Disorder, (e.g.,
Andreassen et al., 2016; Montag, Wegmann, Sariyska, Demetrovics, &
2
Addictive Behaviors 106 (2020) 106364
Brand, 2019; Van Den Eijnden, Lemmens, & Valkenburg, 2016). For the
purpose of the present study, we refer to the construct of Social Media
Addiction (SMA) as operationalized by the Bergen Social Media Addic-
tion Scale (BSMAS; Andreassen et al., 2016). The BSMAS assesses six
core addiction components derived from the model of behavioral ad-
diction proposed by Griffiths (2005), namely mood modification (i.e.,
social media is used to promote a positive change in emotional states),
salience (i.e., behavioral, cognitive, and emotional preoccupation with
social media use), tolerance (i.e., need to increase use of social media
over time), withdrawal symptoms (i.e., experiencing unpleasant phy-
sical and emotional symptoms when social media usage is restricted or
stopped), conflict (i.e., problems ensuing because of social media
usage), and relapse (i.e., addicts quickly reverting back to an excessive
social media use after a period of abstinence).
The prevalence of adolescents at risk of SMA is difficult to estimate
due to a variety of methodological factors and possible cultural influ-
ences, but also because of the aforementioned lack of consensus in
defining SMA. Estimates range from 2.8% to 47% according to different
studies, with females tending to be at greater risk (Andreassen,
Pallesen, & Griffiths, 2017; Bányai et al., 2017). Studies concerning the
Italian context report similar findings, with adolescent females showing
an increased risk of SMA when compared with their male peers
(Monacis, De Palo, Griffiths, & Sinatra, 2017), while the opposite is
typically found for addiction to online gaming (Monacis, De Palo,
Griffiths, & Sinatra, 2016).
Although the concept of SMA does not attract broad consensus
(Bányai et al., 2017), it is known that excessive use of social media
tends to affect the social functioning of the individual (Andreassen
et al., 2016), and to correlate with a decrease in psychological well-
being measures in adolescents. In fact, measures of SMA in adolescents
have been found to be associated with depressive symptoms (Bányai
et al., 2017; Dhir et al., 2018; Kircaburun et al., 2019; Pontes, 2017;
Raudsepp & Kais, 2019; Worsley, McIntyre, Bentall, & Corcoran, 2018),
anxiety (Dhir et al., 2018; Pontes, 2017), low self-esteem (Bányai et al.,
2017), and general psychological distress (Pontes, 2017). The causal
relationship between SMA and emotional symptoms in adolescents is
still unclear, and there is likely to be a two-way relationship between
the two constructs (Cerniglia, Griffiths, et al., 2019; Cerniglia,
Guicciardi et al., 2019; Ciarrochi et al., 2016; Li et al., 2018; Raudsepp
& Kais, 2019). Still, a recent longitudinal study (Li et al., 2018) indicate
that teens who overuse social networks tend to develop more depressive
symptoms than teens who did not overuse over time.
Considering that adolescence is a critical period both for the
emergence of forms of behavioral dependence, such as SMA, and for the
exacerbation of emotional symptoms (Raudsepp & Kais, 2019), it is
important to understand the factors involved in order to support pos-
sible prevention and intervention strategies. In this light, the goal of our
work is to study the relationship between FoMO levels in adolescents
and risk of exacerbating emotional symptoms. In particular, we in-
vestigate the mediating role of sensitivity to stress associated with ex-
perience of neglect experiences and negative reactions in social media
and social media addiction in the relationship between FoMO and SMA.
Considering previous literature, we hypothesize that FoMO might be
positively associated with emotional symptoms in adolescents, both
directly and indirectly. Based on the model we want to test here, we
expected that teens with high FoMO levels might show a higher sen-
sitivity to stress associated with neglect experiences and negative re-
actions by online peers on social media. We also hypothesize that those
individuals reporting higher sensitivity to stress associated with neglect
experiences and negative reactions by online peers may be at increased
risk for increases the SMA, and, indirectly, might be more prone to
suffer for heightened emotional symptoms.
M.A. Fabris, et al.
Fig. 1. Diagram of the mediation model with estimated path coefficients.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The sample consisted of 472 adolescents (50% males, mean age
(SD) = 13.50 (1.87)) with ages ranging from 11 to 19 attending 5
middle schools located in Northern Italy. School principals and teachers
provided authorization for the participation of each class taking part in
the study. Prior to data collection, student consent for participation, as
well as parental consent, was obtained. Participants were informed of
the nature and objectives of the study, in compliance with the ethical
code of the Italian Association for Psychology (AIP). The research was
approved by the university institutional review board (n. 182567).
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Fear of missing out
We used an adaptation to Italian of the FoMO scale (Przybylski
et al., 2013). The FoMO scale consists of 10 items in the form of
statements about fears, worries, and anxiety adolescents may have in
relation to being out of touch with events, experiences, and conversa-
tions involving peers in their immediate social circle. The following are
some sample items: “I fear others have more rewarding experiences
than me,” “I get anxious when I don't know what my friends are up to,”
and “It bothers me when I miss an opportunity to meet up with friends.”
A total score can be obtained by summing the items’ scores, with higher
total scores indicating higher FoMO.
2.2.2. Sensitivity to stress associated with neglect and negative reactions by
online peers
We administered a newly devised instrument assessing two aspects
of adolescents’ experience on social media, namely their self-reported
sensitivity to stress associated with experiences of neglect by other
users (SS-N, 4 items, “ I would feel stressed if my posts did not receive
comments,” “ I would feel stressed if my pictures and videos did not
receive comments,” “I would feel stressed if my posts did not receive
Likes,” “I would feel stressed if my pictures and videos did not receive
Likes”), and negative reactions by other users (SS-NeR, 4 items, “I
would feel stressed if my posts received negative comments,” “I feel
would feel stressed if my pictures or videos received negative com-
ments,” “I would feel stressed if I got kicked out from social media
groups”, “I would feel stressed if I lost friends/followers on social
media”). Items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = disagree completely,
5 = completely agree). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a
two-dimensional structure of the scale: χ2 (14) = 30.590, p < 0.001;
CFI = 0.996; RMSEA = 0.048 (prob. of RMSEA < 0.05 = 0.53).
2.2.3. Social media addiction
We administered the Italian Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale
(BSMAS, Andreassen, Torsheim, Brunborg, & Pallesen, 2012, Monacis,
Palo, Griffiths, & Sinatra, 2016). The BSMAS is comprised of six items
3
Addictive Behaviors 106 (2020) 106364
assessing the following components: salience, tolerance, mood mod-
ification, relapse, withdrawal symptoms, and conflict. The items, are
rated on a 5-point scale (1 = very rarely, 5 = very often), and can be
summed to obtain a total score.
2.2.4. Emotional symptoms
We used the Emotional Symptoms subscale from the Italian
(Marzocchi et al., 2004) version of the Strengths and Difficulties
Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, Meltzer, & Bailey, 1998) to assess stu-
dents’ self-reported perceptions of their own emotional distress. The
SDQ consists of 25 items measuring 5 dimensions: Emotional Symp-
toms, Conduct Problems, Hyperactivity/Inattention, Peer Relationship
Problems, and Prosocial Behavior. All items are rated on a three-point
Likert scale (0-not true to 2-certainly true), and raw scores are used to
compute the five subscale scores; a higher score indicates more diffi-
culties or strengths, depending on the subscale. As regards the Emo-
tional Symptoms, the subscale includes 5 items (e.g., “I am often un-
happy”,4 “I worry a lot,” “I have many fears, I am easily scared”).
2.3. Data analysis
First, we inspect the reliability of administered instruments using
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient. Then, we compute descriptive
statistics (mean, standard deviation for continuous measures, and per-
centage for gender), as well as Pearson’s correlations between all study
measures. Next, we investigate the interplay between FoMO, SS-N, SS-
NeR, and SMA in predicting ES. More specifically, we perform a path
analysis via a set of multiple regression analyses to estimate the path
coefficients shown in Fig. 1. That is, we investigate the following direct
effects: 1) the direct effect of FoMO on SS-N and SS-NeR; 2) the direct
effects of FoMO, SS-N, and SS-NeR on SMA; 3) the direct effects of
FoMO, SS-N, SS-NER, SMA on ES. Additionally, we investigate the
following indirect effects: 1) the separate, simple indirect effects of
FoMO on ES passing through SS-N, SS-NeR, and BSMAS; 2) the serial
indirect effect of FoMO on ES passing through both SS-N and SMA; 3)
the serial indirect effect of FoMO on ES passing through both SS-NeR
and SMA. Direct and indirect effects and relative 95% confidence in-
tervals are estimated using 5000 bootstrap samples. Note that in esti-
mating all path coefficients, we control for gender and age, although
these variables are not represent in Fig. 1 in order to improve read-
ability. Additionally, as suggested by Preacher and Hayes (2008) for
path analysis models including parallel multiple mediators, we let the
residual terms for the SS-N and SS-NeR variables to covary, but this
path is not shown in Fig. 1. In this context, fixing the covariance be-
tween SS-N and SS-NeR to zero is theoretically unreasonable as it would
imply that the covariance existing between these mediators should only
explained by their common predictors.
Because we test a saturated model which is expected to yield perfect
fit, model fit was evaluated on the trimmed model (i.e., the model in
which non-significant paths for mail effects were constrained to zero).
In establishing model fit, we use the comparative fit (CFI), the Tucker-
M.A. Fabris, et al. Addictive Behaviors 106 (2020) 106364

Table 1
Correlation between study measures (N = 472).
M/% SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Age 13.49 1.87

2 Gender (Male = 1, Female = 0) 49.80% – 0.07
3 SS – N 7.69 3.70 −0.03 -0.07 0.80
4 SS – NeR 9.98 4.53 −0.09* -0.09* 0.39** 0.70
5 FoMO 22.56 7.09 0.03 -0.17** 0.31** 0.26** 0.81 .
6 SMA 12.72 4.74 0.07 -0.12** 0.33** 0.14** 0.48** 0.73
7 ES 8.73 2.55 0.07 -0.33** 0.11* 0.16** 0.40** 0.32** 0.70

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01. Values in bold represent Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients. FoMO: Fear of Missing Out; SS-N: Sensitivity to Stress associated with
Neglect; SS-NeR: Sensitivity to Stress associated with Negative Reactions; SMA: Social Media Addiction.

Lewis (TLI) and the root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) 4. Discussion
indexes. We consider values of CFI > 0.95, TLI > 0.95 and
RMSEA < 0.05 as indication of good model fit, while CFI and TLI The main aim of the present study was to investigate the interplay
values ≤ 0.95 but > 0.90, and RMSEA ≥ 0.05 but < 0.08, indicate between FoMO and social media addiction in explaining individual
acceptable fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Analyses were performed using differences in emotional symptoms in adolescence. We followed the
MPLUS, version 8. hypothesis that FoMO could be associated with increased emotional
symptoms in adolescents by route of heightened risk of social media
3. Results addiction. Further, we looked at possible intervening factors, exploring
the hypothesis that a heightened sensitivity to stress associated with
Results of reliability analyses, descriptive statistics, and correlations negative experiences on social media when interacting with online
among study measures are shown in Table 1. All administered instru- peers (Beyens et al., 2016) might contribute to explain the links be-
ments showed adequate reliability (α ≥ 0.70). As regards correlations, tween FoMO, increased risk for social media addiction, and negative
a weak negative correlation emerged between age and SS-NeR on social emotionality in adolescence.
media. In turn, being male was negatively correlated with SS-NeR, In keeping with previous findings (Baker et al., 2016; Milyavskaya
FoMO, SMA, and ES. SS-N and SS-NeR showed a positive moderate et al., 2018), our study supported the relationship between FoMO and
inter-correlation and a similar pattern of positive correlations with decreased emotional well-being in adolescents. Next, we found FoMO
FoMO, SMA, and ES. Finally, FoMO was positively correlated with SMA was associated with higher sensitivity to stress associated with experi-
and ES, which also showed a positive inter-correlation. ences of to neglect and negative reactions by online peers on social
Next, regression-based path analysis showed the existence of many media. Several theorists have pointed out that subjects with high levels
direct and indirect effects. Results of the estimation of direct path of FoMO tend to have higher group membership needs and/or popu-
coefficients for the saturated model are shown in Fig. 1, while estimated larity, and that FoMO mediates the relationship between these needs
indirect effects are reported in Table 2. FoMO emerged as a direct po- and distress (Beyens et al., 2016; Oberst et al., 2017). As such, it rea-
sitive predictor of SS-N and SS-NeR, SMA, and ES. SS-N, but not SS-NeR, sonable to expect that FoMO might increase perceptions of stress due to
emerged as a positive predictor of SMA, which in turn showed a direct neglect or negative reactions on social media (Beyens et al., 2016), and
effect on ES. As regards indirect effects linking FoMO to ES, findings overall negative emotionality (Valkerbung et al., 2006). Further, in line
supported the existence of both a simple mediation effect passing with previous literature (Al-Menayes, 2016; Blackwell et al., 2017; Dhir
through SMA and a serial mediation effect passing through both S-N et al., 2018; Franchina et al., 2018), our findings support the link be-
and SMA (see Table 2). Concerning control variables, age showed a tween FoMO and SMA, and identifies in an heightened sensitivity to
negative effect on SS-NeR (B = −0.24, 95% CI [−0.44, −0.04], stress associated with neglect (but not with negative reactions) by on-
β = −0.10), while gender (being male) showed a negative effect on ES line peers a possible factor mediating their relationship. Thus, FoMO
(B = -1.34, 95% CI [−1.78, −0.97], β = −0.27). No remaining sig- appears to fuel adolescents’ stress related to not receiving feedback
nificant effects emerged. from their immediate online social network, which in turn appears to
Finally, we examined the fit of the model after removing non-sig- trigger addiction to social media platforms. This dynamic seems to
nificant paths for main effects. More specifically, we trimmed the tested agree with the I-PACE model, originally designed to explain Internet
model by fixing non-significant paths to zero (i.e., dashed lines in addiction, and recently extended to other forms of addiction behavior.
Fig. 1). The trimmed model showed excellent fit (χ2 (2) = 3.090, Based on this complex model, we can interpret FoMO as a specific need
p = .213; CFI = 0.997; TLI = 0.997; RMSEA = 0.034). and a predisposing characteristic of addiction in adolescents, which
activates a state of distress when the subject assesses the situation as
Table 2 unsatisfactory for his/her own needs. The excessive use of social media
Fear of missing out predicting emotional symptoms: Estimates and confidence and the development of SMA can therefore be seen as affective and
interval of indirect effects via fear of neglect and negative reactions, and social cognitive responses aimed at restoring gratification or compensation
media addiction. with respect to perceived needs. In accordance with Wegmann and
Route of indirect effects B β LLCI ULCI
Brand (2019), FoMO can influence the development of SMA through
two hypothetical mechanisms: the first based on a fear-driven / com-
FoMO → SS-N → ES −0.009 −0.025 −0.020 0.002 pensation-seeking hypothesis and the second based on a reward-driven
FoMO → SS-NeR → ES 0.007 0.020 −0.001 0.016 hypothesis. In the fear-driven / compensation-seeking hypothesis,
FoMO → SMA → ES 0.025 0.070 0.010 0.040
FoMO → SS-N → SMA → ES 0.004 0.012 0.001 0.008
FoMO activates typical SMA behaviors by determining negative re-
FoMO → SS-NeR → SMA → ES −0.001 −0.002 −0.002 0.001 inforcement aimed at reducing the fear of isolation and FoMO and the
heightened stress deriving from them. In the reward-driven hypothesis,
Note. LLCI: Lower Level Confidence Interval; ULCI: Upper Level Confidence the use of social media would generate positive reinforcement leading
Interval. FoMO: Fear of Missing Out; SS-N: Sensitivity to Stress associated with to an increase in gratification and the satisfaction of social needs.
Neglect; SS-NeR: Sensitivity to Stress associated with Negative Reactions; SMA: In this view, spending increasing amount of time on social media is
Social Media Addiction.

4
M.A. Fabris, et al.
likely to represent a cognitive-emotional regulation strategy aimed at
managing the stress associated with failing to fulfill psychological needs
of belonging and popularity among online peers (e.g., failing to engage
online peers), which in turn are fueled by high FoMO levels. However,
such strategy can be dysfunctional, leading to addictive social media
behaviors, and ultimately, an increase in emotional symptoms.
A novel, interesting finding emerging from the present study relates
to lack of association between sensitivity to stress associated with ne-
gative reactions by online peers (e.g., receiving negative comments, or
being kicked out of a social media group), social media addiction, and
emotional symptoms, when controlling for sensitivity to stress related
to neglect by online peers (e.g., not receiving Likes, or comments).
Although no previous findings existing investigating these components
adolescents’ social media experience as separate facets, as well as their
relations with psychological outcomes, our findings appear to be in line
with reported by Zell and Moeller (2018) concerning the differential
impact of receiving Likes, and experiencing negative comments to their
posts, on the perception of online users about the importance of their
posts. Among young adult social media users, not receiving Likes turned
out to be more impactful than receiving either negative or positive
comments in establishing the importance of their online posting ac-
tivity; it is reasonable to expect, a similar differential effect might also
apply to adolescent social media users rating their social status based on
social media metrics.
In spite of the theoretical interpretability, and the empirical support
existing for the relationship between social media addiction and emo-
tional symptoms (Bányai et al., 2017; Dhir et al., 2018; Kircaburun
et al., 2019; Pontes, 2017; Raudsepp & Kais, 2019; Settanni et al., 2018;
Worsley et al., 2018), it is important to note that causal relationship
between the two constructs is not entirely clear and it is possible that
they present a two-way relationship. However, our study being cross-
sectional in nature represents an important limitation, compromising
our ability to provide a precise answer on the direction of causality of
both this and other relationships emerging from our findings, that,
within the framework of the model presented here, should be further
investigated using longitudinal approaches.
5. Conclusion
Stress related to life on social media, and in particular the fear of
being neglected by one's online social network, seems to fuel depen-
dence on social media platforms. This type of stress would therefore
seem to be reflected in a problematic or excessive use of social media,
possibly aimed at maintaining or increasing one's online relationships,
satisfying adolescents' need to belong to a peer group. However, this
appears to be a dysfunctional strategy, as it may lead to a worsening in
adolescents’ psychological well-being.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or
animals performed by any of the authors.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, au-
thorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
5
Addictive Behaviors 106 (2020) 106364
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106364.
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