Mekflu Merged

1
MS2220 Basic Fluid Mechanics

Week - 1
Introduction
• Sub-Topics:
1. Characteristics of Fluids
2. Dimensions and Units
3. Analysis of Fluid Behaviour
4. Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
5. Ideal Gas Law
6. Viscosity
7. Compressibility of Fluids
8. Vapor Pressure
9. Surface Tension
• After completing this week chapter, you should be able to:
1. Determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities
2. Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior
3. Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information
4. Explain effects of fluid compressibility
5. Use of the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension
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1.1 Definition of Fluid
• Definition: Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted on by a
shearing stress of any magnitude.
• Shearing stress is created whenever a tangential force acts on a surface.
Solid deforms or bends Fluid continuously deforms
• Comprise of:
• Liquid phase of the physical forms (e.g.: oil, water).
• Gas (or vapor) phase of the physical forms (e.g.: air, oxygen, steam).
4
Phases of Substance H2O
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/607-solids-liquids-and-gases https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/climate-system/great-ocean-
currents/water-a-unique-molecule/
Solid has densely spaced Liquid has further apart spaced Gases have even greater molecular
molecules with large molecules, the intermolecular spacing and freedom of motion with
intermolecular cohesive force forces are smaller than for negligible cohesive intermolecular
allowed to maintain its shape solids, and the molecules have forces and as a consequence are easily
more freedom of movement. deformed.
Furthermore, as shown in the
figure (Right), colder fluid with the
same phase has denser molecule. 5
Other Fluids
• Toothpaste, wet cement, slurries, tar, putty, etc., are not easily classified.
• They will behave as solid if the applied shearing stress is small, but if the
stress exceeds some critical value, the substance will flow and behave as
fluid.
• The study of these materials, called Rheology, will not be covered in this
classical fluid mechanics.
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Liquid Cats 
7
https://www.sadanduseless.com/liquid-kitties-gallery/
Liquid Cats - with overflow 
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https://www.sadanduseless.com/liquid-kitties-gallery/
• Qualitative aspect
• Quantitative aspect
9
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Characteristics of Fluids
Qualitative Quantitative
• Qualitative aspect serves to identify the nature, • Quantitative aspect provides a
or type, of the characteristics of fluids. numerical measure of the
• Can be described in terms of certain primary characteristics.
quantities (also referred as basic dimensions), • It requires both: a number
or secondary quantities. and a standard (unit).
• Primary quantities: mass (M), Length (L), and • e.g.: 100 mm, 30 seconds, 50
Time (T); with notations of MLT are what we call kg, 25 K, etc.
as basic dimensions. Alternatively, we can also
use force (F), L and T; or FLT.
• Secondary quantities (Derivation of primary • e.g.: 15 m2, 10 m/s, 1000
quantities): area ≐ L2, velocity ≐ LT-1, density ≐ kg/m3, etc.
ML-3. (≐ means dimension).
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Systems of Dimension
There are three systems of dimension that can be used depending
on the standard:
1. MLT system: Mass [M], Length [L], time [T], (and Temperature
[θ])
2. FLT system: Force [F], Length [L], time [T], (and Temperature
[θ])
3. FMLTθ system: Force [F], Mass [M], Length [L], time [T], and
Temperature [θ]
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Dimensions in FLT and MLT Systems of Dimension
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Homogeneousity of Equations
All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous– that is:
• The dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right
side.
• All additive separate terms have the same dimensions.
General homogeneous equation: valid in any system of units.
For example: consider a linear velocity equation as follows:
The dimension of this equation is,

Right and left sides have same dimensions
Restricted homogeneous equation: restricted to a particular system of units.

For example: the distance equation for a free-falling body is: d = 16.1 t2.
It seems that the units of the left and right side are not the same, which is not possible. However,
with the knowledge that, d = g.t2/2 and in this case g = 32.2 ft/s2, we now know that this equation
is dimensionally restricted homogeneous. Thus,
Valid only for the system of Read Example 1.1
units using feet and seconds 13
1.2.1 Systems of Units
• It is generally necessary to have a quantitative measure of any
given quantity.
• If we measure the length of a pencil and say that it is 10 units wide,
this statement has no meaning unless the unit of length is defined, for
example 10 mm or 10 cm.
• If we indicate that the unit of length is a meter, and define the
meter as some standard length, a unit system for length has been
established.
• Unit system has been standardized. There are several standards
that can be used, however in this class we only discuss only 3
standards namely,
1. British Gravitational System: B.G. BG system and SI system are widely
used in engineering
2. International System: S.I.
3. English Engineering: E.E.
14
Comparison of Systems of Unit Standards
S.I. B.G. E.E
Length m ft ft
Time second (s) second (s) second (s)
Mass kg slug (1 slug = 1 lb(f).s2/ft) lbm
Temperature K or ˚C (K = oC + 273.15) oF or oR (oR = oF + 459.67) oR
Force N = kg/m.s2 lb = m (slugs) × g (ft / sec2) lb (lbf)
The earth’s standard gravity in B.G. is: g = 32.174 ft/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2. In S.I.: g =9.807 m/s2, or 9.81 m/s2.
Further information on SI Units: https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/
Redefining the SI Unit (http://www.npl.co.uk/si-units/redefining-the-si-units/):

In November 2018, at the General Conference on Weights and Measures, the global metrology
community agreed a revision to the SI.
The decision means that, for the first time, starting in May 2019, all seven of the base units
have been defined in terms of constants of nature – such as the speed of light, the Planck
constant and the Avogadro constant. Using seven defining constants as the basis for the SI will
mean that the definitions of all the base units will stay stable into the future. 15
Aliases
• Force: F = m.a = (kg)(m/s2) = N = newton.
• Pressure: p = F/A = (kg)(m/s2)/(m2) =(kg/m.s2) = N/m2 = Pa =
pascal.
• Work: W = F. x = (kg)(m/s2)(m) = (kg.m2/s2) = N.m = J =joule.
• Power: P = W/ t = F. x/ t = m.a. x/ t =(kg)(m/s2)(m)/(s) =
N.m/s = J/s = W = watt.
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Prefixes for SI Units
Example: kN = kilonewtons = 103 N

17
Further Prefixes for SI Units
Proposed:
Further Prefixes:
1027 = X
1030 = W
1033 = V
.
.
(alphabets in
reverse order)
Likewise:
10-27 = x
10-30 = w
10-33 = v
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/prefixes.html
18
Conversion Tables (available at the end of the textbook)
19
Table of Conversion in Appendix E
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22
23
24
25
26
27
• Use of consistent units is very important. Read below on when
NASA teams mixed up units causing the Mars Climate Orbiter
plunged to the surface of Mars in 1999:
Try Example 1.2 on unit conversion

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1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behaviors
Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily includes
statement of the basic laws governing the fluid motion. Which are:
Newton’s laws of motion,
Conservation of mass, and
The first and second laws of thermodynamics.
Study of Fluid Mechanics:

Fluid statics: fluid is at rest
Fluid dynamics: fluid is in motion
Now: study the fluid properties first.

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1.4 Fluid Properties: Density, Specific Weight, Specific Gravity
Properties: Density Specific Weight Specific Gravity
Definition: Mass per unit volume. Weight per unit Ratio of the density of the fluid to the
volume density of water at some specified
temperature (usually at 4 oC or 39.2 oF)
Symbol: ρ (rho) γ (gamma) SG

Formula: ρ = m/V γ = ρg 𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌
𝜌 @ °
ρ H2O , 4oC ＝ 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3

S.I. Unit: kg/m3 N/m3 -
B.G. Unit: slugs/ft3 lb/ft3 -
Other Remarks: Specific volume is the Values of ρ and γ -
volume per unit mass, are given in Tables
υ = 1/ρ (m3/kg) 1.5, 1.6, B.1 and B.2. 32
Density of water
33
Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids, in BG and SI Units
34
Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gasses, in BG and SI Units
35
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37
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1.5 Ideal Gas Law
• Equation of state for ideal/perfect gas:
p = ρRT
• The ideal gas equation of state is a model (approximation) that relates density
to pressure and temperature for many gases under normal conditions when the
gasses are not approaching liquefaction.
• Important Notes:
• The pressure in the ideal gas law must be expressed as an absolute pressure
which is measured relative to absolute zero pressure.
• Absolute pressure is measured at sea-level, with standard value of
atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi (abs) or 101.33 kPa (abs).
• In engineering we measure pressure as gauge pressure. Thus,
• The temperature in the ideal gas law must also be expressed as an absolute
temperature (in K or oR).
• The values of gas constant, R, can be found in Tables 1.7 and 1.8.
Try Example 1.3 on using Ideal Gas Law and unit conversion 41
42
1.6 Viscosity
• The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the
“heaviness” of a fluid.
• It is clear, however, that these properties are not sufficient to
uniquely characterize how fluids behave, since two fluids can have
approximately the same value of density but behave quite
differently when flowing.
• There is apparently some additional property that is needed to describe
the “fluidity” of the fluid: viscosity.
43
Solid and Fluid under Shear Force
Consider a “sandwiched” plate, with a solid in the If the middle part is replaced with a fluid such as
middle, water,
• Bottom plate is rigid fixed, upper plate is • When the force P is applied to the upper
free to move with a solid material in the plate, it will move continuously with a
middle. velocity U.
• Force P, loaded at the top plate, result in • The fluid “sticks” to the solid boundaries
small displacement, a. Then stop. (referred to as the no-slip conditions).
• Vertical line AB rotated through the small • The fluid between the two plates moves with
angle, , to the new position AB’. velocity u = u(y) that would be assumed to
• The force P = 𝜏. 𝐴. vary linearly, u = Uy/b. In such case, the
velocity gradient is du/dy ＝ U/b.
44
• In a small-time increment, δt, an imaginary vertical line AB
would rotate through an angle, δβ , so that
• δβ ≈ tan δβ ＝ δa / b
• Since δa ＝ U δt it follows that δβ= U δt / b
• In this case, δβ ＝ δβ(P, t)
𝛿𝛽 𝑈 𝑑𝑢
• Defining the rate of shearing strain as 𝛾̇ = lim → 𝛿𝑡
= =
𝑏 𝑑𝑦
• If the shearing stress is increased by P, the rate of shearing
strain is also increased proportionally: 𝜏 ∝ 𝛾̇ or 𝜏 ∝ 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦
• For common fluids such as water, oil, gasoline, and air, the
shearing stress and rate of shearing strain can be related
with a relationship
New constant added to the equation, known as absolute viscosity,

dynamic viscosity or simply: viscosity 45
Shear Stress ( ), Rate of Shearing Strain ( ), and Viscosity ( )
• The constant of proportionality is  and is called the

absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or simply the
viscosity of the fluid.
• The viscosity depends on the particular fluid, and for a
particular fluid the viscosity is also dependent on
temperature.
• The dimension of μ : FT/L2 or M/LT.
• The unit of μ:
• In B.G.: lbf-s/ft2 or slug/(ft-s)
• In S.I.: kg/(m-s) or N-s/m2 or Pa -s
• In CGS: poise (P) = dyne.s/cm2
• See Tables 1.5-1.8, Tables B.1-B.4, and Figures B.1 and
1.8 for the values of dynamic viscosity for several
liquids and gasses.
46
Viscosity of Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids for which the shearing stress is
linearly related to the rate of shearing
strain are designated as Newtonian fluids.
• Most common fluids such as water, air, and
gasoline are Newtonian fluids under normal
conditions.
Fluids for which the shearing stress is not

linearly related to the rate of shearing
strain are designated as non-Newtonian
fluids.
1. Shear thinning fluids.
2. Shear thickening fluids.
3. Bingham plastic fluids.
The slope is called the apparent viscosity, μap.

47
Examples of Non-Newtonian Fluids
Type of Non- Shear thinning fluids Shear thickening Bingham plastic
Newtonian fluids
Fluid:
Also known as pseudo- Also known as Neither a fluid nor a
plastic fluid. dilatant fluid. solid
The viscosity (slope) The viscosity
decreases with increases with
increasing shear rate increasing shear rate
The harder the fluid is The harder the fluid Can withstand a finite
sheared, the less viscous is sheared, the more shear stress without
it becomes viscous it becomes motion, but once the
yield stress is exceeded
it flows like a fluid
Examples Many colloidal Water-corn starch Toothpaste and

suspensions and polymer mixture (öobleck), mayonnaise
solutions, such as Latex gravy, water-sand
paint (does not drip on the mixture at the beach,
brush but flows smoothly (quick-sand).
when painted on a wall).
Also: ketchup, shaving
cream, whipped cream,
blood, nail polish, syrup,
http://www.onepotscience.com/quicksands- 48
quicksand, toothpaste. science-behind-the-scenes/
Examples of Non-Newtonian Fluid:
Shear thickening fluids: The harder the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes
At low shear, non-Newtonian fluid have the same behaviour as

Newtonian fluid. However, at higher shear rate the behaviour is
completely different as shown in the figures above.
49
Viscosity vs Temperature for Liquids
• For liquids, an increase in temperature causes a
decrease in viscosity.
• The liquid molecules are closely spaced, with
strong cohesive forces between molecules,
and the resistance to relative motion between
adjacent layers is related to these
intermolecular forces.
 As the temperature increases, the cohesive forces are
reduced with a corresponding reduction in resistance to
motion. Since viscosity is an index of this resistance, it
follows that viscosity is reduced by an increase in
temperature.
• Effect of temperature to viscosity for liquid
phase is described by,
The Andrade’s equation μ＝ D eB/T
D and B are constants, and T is the absolute temperature
50
Viscosity vs Temperature for Gases
• For gases, an increase in temperature causes an
increase in viscosity.
• In gases, the molecules are widely spaced and
intermolecular force negligible.
• The resistance to relative motion mainly
arises due to the exchange of momentum of
gas molecules between adjacent layers.
 Thus, as the temperature increases, the random
molecular activity increases with a corresponding
increase in viscosity.
• Effect of temperature to viscosity for gas phase
is described by,
The Sutherland equation μ＝ CT3/2 / (T+S)
C and S are empirical constants, and T is the absolute
temperature
Try Examples 1.4 and 1.5 on viscosity and shear stress 51
Kinematic Viscosity
Symbol : ν (nu)
Formula : ν = μ/
Dimensions : L2/T.
Unit :
B.G. system - ft2/s
S.I. system - m2/s.
CGS system - cm2/s, or called a stoke, abbreviated as: St.
See Tables 1.5-1.8 (for some common fluids), Tables B.1-B.4 (for
water and air), and Figures B.1 and B.2 (for variety of fluids as
function of temperature) for values of Kinematic Viscosity.
52
Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosities of Several Liquids and Gasses as a Function of Temperature
Figure B.1 Figure B.2
53
Example 1.5 Newtonian Fluid Shear Stress – Munson - Problem
The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two sides,
parallel plates is given by the equation
where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has viscosity of 0.04 lb·s/ft2.
When V = 2 ft/s and h = 0.2 in, determine:
(a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and
(b) the shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through
the centerline (mid-plane).
54
Example 1.5 Newtonian Fluid Shear Stress – Munson - Solution
Solution: 10
Assumptions: steady flow, constant properties (viscosity) Sketch of the system: 10
Velocity distribution:
b.
Therefore, the shear stress is: a.
du 3Vy 10+20
t =  = - 2
dy h
du 3Vy
a. t bottom wall =  = - 2 = 14.4lb / ft 2 25 Thou shalt
dy h not leaveth
y=-h
blanks on
du 3Vy the examth!
b. t midplane =  = - 2 =0 25
dy h y=0
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1.7 Compressibility of Fluids:
1.7.1 Bulk Modulus, Ev
How easily can the volume (thus the density) of a given mass of fluid be
changed when there is a change of pressure? How compressible is the
fluid?
A property, bulk modulus Ev, is used to characterize compressibility of a
fluid:
The bulk modulus has dimensions of pressure: FL-2: psi or Pa.

Large values of Ev mean the fluid is relatively incompressible (need large
value of dp even to get small value of dV) such as for liquids.
Liquids are usually considered to be incompressible, whereas gases are
generally considered compressible.
See Tables 1.5-1.6 for the values of Ev for several common liquids.
57
1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases
When gases are compressed or expanded, the relationship between
pressure and density depends on the nature of the process.
𝑝
For isothermal process 𝜌
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Ev = p
𝑝
For isentropic process = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Ev = k.p
𝜌
Where k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure, cp, to the
specific heat at constant volume, cv. Values of k can be found in Tables
1.7-1.8 for some common gasses and Tables B.3-B.4 for Air.
Gas constant, R = cp – cv for ideal gasses.
Try Example 1.6 on isentropic compression of a gas 58
1.7.3 Speed of Sound
• Another important consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that
disturbances introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity.
• For example, if a fluid is flowing in a pipe and a valve at the outlet is suddenly closed, the effect of the
valve closure is not felt instantaneously upstream. It takes a finite time for the increased pressure
created by the valve closure to propagate to an upstream location. The phenomena is called Water-
hammer.
• The velocity at which small disturbances propagate in a fluid is called the acoustic
velocity, or the speed of sound.
• The speed of sound is related to change in pressure and density of the fluid
medium through (see Chapter 11):
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝑣
𝑐= =
𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝑘. 𝑝
For isentropic processes: 𝑐=
𝜌
and, if ideal gas: 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇 Try Example 1.7 on

calculating c and Ma.
• See Tables B.1 until B.4 for values of c. 59
Water Hammer (2.37”)
60
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ydsAIHWVNM
61
1.8 Vapor Pressure
• If liquid in a container is open to atmosphere, evaporation takes place
because some liquid molecules at the surface have sufficient
momentum to overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces and escape
into the atmosphere.
• If a container is closed with small air space left above the surface, and
this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in the
space as a result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping molecules.
• Similarly, when a piston on top of a liquid is moved up, vapor will be
generated between the piston and the surface of liquid (see Figure).
• When an equilibrium condition is reached, the vapor is said to be
saturated and the pressure that the vapor exerts on the liquid surface
is termed the vapor pressure, pv.
• The value of vapor pressure for a particular liquid depends on
temperature.
• The values of pv for water at various temperature can be found in Tables
B.1 and B.2.
• The values of pv for several common liquids at room temperature can be
found in Tables 1.5 and 1.6.
62
Boiling and Cavitation
• Boiling, which is the formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid
mass, is initiated when the absolute pressure in the fluid
reaches the vapor pressure.
• Boiling temperature depends on the pressure of the surrounding
or the altitude above the sea level.
• The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a

flowing fluid, called cavitation, is an important fluid flow
phenomenon usually occur in pumps (water enters a low-
pressure region, it boils into vapor, then it enters a high-pressure
region, then collapse, creating hissing noise).
• See Chapters 3 and 7 for further info.
https://jacpump.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/thermalchgo-017w2.jpg
63
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG
Cavitation in a Valve (3.59”):
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dd6AlyOnfc
64
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1.9 Surface Tension
Water strider Paper clip
Swimming An ant and a water drop
http://science-at-home.org/surface-tension/
https://techblog.ctgclean.com/wp-content/uploads/220px-Surface_tension_March_2009-3.jpg
http://themetapicture.com/surface-tension/
https://imgur.com/gallery/cccTk
66
Surface tension (3:10”):
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMzqiAuOSz0
67
See also: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/cohesion-and-adhesion/v/surface-tension
Surface Tension
• At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between two immiscible liquids,
forces develop in the liquid surface which cause the surface to behave as if it
were a “skin” or “membrane” stretched over the fluid mass.
• Although such a skin is not actually present, this conceptual analogy allows us to
explain several commonly observed phenomena.
• Surface tension: the intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length
along any line in the surface and is designated by the Greek symbol  (lb/ft, or
N/m). Its value depends on temperature (see Figure).
• The values of σ can be found in Tables 1.5-1.6 for liquids and Tables B.1 and
B.2 for water at various temperatures.
The internal pressure of a liquid drop.
• Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop:
The force due to The force due to
=
surface tension pressure difference
Where pi is the internal
pressure and pe is the external
pressure. Note: pi > pe.. Why
the bubble does not explode?
68
Surface Tension of the Liquid Inside a Capillary Tube
Height of liquid in a capillary tube:
• A common phenomenon associated with surface tension is the rise or
fall of a liquid in a capillary tube.
θ is the angle of contact between the fluid
and tube.
For water with clean glass: θ ≈ 0o.
For mercury and glass: θ ≈ 130o.
(non wetting liquid,

such as Hg)
Balance for equilibrium Try Example
1.8 on capillary
Therefore:
The smaller the radius of the tube (R), the larger the value of h. 69
70
1.10 Some Contributors to Fluid Mechanics
You!!!
71
Watch the video on
Archimedes' Eureka:
https://www.youtub
e.com/watch?v=0v86
Yk14rf8
72
You are next!!!
73
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1.11 Some Important Equations of the Chapter
75
Comprehension Questions:
76
The original slides were taken from the slides given by Munson’s book: Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T. H. and Huebsch, W. W., Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2009. It was rewritten by the Assistant Academic: Evan Philander. Then enhanced and finalized by: T. A. Fauzi
Soelaiman for the sole purpose of lecturing of Fluid Mechanics course at the Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering at the Institut Teknologi Bandung starting Semester 2 2018-2019. Since copyright of the material has not been obtained from John Wiley & Sons
and other sources, these slides may not be distributed beyond the classroom. The use of the slides other then in the classroom is strictly prohibited and the
lecturers and the institution should not be responsible if such case occurs.
77
1

Week – 2 (Sub Chapters 2.1-2.7)
Introduction
• Sub-Topics (2.1-2.7):
1. Pressure at a point
2. Basic equation for pressure field
3. Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
4. Standard atmosphere
5. Measurement of pressure
6. Manometry
7. Mechanical and electronic pressure measuring devices
1. Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest.
2. Explain the concept of manometers and apply appropriate equations to
determine pressures.
3. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a plane or curved submerged
surface.
4. Calculate the buoyant force and determine the stability of floating or
submerged objects.
2
• In this Chapter, fluid is either:
• At rest, or
• Moving with no relative motion between adjacent particles.
• Key point: No shear stress in the fluid. The only forces on the
surfaces of the particles are due to pressure only.
3
4
2.1 Pressure at a Point
• Pressure is the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.
• How the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of the plane?
• To answer this question, consider the free-body diagram of a wedge
within a fluid mass:
Assuming:
1. No shearing stress.
2. External forces acting on
the wedge are only due to
the pressure and the Forces in x-direction
weight. are not shown
5
Pressure at Point
The equations of motion (Newton’s second law, F = ma) in the y and z directions are,
with,
Thus,
Because we consider this element as a point,

δx  0, δy  0, δz  0
We can conclude that,

Or in other words, pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
pz = py = ps
independent of direction as long as there is no shear stress is present
(Pascal Law, after Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662, a French mathematician). 6
7
2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field: How does the pressure in a
fluid with no shearing stress vary from point to point?
In order to obtain a basic equation for pressure field in a static
fluid, apply Newton’s second law to a differential fluid mass for the
element as shown in the figure.
For this case, forces acting on the mass of

fluid only consist of:
1. Body Force (due to weight)
For simplicity, the surface forces in the
2. Surface Forces (due to pressure). x –direction are not shown.
Let p be the pressure at the center of the

element. Then the average pressure on the
various faces can be expresed in terms of p
and its derivatives, using Taylor Series
expansion, neglecting higher order.
8
Therefore, the resultant force in the y direction:
For simplicity, the surface forces

Or: in the x –direction are not shown.
Similarly, for the x and z directions, the resultant surface forces are:
The resultant force acting on the element, in vector form, is:
Or:
9
The group terms in parentheses is the pressure gradient in vector form:
Where: Is the gradient or “del” vector operator
Thus, the resultant surface force per unit volume can be expressed as:
Since the z axis is vertical, the weight of the element is:
10
Applied to the fluid element, the Newton’s second law can be written as:
Or:
Or:
Or: This is the general equation of motion for a

fluid in which there are no shearing stresses
(will be used in Section 2.12 later).
11
12
Basic Equation for Pressure Field-Body Force
Body forces only occur due to gravity.
Additionally, volume and gρ are,
Finally the body force is formulated by,
13
Basic Equation for Pressure Field-Surface Force
With assumption that has been stated before, where the only external
force act on the element is pressure,
Pressure at the left face
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦
𝑝 =𝑝+ 𝑦 −𝑦 =𝑝+ − =𝑝−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Pressure at the right face

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦
𝑝 =𝑝+ 𝑦 −𝑦 =𝑝+ =𝑝+
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
The pressure force in y direction
𝜕p dy 𝜕p dy
δFy = p − δxδz − p + δxδz
𝜕y 2 𝜕y 2
𝜕p
=− δxδyδz
𝜕y
14
Using the same derivation as in the previous slide, pressure force in x

and z direction can be formulated. Thus,
The pressure force in x direction
𝜕p dx 𝜕p dx 𝜕p
δFx = p − δyδz − p + δyδz = − δxδyδz
𝜕x 2 𝜕x 2 𝜕x
The pressure force in z direction

𝜕p dz 𝜕p dz
δFz = p − δxδy − p + δxδy
𝜕z 2 𝜕z 2
𝜕p
=− δxδyδz
𝜕z
15
• The net surface forces acting on the element
These are the vector form of

pressure gradient and can be
rewritten as,
• Finally, the surface force of the element is:
16
• Combining both body force and surface force we obtain,
• Further combining equation above with,
• the result become,
This is the general equation of motion

for a fluid in which there are no
shearing stresses
17
18
2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
For a fluid at rest, a = 0, and the Equation of Motion becomes:
=0
In components:
¶p ¶p
- - r g x = 0... x - direction =0
¶x ¶x
gx = 0
¶p ¶p
- - r g y = 0... y - direction gy = 0 =0
¶y ¶y
g z = -g ¶p
¶p = -g
- - r g z = 0... z - direction ¶z
¶z
And thus, the general equation of motion is simplified and becomes:
19
• Therefore, for fluid at rest, pressure varies with elevation as:
• Restrictions:
Static fluid.
Gravity is the only body force.
γ is not necessarily constant.
The z axis is vertical and upward.
• For flowing fluid, see Chapters 3, 6 and 9.
20
2.3.1 Pressure in Incompressible Fluid
• Incompressible fluid is a fluid with constant density. Thus, by
integrating the static fluid equation:
ò dp = -g ò dz
p2 z2
p1 z1
p － p = -γ (z －z ) = -γh
2 1 2 1
p = γh + p
1 2
Where: h = z － z ，h is the depth of fluid

2 1
measured downward from the location of p2.
This type of pressure distribution is called a hydrostatic distribution. 21

Pressure Head in Static Fluid
• The pressure difference between two points in a fluid at rest:
( )
p1 - p2 = g z2 - z1 = g h
• Rearranging equation above,
h (m) is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height

of a column of fluid of specific weight γ required to give a
pressure difference p1 - p2.
22
Pressure Head in Static Fluid
• The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is

given by p = γh + po
The pressure in a
homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest
depends on the depth of
the fluid relative to some
reference plane, and it is
not influenced by the size
or shape of the tank or
container in which the fluid
is held. 23
Transmission of Fluid Pressure
• The required equality of pressure at equal elevations

throughout a system is important for the operation of hydraulic
jacks, lifts, and presses, as well as hydraulic controls on
aircraft and other type of heavy machinery.
• The transmission of fluid

pressure throughout a
stationary fluid is the
principle upon which many
hydraulic devices are based.
Read the Wide World of Fluids on page 45 and Problem 2.17
on the blood pressures at the head and legs of a giraffe. 24
Example 2.1 Pressure-Depth Relationship – Problem
Because of a leak in a buried gasoline storage tank, water has seeped in
to the depth shown in Figure below. The specific gravity of the gasoline
is SG = 0.68.
Determine the pressure at the gasoline-water interface and at the
bottom of the tank. Express the pressure in units of lb/ft2, lb/in2, and as
pressure head in feet of water.
25
Example 2.1 Pressure-Depth Relationship – Munson - Solution
Solution:
10
Assumptions: water and gasoline are Sketch of 10
incompressible fluids with constant density. the system:
Calculate: p1 and p2 with different units.
The pressure at the interface (1) is:
p1 = SG × g H O × h + p0 = ( 0.68 )( 62.4lb / ft 3 )(17 ft )+ p0
10 2
(
= 721+ p0 lb / ft 2 ) po is the pressure at the free surface of the gasoline.
In gage pressure, po = 0 :
10
721lb / ft 2 (Gauge)
10
p1 = 721lb / ft =
2
= 5.01lb / in 2
144in 2 / ft 2
p1 721lb / ft 2
h1 = = = 11.6 ft 10
gH O 62.4lb / ft 3
2 26
Example 2.1 Pressure-Depth Relationship – Munson - Solution
• The pressure at the tank bottom (2):

10
10
10
10
27
2.3.2 Pressure in Compressible Fluid
• For compressible fluids, such as gasses, the value of the specific
weight, , is small. Therefore, for small elevation change, the change
of pressure of gasses ( ) can usually be neglected.
• For large elevation change, the change of must be considered.
• For example: Pressure variation in the ideal gas can be determine by:
Since
• By separating the variables, and then integrating the equation, assuming

constant g and R, we obtain:
(Eq. 2.9)
• Usually, it is safe to assume g is constant. If we need to assume g is not constant,

its variation is shown in Tables C.1 and C.2.
28
Pressure in Compressible Fluid
• To integrate the equation, we need to know the nature of temperature variation

across z direction.
• If temperature is constant or at least approximately remain unchanged,
T = T0 = constant
𝑜
From the figure, the variation of p

if T or are constant is not
significantly different.
Variation of p for
29
constant T and 𝜌
Example 2.2 Incompressible and Isothermal Pressure-Depth Variations
The Empire State Building in New York City, one of the tallest buildings
in the world, rises to a height of approximately 1250 ft.
Estimate the ratio of the pressure at the top of the building to the
pressure at its base, assuming the air to be at a common temperature
of 59°F.
Compare this result with that obtained by assuming the air to be
incompressible with g = 0.0765 lb/ft3 at 14.7 psi (abs).
Answer:
For isothermal conditions: For incompressible conditions:
𝑝 =𝑝 −𝛾 𝑧 −𝑧 or
𝑝 −𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑧 )
= exp
𝑝 𝑅𝑇𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑧 −𝑧
(32.2 ft/s )(1250 ft) = 1−
= exp − 𝑝 𝑝
(1716 ft ⋅ lb/slug ⋅ °R)[(59 + 460)°R] (0.765 lb/ft )(1250 ft)
= 0.956 =1− = 0.955
(14.7 lb/in )(144 in /ft )
Not much difference.
In 8th Edition: uses Burj Dubai skyscraper as the example. 30
https://www.viator.com/tours/New-York-City/Viator-VIP-Empire-State-Building-Statue-of-Liberty-and-9-11-Memorial/d687-3763NYCVIP
31
2.4 Standard Atmosphere
𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑧
= ln = − (Eq. 2.9)
𝑝 𝑝 𝑅 𝑇
• To use Eq. 2.19. we need to measure pressure versus altitude over the specific range for the specific
conditions (temperature, reference pressure), which is not usually available.
• Define a “standard atmosphere”, an idealized representation of middle-altitude, year-round mean conditions
of the earth’s atmosphere that can be used in the design of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, and we can
compare their performance under these standard conditions.
• The U.S. standard atmosphere is shown in Table 2.1 (at sea level) and Figure 2.6 (for different altitudes).
• There are other standards: The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), which is also adopted by ISO as ISO
2533:1975; the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), NRLMSISE-00 by US Naval Research Lab.,
and JB2008 by US Air Force Space Command and Space Environment Technologies (for 120-2000 km altitude).
Standard Atmosphere at Different Altitudes
• The temperature variations in several layers of

atmosphere are represented by a series of linear segments,
Therefore, it is possible to integrate
𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑧
= ln = −
𝑝 𝑝 𝑅 𝑇
to obtain the corresponding pressure variation.
• Example: In the troposphere (< 11 km), the temperature

variation is of the form:
𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑧
where Ta is the temperature at sea level (z = 0) and β is the
lapse rate (the rate of change of temperature with elevation).
Therefore, the equation for pressure with regards to
altitude in the troposphere is:
/ With: 𝛽 = 0.00650 K/m = 0.00357 oR/ft
𝛽𝑧
𝑝=𝑝 1− R = 286.9 J/kg = 1716 ft.lb/slug.oR.
𝑇
Pa, Ta and g are from Table 2.1
• See Tables C.1 and C.2 for values of T, g, p, 𝜌, and 𝜇 at different elevations
(up to 250,000 ft and 80 km).
• See Problems 2.18-2.24 for problems on Standard Atmosphere.
The Standard Atmosphere has been defined as “a hypothetical vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, pressure and density, which, by
international agreement is taken to be representative of the atmosphere for purposes of pressure altimetry calibration, aircraft performance
calculations, aircraft and missile design, etc.”
(Oliver J.E. (1987) Standard atmosphere. In: Climatology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-
30749-4_167)
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-
Temperature-versus-Altitude-Graph-of-
Earths-Atmosphere_fig1_338710842
34
http://www.ambrsoft.com/CalcPhysics/Altitude/altitude.htm
35
Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum Pressures
Several definitions of pressures:

1. Absolute pressure: measured with respect to a vacuum (absolute zero
pressure). Values always +.
2. Gage pressure: measured relative to local atmospheric pressure (+ or -).
3. Vacuum or suction pressure: A negative gage pressure (lower than
atmosphere).
• Example: if p atm = 14.7 psi (abs), then:

10 psi (abs) = - 4.7 psi (gage) = 4.7 psi vacuum.
• 1 atm = 1.0132 bar = 1.013x105 Pa = 1.032x106
dyne/cm2 = 14.696 psi = 29.92 in. Hg = 33.90 ft H2O =
760 mm Hg = 760 Torr
• Unless stated, the value of p in this text can be assumed
as gage pressure.
36
Barometer
• Used to measure atmosphere pressure:
patm ＝ γh + pvapor γh
since: pvapor ＝ 0.000023 lb/in2 @68oF
γ: specific weight of mercury
• The height of a mercury column is converted to 33.9 ft =
406.8 in.
atmosphere pressure by using
𝑝 −𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
• Because vapor pressure is negligibly small,

𝑝 ≈ 𝜌𝑔ℎ
• Why we use mercury? Try to calculate how long is the

column height if we use water instead of mercury.
Assume atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.
29.9 in.
Watch the video on the history of barometer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EkDhlzA-lwI 37
Example 2.3 Barometric Pressure
• A mountain lake has an average temperature of 10 ℃ and a maximum depth of 40

m. The barometric pressure of 598 mm Hg.
• Determine the absolute pressure (in pascals) at the deepest part of the lake .
Answer: The pressure in the lake at any depth, h
p = gh + p 0 p0 is the local barometric expressed in a consistent of units .
P barometric
= 598 mm = 0.598 m
g Hg
g Hg = 133 kN / m 3
𝑝 = (0.598 𝑚)(133 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 ) = 79.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
𝛾 = 9.804 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
From Table B.2, at 10 oC
Then, the absolute pressure at the deepest part of the lake:
p = ( 9.804 kN / m3 )( 40 m )+ 79.5 kN / m2
= 392 kN / m2 + 79.5 kN / m2 = 472 kPa 38

39
2.6 Manometry
• Manometry: A standard technique for measuring pressure involves
the use of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes.
• Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called
manometers.
• The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but
there are many other configurations possible, depending on the
particular application such as:
Piezometer Tube.
U-Tube manometer.
Inclined-Tube manometer.
40
2.6.1 Piezometer Tube
Piezometer tube: a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to a
container in which pressure is measured.
Fundamental equation:
p = p0 + γh. Therefore, at A: pA = p1 = γ1 h1
pA: gage pressure (p0 = 0)
γ1 : the specific weight of the liquid in the container
h1: measured from the meniscus at the upper surface
to point (1)
Piezometer only suitable if :

1. The pressure in the container is greater than atmospheric
pressure
2. The pressure to be measured must be relatively small so the
required height of the column is reasonable.
3. The fluid in the container must be a liquid rather than a gas.
41
https://instrumentationecourse.wordpress.com/press
ure-measurement/
• An example o a piezometer
tube: sphygmomanometer:
the traditional instrument to
measure blood pressure:
42
2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer
This type of manometer can use gage fluid with large
(giving shorter tube) and can measure gas pressure:
• pA + γ1h1 – γ2h2 = patm = 0 (gage)
(try to walk-through the equation)
Therefore: pA = γ2h 2 – γ1h1
• If the container A contains gas, and the pressure is

negligibly small, thus, γ1h1 ≈ 0 and,
pA = γ2h 2
For a given pressure, the column height will depend on

fluid specific weight. 43
Example 2.4 Simple U-Tube Manometer -Problem
A closed tank contains
compressed air and oil (SGoil =
0.90) as is shown in the figure
on the left. A U-tube
manometer using mercury
(SGHg = 13.6) is connected to
the tank as shown. Column
heights are h1 = 36 in., h2 = 6 in.,
and h3 = 9 in.
Determine the pressure
reading (in psi) of the gage.
44
Example 2.4 Simple U-Tube Manometer – Solution
The pressure at level (1) is
As we move from level (2) to the open end, the

pressure must decrease by γHgh3, and at the open
end the pressure is zero. Thus, the manometer
equation can be expressed as
or
45
Example 2.4 Simple U-Tube Manometer – Solution
The value for pair

36 + 6 9
𝑝 = −(0.9)(62.4 lb/ft ) ft + (13.6)(62.4 lb/ft ) f𝑡
12 12
So that
The pressure reading (in psi) of the gage
46
Manometry - Differential U-Tube Manometer
• The U-tube manometer is also widely
used to measure the difference in
pressure between two containers or two
points in a given system.
pA ＋ γ1h1 －γ2h2 － γ3h3＝ pB
The pressure difference is:

pA － pB ＝ γ2h2 ＋ γ3h3 － γ1h1
47
2.6.3 Manometry - Inclined-Tube Manometer
• To measure small pressure pA + γ1h1 – γ2l2 sin θ – γ3h3 = pB
change, an inclined-tube pA – pB = γ2l2 sin θ + γ3h3 – γ1h1
manometer is frequently used.
If pipes A and B contain gas, then γ3h3 ≈ γ1h1 ≈ 0
• One leg of the manometer is
inclined at an angle θ and the
differential reading is
or
measured along the inclined
tube.
Smaller angle
leads to larger
scale for the same
pressure
difference
48
49
2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Devices
• Several limitations of manometers:
• Not well suited for measuring very high pressures and temperatures.
• Not well suited for measuring pressures that are changing rapidly with time.
• To overcome some of these problems, numerous other types of
pressure-measuring instruments have been developed. Most of these
make use of the idea that when a pressure acts on an elastic
structure, the structure will deform, and this deformation can be
related to the magnitude of the pressure.
50
a. Bourdon Pressure Gauge
• Bourdon tube pressure gage uses a hollow, elastic, and curved tube to
measure pressure.
• As the pressure within the tube increases the tube tends to
straighten, and although the deformation is small, it can be
translated into the motion of a pointer on dial.
Watch video on how a Bourdon Gage works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9MJAXhLSv0, https://www.piprocessinstrumentation.com/instrumentation/pressure-

51
and how it is made: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxhNLtP8jpI measurement/article/15563631/selecting-pressure-gauges-new-
advances-on-an-old-technology
b. Aneroid Barometer
• The Aneroid barometer is a
mechanical gauge that is used for
measuring atmospheric pressure.
Why we do not use conventional bourdon
gauge?
• Contains a hollow, closed, elastic
elements which is evacuated so that the
pressure inside the element is near
absolute zero.
• As the external atmospheric pressure
changes, the element deflects, and this
motion can be translated into the
movement of an attached dial.
https://www.sksato.co.jp/modules/shop/product_info.php?products_id=843&language=english
52
c. Bourdon Gage + LVDT
• For many applications in industry:
1. The pressure must be measured with a device
that converts the pressure into an electrical
output (e.g., to be monitored in real-time).
2. Conventional bourdon gauge cannot be used
because it only produces analog data.
• Solved by: Combining linear variable differential

transformer (LVDT) and Bourdon pressure gage.
• How it works:
1. The core of the LVDT is connected to the free end
of the Bourdon.
2. As a pressure is applied, the resulting motion of
the end of the tube moves the core through the
coil
3. LVDT convert motion to voltage.
4. This voltage is a linear function of the pressure
and could be recorded on an oscillograph or
digitized for storage or processing on a computer
53
d. Strain Gage Pressure Transducers
• Strain gage can sense the small strain
induced in the diaphragm and provide
an output voltage proportional to the
pressure.
• Can sense small and large pressures, as
well as static and dynamic pressures.
54
e. Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
• Pressure is received by a crystal which emit charge. Using a charge amplifier, the charge can be
converted to voltage which can be recorder and calibrated to measure the instantaneous
pressure inside an IC engine combustion chamber.
• Along using an optical encoder, then p-𝜃 and p-V diagrams of the combustion in an IC engine can
be plotted.
https://www.kistler.com/en/solutions/research-and-development-testing/automotive-testing/combustion- https://www.kistler.com/files/download/960-846e.pdf?callee=frontend
measurement-analysis-in-research-and-development/combustion-analysis-and-cylinder-pressure-
measurement/
Watch the video on how to install the pressure transducer on an engine: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ikanTZ86tPI
55
56
1

Week – 3 (Sub Chapters 2.8-2.12)
Class Session Introduction
• Sub-Topics (Sub Chapters 2.8-2.12):

• Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
• Pressure Prism for Rectangular Surface
• Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
• Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability
• Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion: Linear & Rotational
1. calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a plane or curved submerged
surface,
2. calculate the buoyant force and discuss the stability of floating or
submerged objects,
3. understand the characteristics of fluid moving with constant acceleration
in a rigid container, and
4. calculate pressure distribution in fluid that moving with constant
acceleration in a rigid container.
2
Plane
3
Introduction to Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
• For a plane surface submerged in fluid at a rest:
1. No shearing stresses are present,
2. pressure acts on all direction,
3. pressure vary linearly with depth (p = ρgh),
4. forces are acting perpendicular to the surface.
• This knowledge is one of the basic principles to
design:
• Tanks/containers Saguling dam located at Simplified force acting on
Citarum River dam surface
• Ships
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saguling_Dam http://www.engineeringarchives.com/les_fm_hydrostatic
• Dams forcesonsubmergedplanesurfaces.html
• Other hydraulic structures

• Supporting structures of tanks, dams, etc.
Note: In actual engineering process, engineers need to

know whether the force due to fluid movement can be
neglected (e.g., if river flow is considerably low) or not.
Example of dam hydrostatic stress analysis

http://www.ijesi.org/papers/Vol(7)i1/Version-5/B0701050920.pdf 4
Introduction to Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
• For a fluid in an open tank:
For the bottom surface, the However, at the tanks-sides,

magnitude of the resultant pressure distributions are not
force is simply FR = p.A and act uniform and form a triangular
on the centroid of bottom pressure distribution.
surfaces. Symbol of fluid surface
contact with
atmosphere
Note:
The centroid of a
surface (c) is the centre
of gravity of a surface.
4
Introduction: General Steps to Calculate the Force on a Surface
1. Specify the Magnitude of the force.

• Using hydrostatic force equation in order to calculate the magnitude of
the force acting on the specified surface.
2. Specify the Direction of the force.
• Force is a vector. Therefore, determining the direction of force is very
important! Line of action is not defined yet in here.
3. Specifying the Line of Action of the force.
• Determining where the resultant force acts on a surface. (The method
is quite similar with force-distribution-problems in Structural Statics-2nd
Semester or in Mechanic of Material-3rd Semester)
4. Use the Newton’s First and Third Laws for further evaluate
force.
6
1st Step: Specifying the Magnitude of the Resultant Force
• First take an element of a plane surface
shown in the figure on the right.
• The hydrostatic force on any element of the
surface acts normal to the surface dF = p.dA =
γh.dA. Thus, overall resultant force is,
FR = p.A = ò A
g h dA = ò A
g y sinq dA
Where h = y.sinq
• For constant g (fluid is incompressible,
and the change of density due to pressure
or temperature can be neglected) and q :
7
1st Step: Specifying Magnitude of Resultant Forces
𝐹 = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑑𝐴
• The integral is the First Moment of the

Area with respect to the x-axis, so we can
write that:
𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦 𝐴
where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A

measured from the x-axis which passes through 0.
• Therefore:
FR = g sinq × yc A = g hc A
Where hc is the vertical distance from the surface to the centroid of the area.
Note that the force FR only depends on 𝛾, ℎ , and A; is independent of θ; and perpendicular to the
surface. 8
2nd Step: Specifying Direction of Resultant Forces
• Since all the differential forces that were

summed to obtain are perpendicular to
the surface, the resultant must also be
perpendicular to the surface.
• Therefore, the Resultant Force, FR is

perpendicular to the surface.
• On this stage, we only specify the

direction, not the line of action of the
force.
9
3rd Step: Specifying the Line Action of Force
• The next step is to determine the location of
resultant force that has been calculated
previously.
• Intuition might suggest that the resultant force
should pass through the centroid of the area, but
this is not actually the case.
• Differentiate between a Center of Pressure (CP)
and a Centroid (c).
This is centroid of a surface (c). It is

the centre of gravity of a surface.
This is a Centre of Pressure (CP). It

is the location where the resultant
force (FR) is acted on the surface.
NOTE THAT: Centroid of surface (c) and Center of Pressure (CP) are DIFFERENT!
3rd Step: Specifying Line Action of Force: y-Coordinate
• After you understand the differentiation between c

and CP, now we need to determine yR and xR (The
location of center of pressure).
• The y coordinate of the resultant force (yR) can be
determined by summation of moments around yR
the x-axis*:
• Since,
FR = g yc sin q A
• Therefore,
∗: 𝐹 . 𝑦 = 𝑦. 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑦. 𝑝. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦. 𝛾. ℎ . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦 𝛾. 𝑦. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑦 . 𝑑𝐴 11
3rd Step: Specifying Line Action of Force: y-Coordinate
• The integral in the numerator is the Second Moment of

the Area (Moment of Inertia), Ix , with respect to an axis
formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface yR
and the free surface (x-axis):
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
• Thus, 𝑦 =
𝑦𝐴
• Using Parallel Axis Theorem:

• Where Ixc is the Second Moment of the Area with respect to an
axis passing through its centroid and parallel to the x-axis.
• Finally we can reformulate yR as:
Conclusion: Since: Ixc/ycA > 0, The
resultant force does not pass through
the centroid, but is always below12 it.
3rd Step: Specifying Line Action of Forces: x-Coordinates
• In the same manner, we can also specify the location of xR, which is,
FR xR = ò A
g sin q × xy dA Or:
Where:
• Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to the x- and y-axes.
• Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area
and formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system. From
the Parallel Axis Theorem: Ixy = Ixyc + Axcyc.
Note that:
• If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis
passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or
y axes, then FR is at x = xc and Ixyc =0. 13
3rd Step: Specifying Line Action of Force: Further Notes
• Therefore, the coordinates of the Resultant Force can be

given as:
• Note: From two equations above that: as yc increases, the

center of pressure moves closer to the centroid of the area.
• Note also: Since yc =hc/sin θ, the distance yc will increase if:
1. The depth of submergence, hc , increases. Or:
2. For a given depth, the area is rotated so that the angle θ
decreases.
E.g.: The hydrostatic force on the right side of the gate acts closer to the
centroid of the gate than the force on the left-hand side since hc is higher. 14
3rd Step: Specifying Line Action of Forces: Centroidal Coordinates and Moments of Inertia
for some common areas.
15
Example 2.6 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Plane Circular Surface
The 4-m-diameter circular gate of figure below is located in the inclined
wall of a large reservoir containing water (g = 9.80 kN/m3). The gate is
mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter.
For a water depth hc= 10 m above the shaft, determine: (a) the magnitude
and location of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the water, and (b)
the moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to open the gate.
16
Solution 2.6 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Plane Circular Surface
a) The magnitude of the force of the water

𝐹 = 𝛾𝐴𝑦 sin 𝜃 = 𝛾ℎ 𝐴
The vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area is 10 m, then:
𝐹 = (9.80 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 )(10 𝑚)(4𝜋 𝑚 ) = 1.23𝑀𝑁
The point (center of pressure) through which FR acts is:

𝐼 𝐼
𝑥 = +𝑥 𝑦 = +𝑦
𝑦𝐴 𝑦𝐴
The area is symmetrical, and the center of pressure must lie along the diameter A-A.
Therefore, for x-direction: xR = 0. 𝜋𝑅
𝐼 =
While for y-direction: 4
𝜋/4 (2𝑚) 10𝑚

𝑦 = + = 0.0866 𝑚 + 11.55 𝑚 = 11.6 𝑚
(10𝑚/ sin 60 °)(4𝜋𝑚 ) sin 60 °
17
Solution 2.6 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Plane Circular Surface
The distance below the shaft to the center of pressure is

yR - yc = 0.0866 m
The force acts through a point along its diameter A-A at a
distance of 0.0866 m below the shaft.
b) Sum of moments about the shaft:
𝑀 =0
The moment (CW) required to open the

gate:
18
Example 2.7 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Plane Triangular Surface
A large fish-holding tank contains seawater (γ = 64.0 lb/ft3) to a
depth of 10 ft as shown in figure below. To repair some damage to
one corner of the tank, a triangular section is replaced with a new
section as illustrated. Determine the magnitude and location of the
force of the seawater on this triangular area.
19
Note: The 8th Ed. Book has different values.
Solution 2.7 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Plane Triangular
Surface
• From Figure 2.18 (d): yc = hc = 9 ft.

• FR = γhc A = (64.0 lb/ ft3)(9 ft)(3x3/2 ft2) = 2590 lb.
The coordinates of the center of pressure (CP)
y-direction x-direction
𝐼 𝐼
𝑦 = +𝑦 𝑥 = +𝑥
𝑦𝐴 𝑦𝐴
(3𝑓𝑡)(3𝑓𝑡) 81 (3𝑓𝑡)(3𝑓𝑡) 81
𝐼 = = 𝑓𝑡 See Figure 2.8 (d) 𝐼 = (3𝑓𝑡) = 𝑓𝑡
36 36 72 72
81 / 36 ft 4 81/72𝑓𝑡
yR = 2
+ 9 ft = 0.0556 ft + 9 ft = 9.0556 ft 𝑥 =
(9𝑓𝑡)(9/2𝑓𝑡 )
+ 0 = 0.0278𝑓𝑡
( 9 ft )( 9 / 2 ft )
The center of pressure is 0.0278 ft to the right of

and 0.0556 ft below the centroid of the area.
20
An Alternative Method for Rectangular Surfaces Only
21
a. Pressure Prism – Force Resultant in Vertical and Rectangular Plate
• Pressure Prism gives a graphical interpretation of the pressure and force of a fluid on a plane
rectangular area, as an alternative analysis.
• For a vertical wall tank, pressure act on the wall will vary linearly with depth. The gage pressure
is equal to 0 at the upper surface and equal to γh at the bottom.
• The pressure distribution shown in Figure a applies across the vertical surface. The three-
dimensional representation of the pressure distribution (a prism) with width b is shown Figure b.
• Magnitude of the resultant force, FR, acting on the rectangular surface then can be represented
by the “volume” of this pressure prism.
where:
• The altitude at each point is the pressure.
• The average pressure is at h/2.
• The base of this “volume” in pressure-area
space is the plane surface of interest.
• Thus,
22
• The Resultant Force must pass through the centriod of the prism. 22
b. Pressure Prism – Force Resultant in Vertical Plate, not reaching the surface
• If the top end of the plane does not
coincide with the fluid surface, we will
obtain a trapezoidal pressure distribution.
• In order to tackle this problem, we can
divide this pressure distribution into a
triangle and a rectangle portions.
• Force resultant will be the sum of both
forces or volumes from rectangular and
triangle portions. Thus,
𝐹 =𝐹 +𝐹
• And the locations of each force,

ℎ +ℎ 2(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑦 = 𝑦 = +ℎ
2 3
Summing moments about A:
𝐹 𝑦 +𝐹 𝑦
𝐹 𝑦 =𝐹 𝑦 +𝐹 𝑦 𝑦 =
𝐹 23
c. Pressure Prism – Force Resultant in Inclined and Rectangular Plate
• For inclined plane

rectangular surfaces,
the pressure prism can
still be developed, and
the cross section of the
prism will generally be
trapezoidal.
d. If the area is not rectangular, then integration would generally be needed to

determine the volume and the centroid. Therefore, it is more convenient to use the
method in the previous section.
24
e. Pressure Prism – Force Resultant: Effect of Atmospheric Pressure
• For case (a), we use atmospheric pressure • For case (b), we include atmospheric pressure in the
as a datum (Gauge pressure). calculation.
• Clearly the effect of the force only due to • At left side of the wall, the force acting on the surface is
hydrostatic pressure. both due to hydrostatic and atmospheric pressure.
• However, at the right side of the wall, an equal force due
to atmospheric pressure is also presence.
• Thus, we conclude that the resultant fluid force on the
surface is that due only to the gage pressure
contribution of the liquid in contact with the surface.
• If the pressure on the right side is not at atmospheric
pressure, then we need to consider the pressure at the
surface at the left side of the wall and the non-
atmospheric pressure at the right side. 25
Example 2.8 Use of the Pressure Prism Concept
• A pressurized contains oil (SG = 0.90) and has a square, 0.6-m by
0.6-m plate bolted to its side, as is illustrated in figure below.
When the pressure gage on the top of the tank reads 50 kPa, what
is the magnitude and location of the resultant force on the
attached plate? The outside of the tank is atmospheric pressure.
Sight glass
26
Solution 2.8 Use of the Pressure Prism Concept
• The resultant force on the plate (having an area A) is due to the

components, F1 and F2 , where F1 and F2 are due to the rectangular
and triangular portions of the pressure distribution, respectively.
Rectangular Portion:
𝐹 = (𝑝 + 𝛾 h1)𝐴
= [50 × 10 N/m + (0.90)(9.81 × 10 N/m )(2 m)](0.36m )
= 24.4 × 10 N
Triangular Portion:
ℎ −h 0.6m
𝐹 = 𝛾( ) A = (0.90)(9.81 × 10 N/m )( )(0.36m )
2 2
= 0.954 × 10 N
27
Solution 2.8 Use of the Pressure Prism Concept
The magnitude of the resultant force, FR, is therefore

𝐹 = F + F = 25.4 × 10 N = 25.4kN
The vertical location of FR can be obtained by summing moments around an

axis through point O:
𝐹 𝑦 = 𝐹 (0.3𝑚) + 𝐹 (0.2𝑚)
(24.4 × 10 𝑁)(0.3𝑚) + (0.954 × 10 𝑁)(0.2𝑚)

𝑦 =
25.4 × 10 𝑁
= 0.296𝑚
Note that the air pressure used in the calculation is gage pressure. Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of
the plate, thus will cancel out.
28
Curved
29
2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
• The previous equations derived for the hydrostatic force
on a plane surface is not applicable for non-plane
surfaces.
• For non-plane surfaces, integrations may be used but
usually the equations are tedious and complex. 𝜃
• For curved surfaces, use the fluid volume enclosed by

the surfaces, and the horizontal and vertical projections
of the curved surfaces,
• From the force body diagram and
• Consider the curved section BC of the open tank. from Statics, the forces must be
• F1 and F2 can be determined from the relationships for concurrent (intersect at a
planar surfaces. common point) and coplanar.
• The weight and acts through the Therefore:
center of gravity (CG) of the mass of fluid contained 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹 2 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝑊
within the volume. 𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹 +𝐹 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
• The force FV and FH represent the components of the
force that the tank exerts on the fluid. • The location of O can be found by
30
taking moments about C or B.
• The Force F1:
Magnitude: F1 = ρ.g.hA.AAB-depth
Forces on Curved Surface Direction: downward to surface AB
Location: in the middle of surface AB (by symmetry).
• The Weight of the blue shaded volume W:
Magnitude: W = 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵𝐶-depth
Direction: downward due to gravity
Location: at CG of surface ABC, and half of the depth. See Table 2.18 for some common
hF2 hA shapes.
• The Force F2:
Magnitude: F2 = ρ.g.(hA+0.5xAC).AAC-depth
Direction: to the right to surface AC.
Location: Take moment about C. Note: hF2 ≠ hA + 2/3. AC from surface, or 1/3.AC from
F2
bottom since there is hydrostatic pressure from surface to point A.
• The Force FH:
Magnitude: FH = F1
Direction: to the left, as the reaction of F1.
Location: Take moment about C and B (or A) to find location of Point O.
• The Force FV:
Magnitude: FV = F1 + W
Direction: upward, as the reaction of F1 and W
Location: Take moment about C and B (or A) to find location of Point O.
• The Resultant Force FR:
Magnitude: 𝐹 = 𝐹 +𝐹
Direction from vertical axis: 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛

Location: From the location of FH and FV calculated above.
31
Example 2.9 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Curved Surface
• The 6-ft-diameter drainage conduit of figure a is half full of water at rest.
• Determine the magnitude and line of action of the resultant force that
the water exerts on a 1-ft length of the curved section BC of the conduit
wall.
32
Example 2.9 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Curved Surface
• The magnitude of F1 is found from the equation Note: hc is the distance from the surface to the
centroid of rectangle surface AC, nothing to do
3
F1 = g hc A = ( 62.4lb / ft 3 )( ft )( 3 ft 2 ) = 281lb with the line of action of the force F1 which can
2 be obtained from a pressure triangle on surface
AC at 1/3 of height from the base at C.
• The weight, W, is
W = g × vol = ( 62.4lb / ft 3 )( 9p / 4 ft 2 )(1 ft ) = 441lb
• Thus,
FH = F1 = 281lb FV =W = 441lb
• The magnitude of the resultant force:
FR = ( FH )2 +( FV )2 = 523 lb
• The angle of the resultant force from the vertical axis:
æF ö æ
-1 281
ö
q = tan çç ÷÷ = tan ç
-1 H
÷ = 32.5
o
è FV ø è 441ø
33
For submerged and floating bodies
- Archimedes Principle
- Stability
34
2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle
Introduction to Buoyancy
• Buoyant Force: The

resultant fluid force
acting on a stationary
body that is completely
submerged in a fluid or
floating so that it is only https://www.myseatime.com/blog/detail/ba
sics-of-ship-stability
https://brainly.com/question/11462599
partially submerged.
• It is an upward vertical
force since the pressure
below the body is
greater than that above
the body.
https://www.texastribune.org/2017/09/07
/new-law-allows-hunting-hogs-hot-air-
balloons-few-balloonists-will-offe/ https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/outd
oor-activities/water-sports/life-jacket1.htm 35
Derivation of Buoyant Force
• Consider a body of
arbitrary shape, having
a volume V, that is
immersed in a fluid.
• Enclose the body in a
parallelepiped (a block)
and draw a free-body
diagram of
parallelepiped with
body removed as
shown in (b).
• The system is the
parallelepiped fluid,
without the body
inside.
36
Derivation of Buoyant Force
• Forces acting on vertical plane of the system:
F1, F2, F3, F4 = Forces exerted on the plane surfaces of the
parallelepiped. Forces in x direction are not drawn.
W = Weight of fluid (shaded in red color: weight of
parallelepiped minus body).
FB = Force of the body exerting on the fluid.
• On the horizontal direction F3 = F4 . Thus, at this
direction the force resultant is zero. Also forces in x
direction.
• On the vertical direction however,
• Assuming fluid has a constant specific gravity:

Where, A is the horizontal area of the upper (or
lower) surface of the parallelepiped.
• Thus,
Which is called the Buoyant Force equation.

• Or:
FB = g V = r gV Note: γ and ρ belong to fluid, but V belongs to body.
37
Archimedes’ Principle
From the equation Buoyant Force,
The direction of the buoyant force of the fluid on the
body as the reaction of the body force on the fluid is
opposite of that shown on the free-body diagram: upward.
we can conclude that,
“For a submerged body, the buoyancy force of the

fluid on the body is equal to the weight of displaced
fluid and is directly vertically upward”.
This result is commonly referred to as Archimedes’

principle in honor of Archimedes (287–212 B.C.), a
Greek mechanician and mathematician who first https://www.britannica.com/biography/Archimedes
expressed the basic ideas associated with hydrostatics.

38
Derivation of Buoyant Force - Location
• The location of the line of action of the buoyant force can
be found by taking a sum of moments of the forces
through a point, such as D:
FB.yc = F2.y1 – F1.y1 – W.y2
• On the substitutions of the forces:
2 1 𝑇
2 1 1 𝑇
V.yc = VT.y1 – (VT – V) y2
. ( )
or:
https://teamuv.org/2014/11/06/419/
• Where V is the displaced volume or volume of body, and
VT is the total volume of parallelepiped: (h2 – h1)A. Center of buoyancy and center of gravity
may or not may be coincided with each other
• Performing the same derivation for xc, we can conclude if the density of the surrounding fluid is not
that the buoyant force (FB) passes through the centroid of constant (greatly vary with depth or has
the displaced volume or called the center of buoyancy. different layers of fluids). 39
Example 2.10 Buoyant Force on a Submerged Object (different than in the book’s version we use)
A spherical buoy has a diameter of 1.5 m, weighs 8.50 kN, and is

anchored to the seafloor with a cable as is shown in Figure a.
Although the buoy normally floats on the surface, at certain times
the water depth increases so that the buoy is completely immersed
as illustrated. For this condition what is the tension of the cable?
40
Example 2.10 Solution
• FB is the buoyant force acting on the buoy, W is the weight of the

buoy, and T is the tension in the cable. From the free body
diagram,
• With γ = 10.1 kN/m3 and V = πd3/6
FB = ( 10.1 ´103 N/m3 ) [(p /6)( 1.5 m)3 ] = 1.785 ´104 N
• The tension in the cable:
41
2.11.2 Stability
Stable Equilibrium:
• When system is displaced, it will
return to its equilibrium position.
Unstable equilibrium:
• When system is displaced (even
slightly), it moves to a new equilibrium
position.
Metastable equilibrium:
• Any slight disturbance causing the system to
deviate from the metastable state does not
result in the system passing into another
state. A sufficiently strong disturbance
(larger than the activation energy),
however, will put the system out of the
metastable state, and the system will pass
into a new state of stable equilibrium.
(Tschoegl, 2000).
42
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thermodynamic_stability_EN.svg
a. Introduction to Stability – Submerged Body
The locations of the lines of action of the FB at c
and W at C.G. determine stability:
• Example of Stable condition: For a submerged
body shown in the right which has C.G. below
the center of buoyancy, c:
• A rotation from its equilibrium position will
create a restoring couple formed by the weight
and the buoyancy force.
• Example of Unstable condition: For a

submerged body shown in the right which has
C.G. above the center of buoyancy, c:
• The resulting couple formed by the weight and
the buoyant force will cause the body to overturn
and move to a new equilibrium position.
• Note:
• For this case, an unstable equilibrium becomes a
stable equilibrium after a displacement is
introduce to the system. 43
b. Introduction to Stability – Floating Body
• For floating body, stability is a bit more complex.
As the body rotates the location of the center of buoyancy may change.
Both cases: C.G. is above c.
As is shown in the figure below, a floating body However, for the relatively tall, slender body shown
such as a barge that rides low in the water can be below, a small rotational displacement can cause the
stable even though the center of gravity lies buoyant force and the weight to form an overturning
above the center of buoyancy. couple.
44
Introduction to Stability – Floating Bodies
• Neglecting the effects of external forces such as wind, current,

etc., we can say that for floating bodies:
• The determination of stability depends on the geometry and weight
distribution of the body.
• Stable object does not necessarily must have its C.G. below center of
buoyancy and vice versa.
• As long as the combination of force resulting in restoring couple, then
the object will be stable. However, if the combination of force resulting
in overturning couple, then the object is unstable.
45
Rigid-Body Motion
46
Introduction to Rigid Body Motion
• In this section we will discuss two types of fluid body motion namely,
• Rigid Body Uniform Motion (Linear)
• Rigid Body Rotation
• Examples of these motions are shown below:
Rigid Body Linear Motion of fluid in a tank due to truck Rigid Body Rotation of fluid in a
movement (after initial sloshing movement dies out). magnetic stirrer
https://epuffer.co.uk/nitecore-magnetic-liquid-mixer-
http://transcourt.com/blog/understanding-why-some-tanker-
nff01.html
trailers-have-baffles-bulkheads-and-others-do-not/
47
Introduction to Rigid Body Motion
• What is rigid body motion in fluid?

• A motion where each individual fluid particles, although they may be in motion, they are not
deforming. v1 v2
v v
Move Move
Fluid Particles Each particle moves at Fluid Particles Each particle moves with
at rest the same speed. Thus, at rest different speed. Thus,
no deformation there is deformation.
Non-Deform Deform
• Because the fluid is not deforming, this means that there are no shear stresses, as in the case
of a static fluid. Therefore, we can apply general equation of motion for fluid at rest for this
rigid motion, which is:
The components
Quick Question: Why γ only
presence in z direction?
Based on rectangular
coordinates with the positive
z axis being vertically upward. 48
2.12.1 Linear Motion
• Consider a liquid in an open container that move with acceleration of a such
as shown in figure (ax = 0).
• Therefore, the pressure gradients become:
a
• The change in pressure between two closely spaced points located at y, z, and y +
dy , z + dz:
49
Linear Movement
𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌𝑎 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
• Combining 𝜕𝑦 with 𝑑𝑝 =
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 +
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌(𝑔 + 𝑎 )
𝜕𝑧
• We obtain that, 𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑎 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌(𝑔 + 𝑎 )𝑑𝑧
• Along a line of constant pressure, dp = 0, and thus,

0 = −𝜌𝑎 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌(𝑔 + 𝑎 )𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑎
=−
𝑑𝑦 𝑔+𝑎
• If ay ≠ 𝟎, the free surface will be inclined.

• All constant pressure lines will be parallel to the
free surface line.
50
Linear Movement
0
𝑑𝑧 𝑎 • If ay = 0, and az ≠ 0, this equation indicates that the free
=− surface will be horizontal.
𝑑𝑦 𝑔+𝑎
• However, the pressure distribution is not only due to
hydrostatic, but also: 𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑧
• This means that the pressure does not only vary with
depth, but also due to additional acceleration produce
from external forces.
 For example: the pressure along the bottom of a
liquid-filled tank which is resting on the floor of an
elevator that is accelerating upward will be
increased over that which exists when the tank is at
rest.
 For a free-falling body, az = -g, the pressure gradients
in all directions are zero.
Quick question: The elevator moving upward, but the
gravity is downward. Why the pressure at the bottom of
the liquid is higher? 51
https://socratic.org/questions/an-elevator-is-moving-down-with-an-acceleration-of-3-36-m-s-2-what-would-be-the-
Example 2.11 Pressure Variation in an acceleration tank
• The cross section for the fuel tank of an experimental vehicle is shown in
figure below. The rectangular tank is vented to the atmosphere, and a
pressure transducer is located in its side as illustrated. During testing of the
vehicle, the tank is subjected to be a constant linear acceleration, ay.
(a) Determine an expression that

relates ay and the pressure (in
lb/ft2) at the transducer for a
fuel with a SG = 0.65.
(b) What is the maximum
acceleration that can occur
before the fuel level drops
below the transducer?
52
Solution 2.11 Pressure Variation in an acceleration tank
𝑑𝑧 𝑎 𝑑𝑧 𝑎
• The slope of the surface, since az = 0: =− =−
𝑑𝑦 𝑔+𝑎 𝑑𝑦 𝑔
• Thus, for some arbitrary ay, the change in depth, z1:

𝑧 𝑎 𝑎
− =− or 𝑧 = 0.75𝑓𝑡
0.75𝑓𝑡 𝑔 𝑔
• The pressure at the transducer is:
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ Where h is the depth of fuel above the transducer. h
𝑎
• Thus, 𝑧 = 0.75𝑓𝑡
𝑔
𝑝 = 0.65 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 0.5𝑓𝑡 − 𝑧
𝑎
𝑝 = 0.65 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 0.5𝑓𝑡 − 0.75𝑓𝑡 𝑎 /𝑔 = 20.3 − 30.4 [psi] Answer A
𝑔
• The limiting value for (ay)max, when z1 = 0.5 ft: From: 𝑧 = 0.75𝑓𝑡
( )
0.5𝑓𝑡 = (0.75𝑓𝑡) or (𝑎 ) = = 2/3(32.2 ft/s2) = 21.5 ft/s2 Answer B
53
2.12.2 Rigid Body Rotation
• Consider a fluid in a tank that rotates with a constant
angular velocity (ω) about an axis.
• After the system reach its steady state, the fluid will rotate
with the tank as a rigid body.
 Acceleration of a fluid particle located at a distance r
from the axis of rotation is equal in magnitude to rω2,
and the direction of the acceleration is toward the
axis of rotation (Knowledge from elementary particle
dynamics).
• Using cylindrical polar coordinates (r, θ, z), the pressure

gradient can be expressed as (Chapter 6):
• The acceleration components are:
54
Rigid Body Rotation
• Using the same method as such in Linear body motion (Eq. 2.2),
𝜕𝑝
= 𝜌𝑟𝜔
𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑝
The components =0
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑝
= −𝛾
𝜕𝑧
• The differential pressure, that is only functions of r and z, is:

On a horizontal plane (dz = 0), it follows that dp/dr = ρω2r,
(greater than 0). Hence, we can say that, because of
centrifugal acceleration, the pressure increases in the
radial direction.
55
Rigid Body Rotation
• Along a line of constant pressure, such as the free surface, dp = 0.

𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌𝑟𝜔 𝑑𝑟 − 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0 and 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑧 𝑟𝜔
=
𝑑𝑟 𝑔
• Integrating this equation, then the surface height is:
𝜔 𝑟 This equation (Eq. 2.32) shows
𝑧= + constant that surfaces of constant
2𝑔
pressure are parabolic w.r.t. r.
• Meanwhile, the pressure distribution in a rotating liquid:
𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌𝑟𝜔 𝑑𝑟 − 𝛾𝑑𝑧
• Integrating this equation, then the result for pressure distribution is:
𝜌𝑟 𝜔
𝑝= − 𝛾𝑧 + constant
2
The constant of integration can be expressed in terms of a
specified pressure at some arbitrary point r0, z0. 56
Rigid Body Rotation – Pressure Distribution
The pressure varies parabolically with

the distance r from the axis of rotation.
𝜌𝑟 𝜔
2
At a fixed radius, the pressure varies

linearly or hydrostatically in the vertical
direction.
𝜌𝑟 𝜔
2
57
Example 2.12 Free Surface Shape of Liquid in a Rotating Tank
• It has been suggested that the angular

velocity, , of a rotating body or shaft
can be measured by attaching an open
cylinder of liquid, as shown in figure on
the right, and measuring with some type
of depth gage the changes in the fluid
level, H-ho, caused by the rotation of
the fluid. Determine the relationship
between this change in fluid level and
the angular velocity.
58
Solution 2.12 Free Surface Shape of Liquid in a Rotating Tank
• The height, h, of the free surface above the tank bottom, from
Eq. 2.32: 𝜔 𝑟 𝜔 𝑟
𝑧= + constant ℎ = +ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔
• The initial volume of fluid in the tank:
𝑉̶ = 𝜋𝑅 𝐻
• The differential element of cylindrical shell is taken at some
arbitrary radius, r, and its volume is,
𝑑𝑉̶ = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ𝑑𝑟
• The total volume: 𝜔 𝑟 𝜋𝜔 𝑅
𝑉̶ = 2𝜋 𝑟 +ℎ 𝑑𝑟 = + 𝜋𝑅 ℎ
2𝑔 4𝑔
• Since the volume of the fluid in the tank must remain constant.
Thus,
𝜋𝜔 𝑅 𝜔 𝑅
𝜋𝑅 𝐻 = + 𝜋𝑅 ℎ or 𝐻 − ℎ = Answer
4𝑔 4𝑔
• Comment: The change in depth could indeed be used to

determine the rotational speed, although the relationship
between the change in depth and speed is not a linear one.
59
Comprehension Questions
60
Important Equations
61
62
1
Chapter 3
Elementary Fluid
Dynamics– The
Bernoulli Equation
Week - 4
Introduction
• Sub-Topics:
1. Newton’s Second Law
2. F = m.a Along a Streamline
3. F = m.a Normal to a Streamline
4. Physical Interpretation and Alternate Forms of Bernoulli Equation
5. Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressures
6. Examples of the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
7. The Energy Line (EL) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
8. Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

1. Discuss the application of Newton’s Second Law to fluid flows,
2. Explain the development, uses, and limitations of the Bernoulli equation,
3. Use the Bernoulli equation (stand-alone or in combination with the continuity
equation) to solve simple flow problems,
4. Apply the concepts of static, stagnation, dynamic and total pressures, and
5. Calculate various flow properties using the energy and hydraulic grade lines.
2
3
3.1 Newton’s Second Law
• As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it may experience an
acceleration or deceleration.
• Newton’s second law of motion:
Force Mass Particle’s

particle acceleration
• Assume: no friction, therefore no shear stress, therefore no viscosity

(inviscid), while other forces (such as due to gravity and pressure difference)
are more dominant.
• For inviscid or frictionless flow, the fluid motion is only governed by p and
g, or:
4
Newton’s Second Law
• Another assumption: Steady flow:

no property changes with time at
a given location in the flow field.
Coordinate System:
• To apply the Newton’s second law rectangular (x, y, z) cylindrical (r, , z)
to a fluid, an appropriate
coordinate system must be
chosen to describe the motion.
• In general, the motion will be 3-D and
unsteady so that three space
coordinates and time must be used.
Most used coordinates in fluid
mechanics are rectangular and
cylindrical coordinates.
5
Newton’s Second Law
• However, notice that each particle slides along its path with lines tangent to the velocity
vectors throughout the flow field are called streamlines.
• The particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t), obtained from the
particle speed V = ds/dt, along the streamline from some convenient origin, and the local
radius of curvature of the streamline, R = R(s), that shape the streamline.
• The streamline can be described by streamline coordinates: , and to allow
simplification of the equations because velocity is always tangent to the streamlines.
We will use streamline

(s-n) coordinates in
this chapter
6
Streamline Coordinates
• If the streamlines are curved, the speed of the particle and its direction of flow
are defined by,
𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑠, 𝑛, 𝑡) 𝑠⃗ = 𝑠⃗(𝑠, 𝑛, 𝑡)
• For a given particle, the value of s changes with time, but the value of n remains
fixed because the particle flows along a streamline defined by n = constant.
• The acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity of the particle:
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑎⃗ = = 𝑎 𝑠⃗ + 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑉 𝑠⃗ + 𝑛 Note: 𝑎 = = = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑅
(Chain rule of differentiation)
Stream wise acceleration: Normal acceleration:
Acceleration along the streamline Acceleration normal to the streamline
• Possible accelerations: Note: As will be discussed in Section

3.6.2, for incompressible flow, the
velocity is inversely proportional
to the streamline spacing.
Therefore, converging flowlines
produce acceleration.
7
F ma
8
F = ma along a Streamline
• Consider the small fluid particle of size of s by n

in the plane of the figure, and y normal to the figure.
Forces are only due to p and g.
• For steady flow, the component of Newton’s second
law along the streamline direction is:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑚 𝑎 = 𝛿𝑚 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝛿𝑉̶ 𝑉
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝑉̶ = Volume = 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑦
𝑉 = Velocity
𝛿𝐹 = sum of the s components of all
the force acting on the particle.
• Valid for compressible and incompressible fluids

(𝜌 may vary along the flow field).
9
One term Taylor-
series expansion
• The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the
streamline direction:
𝛿𝑊 = −𝛿𝑊 sin 𝜃 = −𝛾𝛿𝑉̶ sin 𝜃
• The net pressure force on the particle in the

streamline direction:
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑛𝛿𝑦 − 𝑝 + 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑛𝛿𝑦 = −2𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑛𝛿𝑦 = − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑠
• Combining all forces in streamline direction,
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐹 = −𝛾 sin 𝜃 − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑉
𝛿𝐹 = 𝜌𝛿𝑉̶𝑉
𝜕𝑠
Equation of motion along the

Obtain
streamline direction
10
Physical Interpretation: Or, since:

𝛿𝑧 𝑑𝑧
sin 𝜃 = =
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Physical Interpretation: a combination of particle weight and pressure

gradient along the streamline may cause a change in fluid particle
speed (in streamline direction).
• For fluid static situation, the balance between pressure and gravity
force is such that no change in particle speed is produced (as = 0). Thus,
• Remember the important assumption: inviscid fluid (no viscous force

of )
11
Example 3.1 Pressure Variation along a Streamline
Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the
horizontal streamline A-B in front of the sphere of radius a, as
shown in figure below. From a more advanced theory of flow past a
sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point

A far in front of the sphere (xA = - and VA = V0) to point B on the
sphere (xB = -a and VB = 0).
12
Solution 3.1 Pressure Variation along a Streamline
• The equation of motion along the streamline (because the streamline from
A-B is a straight line, sin = 0), for the inviscid fluid:
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎 = −𝜌𝑉
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• The acceleration term, 𝑉
𝜕𝑠
=𝑉
𝜕𝑥
(Because s is a straight line in x coordinates.)
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑎 3𝑉 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 1+ − = −3𝑉 1+
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
• Therefore, the pressure gradient • The pressure along the streamline (by
along the streamline is: integrating pressure gradient from p = 0
(gage) at x = -∞ to pressure p at location x.
𝜕𝑝 3𝜌𝑎 𝑉 1 + 𝑎 /𝑥
= 𝑎 (𝑎/𝑥)
𝜕𝑠 𝑥 𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉 +
𝑥 2
13
The equation of motion can be rearranged and integrated as follows:
• As,
𝛿𝑧 𝑑𝑧
sin 𝜃 = =
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑠 (along the streamline)
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 = = =𝑉
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑝
Along the streamline the value of n is constant thus*, 𝜕𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑉
−𝛾 − = 𝜌
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
∗: 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝑠 14
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑠
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑉
−𝛾 − = 𝜌
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
Integrate by ds 1
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 + 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0
2
Integrate 𝑑𝑝 1 In general, the density may not be constant,
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 Need to know how density varies with pressure.
Assume g 𝜌 2
constant
• For the special case of incompressible flow (density & specific weight are constant)
BERNOULLI
EQUATION
Along streamline
RESTRICTIONS:
1. Viscous effects are negligible.
2. Steady flow. (What does each restriction imply?)
3. Incompressible flow.
4. Flow along a streamline. 15
Example and Solution 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation
Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with velocity V0, as is shown
in figure below. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
The Bernoulli’s equation applied along the streamline that passes through (1)
and (2)
z1 = z2
(1) is in the free stream V1 = V0
(2) is at the tip of the bicyclist’s nose V2 = 0*
Thus,
* This is valid when our reference is moving with the bicycle and V1 is relative to the speed of the bicycle
16
F ma
17
F = ma Normal to a Streamline
• Consider the small fluid particle of size of s by

n in the plane of the figure, and y normal to the
figure. Forces are only due to p and g.
• For steady flow, the component of Newton’s
second law in the normal direction n:
𝛿𝑚 𝑉 𝜌 𝛿𝑉̶ 𝑉
𝛿𝐹 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉̶ = Volume = 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑦
𝑉 = Velocity
𝛿𝐹 = sum of the s components

of all the force acting on the
particle.
18
F = ma Normal to a Streamline One term Taylor-
series expansion
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑛
𝛿𝑝 =
𝜕𝑛 2
• The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the
𝛿𝑉 = 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑛. 𝛿𝑦
normal direction:
𝛿𝑊 = −𝛿𝑊 cos 𝜃 = −𝛾𝛿𝑉̶ cos 𝜃
• The net pressure force on the particle in the

normal direction:
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 − (𝑝 + 𝛿𝑝 )𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 = −2𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 = − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑛
• Combining all forces in the normal direction:
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐹 = −𝛾 cos θ − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑛
𝜌𝛿𝑉̶𝑉
𝛿𝐹 =
𝑅
Equation of motion along the
Obtain normal direction
19
Physical Interpretation:
Or, since:
𝛿𝑧 𝑑𝑧
cos 𝜃 = =
𝛿𝑛 𝑑𝑛
Physical Interpretation: a combination of particle weight and pressure

gradient normal to the streamline may cause a change in fluid particle
speed (in normal direction).
If gravity is neglected (for gas flows), or if the flow is horizontal (dz/dn = 0),
then the equation becomes:
𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
=−
𝜕𝑛 𝑅
This indicates that the pressure increases with distance from the center.
20
• If we multiply the previous equation by dn, divide by , and the fact

that if s is constant, the integration in n direction becomes:
𝑑𝑝 𝑉
+ 𝑑𝑛 + 𝑔𝑧 = Constant across the streamline
𝜌 𝑅
In general, the density may not be constant, Without knowing the n dependent in V = V(s, n) and
Need to know how density varies with pressure. R = R(s, n) this integration cannot be completed.
• For the special case of incompressible flow (density & specific weight are
constant):
BERNOULLI EQUATION
Across the streamline
RESTRICTIONS:
1. Viscous effects are negligible.
2. Steady flow.
21
4. Flow normal a streamline.
Example 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to a Streamline
Shown in Figure below (a) and (b) are two flow fields with circular
streamlines. The velocity distributions are:
𝐶 In book:
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝐶 𝑟 (𝑎) 𝑉(𝑟) = (𝑏) C1 = Vo/ro
𝑟
C2 = Vo.ro
Assuming the flows are steady, inviscid, and incompressible

with streamlines in the horizontal plane (dz/dn = 0).
Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each, given that p = po

at r = ro.
22
Solution 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to a Streamline
Assumptions:
• Flows are steady, inviscid and incompressible.
• For flow in the horizontal plane, dz/dn = 0.
• The streamlines are circles. Thus, /n = -/r.
• The radius of curvature R = r.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
−𝛾 − = =
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛 𝑅 𝜕𝑟 𝑟
• For case (a) this gives

𝜕𝑝 1
= 𝜌𝐶 𝑟 𝑝 = 𝜌𝐶 𝑟 −𝑟 +𝑝
𝜕𝑟 2
• For case (b) this gives

𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝐶 1 1 1
= 𝑝 = 𝜌𝐶 − +𝑝
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟
(although these equations are different than in Ed. 8, they are similar) 23
Comparison of Equations of Motion for Along Streamline or Across Streamlines
Along Streamline Assumptions: Across/Normal to Streamline

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉 Inviscid 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎 −𝛾 cos 𝜃 − = = 𝜌𝑎
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛 𝑅
Steady
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
−𝛾 − = 𝜌 −𝛾 − =
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝑅
𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑉
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 + 𝑑𝑛 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
𝜌 2 𝜌 𝑅
𝑝+𝜌
𝑉
+ 𝛾𝑧 = constant
Incompressible 𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = constant
2 (Bernoulli Equation) 𝑅
24
25
3.4 Physical Interpretation
• The Bernoulli Equations are under the basic assumptions where:
• The flow is steady,
• The fluid is inviscid and
• The fluid is incompressible.
• A violation of one or more of the above assumptions result in
an incorrect match between the “real world” and solutions
obtained by using the Bernoulli’s equation.
• Fortunately, many “real-world” situations are adequately
modeled by the use of both equations.
• In “real-world” situation the flow is nearly steady and
incompressible, and the fluid behaves as if it were nearly
inviscid.
26
Physical Interpretation
• Application of F = ma and integration of equation of motion
along and normal to the streamline result in:
𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶 Constant along the streamline
2
𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶 Constant normal to the streamline
𝑅
 Along the streamline, to produce an acceleration, there must

be an unbalance of the resultant force, of which only pressure
and gravity were considered to be important. Thus, there are
three processes involved in the flow:
1. Mass times acceleration (the V2/2 term),
2. pressure (the p term), and
3. weight (the z term).
The Bernoulli’s equation is a mathematical statement of:
“The work done on a particle of all force acting on the particle is equal to the
change of the kinetic energy of the particle”. 27
Alternative forms of Bernoulli Equation
• If the Bernoulli equation is divided by we will have an alternative form with
units of energy per mass (J/kg):
Due to pressure Due to kinetic energy Due to elevation or potential energy
Sections 5.3.3 and 5.4 derive the Bernoulli Equation from the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
• Another alternative form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing
each term by  (specific weight) where each term has the unit of height. In
this term we call this as head (m).
Constant along a streamline
Pressure Head Velocity Head Elevation Head 28

Example 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and Pressure Energies in a
System
Consider a syringe as shown in the figure on the left.
Discuss the energy of the fluid at points (1), (2) and
(3) by using the Bernoulli’s equation.
29
Example 3.5 Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream
Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow shown in figure
below. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while from C to
D they follow circular paths. Describe the pressure variation between
points (1) and (2) and points (3) and (4).
30
Solution 3.5 Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream
• For the portion from A to B: R = .

p+ Point (1)~(2)
Using p2 = 0, z1 = 0, and z2 = h2-1
=
Since the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite, the pressure variation in the
vertical direction is the same as if the fluids were stationary.
• For the portion from C to D: R = R.
= Point (3)~(4)
With p4 = 0 and z4 - z3 = h4-3 ,this becomes

Need to know the variation of V and R with z.
The lower pressure at (3) caused by the curved streamline is
necessary to accelerate the fluid around a curved path.
31
32
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressures
• Bernoulli Equation can be used to describe other concepts such as

stagnation and dynamic pressures.
• Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a form
of pressure with units of psi, lb/ft2 or N/m2:
Several definitions on pressure in a flow:

1. Hydrostatic Pressure ( )
2. Stagnation Pressure
3. Static Pressure (p)
4. Dynamic Pressure ( )
5. Total Pressure (C)
33
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶
2
1. Static Pressure (p) definition (Point 3):
• The actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it flows.
• If the fluid is stationary, e.g., water in a tank, it is obvious that the pressure along
the depth is static pressure or hydrostatic pressure.
• If the fluid is flowing, it still has static pressure, but we need to “move along”
with the fluid so we see that the fluid is relatively not moving or “static”.
• Static Pressure can be measured by:
• Drilling a hole of a relatively flat surface, then using a wall pressure “tap”, or a
static pressure probe such as piezometer (Point 3).
• The pressure in the flowing fluid at point 1 is

𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝 is the same as if the fluid were
static. At point 3, the pressure is, 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
thus, 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ.
34
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressures
2. Hydrostatic pressure (z), between points (1) and (2):

• Not actually a pressure, but it does represent the change in pressure
possible due to potential energy variations of the fluid as a result of
elevation changes.
35
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
3. Dynamic Pressure (V2/2) is a pressure produced due to the

fluid motion. It can be interpreted as the addition of pressure
at the end of a small tube inserted into the flow and pointing
upstream, due to the stopping of fluid at the tip of the tube.
36
4. Stagnation Pressure: Point (2)

• The fluid inside the second tube, including that at its tip (2), will be stationary. That is, V2 = 0, or
point (2) is a stagnation point. The pressure at this point is called the Stagnation Pressure.
• There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed into a flowing fluid. Some of
the fluid flows “over” and some “under” the object.
• The dividing line is termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation
point on the body.
37
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stagnation-flow-schematics-a-Boundary-layer-stagnation-b-T-Junction-stagnation_fig1_320845015
• If we neglect elevation changes (z1 = z2), and apply Bernoulli’s Equation for
point 1 to 2, which are in the same streamline, then:
0 because point 2 is stagnation point
Stagnation pressure
Static pressure Dynamic pressure
• At point 2 we will have a stagnation pressure as the velocity at that point is zero.
• Neglecting the elevation effects, the stagnation pressure is the largest
pressure obtainable along a given streamline.
38
5. Total pressure:
• The sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure, and
hydrostatic pressure.
• The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total
pressure remains constant along a streamline.
Constant along a streamline
P static P dynamic P hydrostatic P total
P stagnation
P total 39
Summary of Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressures
Static Dynamic Hydrostatic Stagnation Total

Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
Actual Pressure due to Not actually a Pressure at a Sum of static,

thermodynamic the motion of pressure but point where hydrostatic, and
pressure of the fluid. represent the stagnation point dynamic
fluid as it flows. change in occurs (V = 0) pressures.
pressure possible Constant along
due to potential streamline.
energy variations
(elevation
differences). 𝑝 + 𝜌 , or
𝑉 Static Pressure +
𝑝 𝜌 𝛾𝑧 𝑝
2 Dynamic Pressure
40
Pitot-Static Tube
• Knowledge of the values of the static and stagnation pressure
in a fluid implies that the fluid speed can be calculated. This is
the principle on which the Pitot-Static Tube is based.
• To understand the principle of Pitot-static tube, consider as https://in.rsdelivers.com/product/testo/0635-
follows: 2145/testo-0635-2145-digital-pressure-meter-pitot-
tube/4609869
• On the upstream of pitot tube, fluid flows with velocity of V
and pressure of p.
• At point 2 and 3, we will have a stagnation point. Thus,
𝑝 = 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 /2 Stagnation pressure
• If we neglected the elevation difference between points 1 and
4, or 𝑧 ≈ 𝑧 , then, the static pressure:
𝑝 =𝑝 =𝑝
Static pressure
• Substituting the value of p4 to p and rearrange the equation.
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 /2
• Finally, we can rearrange this equation again to obtain,
2
𝑉= 2(𝑝 − 𝑝 )/𝜌
Thus, we can measure the fluid velocity Made from two

by using a pitot static tube From: H. de Pitot (1695-1771) concentric tubes
41
Pitot-Static Tube
42
Pitot-Static Tube
• The use of pitot-static tube depends on the ability to measure the

static and stagnation pressures.
• An accurate measurement of static pressure requires that
none of the fluid’s kinetic energy be converted into a pressure
rise at the point of measurement.
• This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections.
43
Pitot-Static Tube
• The pressure along the surface of an object varies from the

stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to value that may be
less than free stream static pressure.
• It is important that the pressure taps be properly located to
ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static
pressure.
Quick question:
What if the pressure
a taps is located near
point a or b?
44
Pitot-Static Tube
• Any misalignment between pitot-static tube and flow direction

will produce a nonsymmetrical flow field that may result in
errors.
• Typically, yaw angles up to 12 to 20o (depending on the
particular probe design) give results that are less than 1% in
error from the perfectly aligned results.
• In general, it is more
difficult to measure
static pressure than
stagnation pressure.
45
Pitot-Static Tube
• One method of determining the flow direction and its speed (thus the
velocity) is to use a Directional-Finding Pitot Tube as shown below.
𝛽 = 29.5𝑜
• Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular cylinder, fitted with
small tubes, and connected to three pressure transducers. The cylinder is
rotated until the pressures in the two side holes are equal, thus
indicating that the center hole points directly upstream.
𝑝 =𝑝
If θ = 0 2 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑉=
𝜌
46
Example 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube
• An airplane flies 200 miles/hr at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a standard atmosphere
as shown in figure below. Determine the pressure at point (1) far ahead of the
airplane, point (2), and the pressure difference indicated by a Pitot-static probe
attached to the fuselage.
47
Solution 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube
The static pressure and density at the altitude 10,000 ft (use Table C.1)
𝑙𝑏
𝑝 = 1456 = 10.11 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝜌 = 0.001756 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠
If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible and elevation changes
between point 1 and 2 are neglected, then the Bernoulli’s equation becomes:
𝜌𝑉
𝑝 =𝑝 +
2
With V1 = 200 mi/hr = 293 ft/s, and V2 = 0

𝑝 = 1456 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 + (0.001756 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 )(293 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠 )/2
= 1456 + 75.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 (𝑎𝑏𝑠)
In terms of gage pressure 𝑝 = 75.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 = 0.524𝑝𝑠𝑖
The pressure difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube:

Vary the speed, then plot:
48
3.6 Applications of Bernoulli Equation
a. Free Jets Assuming: steady, inviscid and incompressible flow along a streamline:
b. Confined Flows 𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉
𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧
c. Flowrate Measurement 2 2
49
a. (3.6.1) Free-Jets
• Flow of a liquid from a large reservoir to the environment such as shown
below.
Vertical flow from a tank Horizontal flow from a tank Vena contracta effect from a
sharp-edge orifice.
Flow from a coffee tank/urn Flow from a plant watering tank 50

Free-Jets: Vertical Nozzle Nozzle: a device shaped to
accelerate the fluid
• At points 1 and 2, on the same (along the)
streamline,
𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉
𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧
2 2
• Because point 1 is open to atmosphere,

p1 = 0. Also, V1 = 0, and z1 - z2 = h.
• At points 2 and 4, across the streamlines:
𝑉
• By applying equation, 𝑝 + 𝜌 𝑅 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = Constant
• And if the the streamlines at the tip of the
nozzle are straight (R = ∞), and we know
that z2 and z4 are in the same elevation.
𝑝 =𝑝
• Furthermore, as point 4 is in contact with
atmosphere, p4 = 0. Thus, p4 = p2 = 0.
• Thus, All PE is converted to KE.
𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉 2𝛾ℎ Obtained by Toricelli in 1643.
𝛾𝑧 = + γ𝑧 → = 𝛾ℎ → 𝑉 = = 2𝑔ℎ
2 2 𝜌 Can also be derived using points (3) & (4)
Use the total distance from the surface.

At point 5: p5 = 0: 𝑉 = 2𝑔 ℎ + 𝐻
Velocity increases further from the
51 nozzle.
Free-Jets: Horizontal Nozzle
• For the horizontal nozzle, the • For a sharp-edged orifice, a vena
velocity V2 > V1, and also V3 > V2 contracta effect occurs (diameter of
(Due to elevation differences) free jet is less than the hole’s
• However, in general, d << h and diameter, dj < dh).
thus, we can use the V2 as • The effect is the result of the inability
average velocity. of the fluid to turn the sharp 90°
corner.
52
Typical Flow Patterns and Contraction Coefficients
Typical Flow Patterns and

Contraction Coefficients for Various
Round Exit Configuration.
• The diameter of a fluid jet is often

smaller than that of the hole from
which it flows.
Define Cc = contraction coefficient :
Aj = area of the jet at the vena contracta

Ah = area of the hole.
53
b. (3.6.2) Confined Flow
• When the fluid is physically constrained within a device, its pressure
cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for the free jet.
• Such cases include nozzles and pipes of variable diameters for which the
fluid velocity changes because the flow areas are different from one
section to another.
• For such situations, it is necessary to use the concept of conservation of
mass (the continuity equation) along with the Bernoulli equation.
54
b.1 Confined Flow
• Consider a fluid flowing through a

fixed volume that has one inlet
and one outlet.
• Conservation of mass* requires:

1 1 1 2 2 2
• For incompressible flow, the

continuity equation is:
1 1 2 2 1 2.
Volumetric
Flow rate
* More on this in Chapters 4 and 5.

55
Example 3.7 Flow from a Tank－ Gravity Driven
A stream of water of diameter d = 0.01 m flows steadily from a tank
of diameter D = 0.2 m as shown in figure below.
Determine the flowrate, Q, needed from the inflow pipe if the
water depth remains constant at h = 0.2 m.
56
Read it yourself
Solution 3.7 Flow from a Tank－ Gravity
• The Bernoulli equation applied between points (1) and (2) is:
With p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h, and z2 = 0:
For steady and incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires

Q1 = Q2, where Q = AV. Thus, A1V1 =A2V2 , or:
57
Solution 3.7 Flow from a Tank－ Gravity Read it yourself
• Combining,
1 1 𝑑
𝑉 + 𝑔ℎ = 𝑉 and 𝑉 =( ) 𝑉
2 2 𝐷
2𝑔ℎ 2(9.81𝑚/𝑠 )(0.2𝑚)

𝑉 = = = 1.98𝑚/𝑠
1 − (𝑑/𝐷) 1 − (0.01𝑚/0.2𝑚)
• Thus,
𝜋
𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉 = (0.01𝑚) (1.98𝑚/𝑠) = 1.56𝑥10 𝑚 /𝑠
4
If the tank diameter is large compared to the jet diameter (D >>d),
then V1 ≈ 0. The ratio of the flow rate if V1 is not zero compared to if
V1 = 0 is:
58
Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank－ Pressure Driven Read it yourself
Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter D = 0.03 m

and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of diameter d = 0.01 m as
shown in figure below. The pressure in the tank remains constant at
3.0 kPa (gage) and the atmospheric conditions are standard
temperature and pressure. Determine the flowrate and the
pressure in the hose.
59
Solution of Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank－ Pressure Read it yourself
For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli

equation along the streamline:
With z1 = z2 = z3 , V1 = 0, and p3 = 0
The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the perfect gas law,
using standard absolute P and T:
60
(must use absolute p and T values)
Solution of Example 3.8 Flow From a Tank－ Pressure Read it yourself
• Thus,
2𝑝 2(3.0 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 ) 𝜋
𝑉 = = = 69.0𝑚/𝑠 or 𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑑 𝑉 = 0.00542𝑚 /𝑠
𝜌 1.26𝑘𝑔/𝑚 4
• The pressure within the hose can be obtained from:
𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 /𝐴 = 7.67𝑚/𝑠
1 1
𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝜌𝑉 = 3.0 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 − (1.26𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )(7.67𝑚/𝑠)
2 2
= (3000 − 37.1)𝑁/𝑚 = 2963𝑁/𝑚
61
Example 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe Read it yourself
Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Figure below. The

static pressures at (1) and (2) are measured by the inverted U-tube
manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.
Determine the manometer reading, h.
Not a practical design…
62
Solution 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe Read it yourself
• For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along the streamline:
1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧
2 2
• The continuity equation:

𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉
• Combining these two equations:

1
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝛾(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + 𝜌𝑉 [1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 ) ]
2
• This pressure difference measured by the manometer: 1
(1 − 𝑆𝐺)𝛾ℎ = 𝜌𝑉 1−
𝐴
2 𝐴
𝑝 − 𝛾(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) − 𝛾 − 𝛾ℎ + 𝑆𝐺𝛾ℎ + 𝛾 = 𝑝
Or: 𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝛾(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + (1 − 𝑆𝐺)𝛾ℎ Since V2 = Q/A2
1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 )
ℎ = 𝑄/𝐴
2𝑔 1 − 𝑆𝐺
63
b.2 Confined Flow-Cavitation A ventury
• If the fluid velocity is increased, the

pressure will decrease.
• This pressure decrease can be
large enough so that the pressure
in the liquid is reduced to its vapor
pressure (The concept is from
Chapter 1 and Thermodynamics
class).
• When vapor pressure is achieved,
liquid starts to boil.
• Change of liquid to vapor in fluid
flow result in phenomenon called
Cavitation.
• If these bubbles then enter a higher-
pressure region, the bubbles can
implode and cause damage to the Incipient cavitation represents the beginning
surrounding surfaces. stage of cavitation where light popping noises are
heard.
64
Confined Flow-Example of Cavitation https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cavitation_Prop
eller_Damage.JPG
https://homdor.com/search/cavitation
Example of cavitation occur in submarine

propellers
As the bubbles created due to cavitation in low pressure
move to region with higher pressure, the bubbles will be
compressed until they implode. When the bubbles
“popped”, they produce high density energy, high local
temperature, and also high pressure at a short time. If the
bubbles popped near a solid body over time, they may
Damage due to cavitation on
damage the surface due to pitting.
a propeller blade
Read Example 3.10. in the textbook. 65

c. (3.6.3) Flowrate Measurement
c.1 Restriction Flowrate Measurement:
• Various flow meters are governed by the Bernoulli and continuity equations. The principle of
flow measurement is to measure pressure difference between the low-velocity, high-
pressure upstream at section 1, and the high-velocity, low-pressure downstream at section 2.
https://www.wika.us/flc_op_flc_fl_flc_ac_en_co.WIKA
http://www.delta-tcompany.com/
http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2016/
06/venturimeter-principle-construction-
working-diagram.html
66
Flowrate Measurement
With assumptions at 1 and 2 that:

1. Flow is horizontal
2. Steady
3. Inviscid
4. Incompressible.
Then: 1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉
2 2
The theoretical flowrate then can be calculated by,
2 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑄=𝐴
𝜌 1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 )
Note that because this equation calculates theoretical flowrate, the actual flow rate will be smaller
because of various differences between the “real world” and assumptions used in the equation.
Usually, a correction factor, C obtained by calibration is added to the equation (Section 8.6.1). 67
Example 3.11 Venturi Meter Read it yourself
• Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the Venturi meter shown in figure
below with flowrates between 0.005 and 0.050 m3/s. Determine the
range in pressure difference, p1 – p2, needed to measure these
flowrates.
Known Q, Determine p1-p2
68
Solution 3.11 Venturi Meter Read it yourself
• For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the relationship between flowrate and pressure:
𝑄 𝜌[1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 ) ]
2 𝑝 −𝑝 𝑝 −𝑝 =
𝑄=𝐴 2𝐴
𝜌 1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 )
• The density of the flowing fluid:

𝜌 = 𝑆𝐺 𝜌 = 0.85(1000 kg/m ) = 850 kg/m
• The area ratio:

𝐴 /𝐴 = (𝐷 /𝐷 ) = (0.006 m/0.10m) = 0.36
• The pressure difference for the smallest flowrate is:

(1 − 0.36 )
𝑝 − 𝑝 = (0.005 m /s) (850 kg/m )
2[(𝜋/4)(0.06 𝑚) ]
= 1160 N/m = 1.16 kPa
Range:
• The pressure difference for the largest flowrate is:
(1 − 0.36 ) 1.16 kPa ≤ 𝑝 − 𝑝 ≤ 116 kPa
𝑝 − 𝑝 = (0.05 )(850)
2[(𝜋/4)(0.06𝑚) ]
= 1.16 × 10 N/m = 116 kPa 69
c.2 Flowrate Measurement – Sluice Gate
• Other method to measure flow rate is sluice gate.
• This gate is often used to regulate and measure the flowrate in an open
channel.
• The flowrate, Q, is function of the water depth upstream, z1, the width of
the gate, b, and the gate opening, a.
• More on the open-channel flow devices in Chapter 10.
70
Flowrate Measurement – Sluice Gate
• Applying Bernoulli and continuity equations to points 1 and 2, and assuming the width of the
channel is the same as that of the gate (b):
1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧
2 2
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑏𝑉 𝑧 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑏𝑉 𝑧
• With p1 = p2 = 0, from above equations, the flowrate:
2𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧
𝑄=𝑧 𝑏
1 − (𝑧 /𝑧 )
• In the limit of z1 >> z2, this result simply becomes:

𝑄 = 𝑧 𝑏 2𝑔𝑧
• This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio, z1/z2, is large, the kinetic energy of
the fluid upstream of the gate is negligible, while A = z2.b, then the fluid velocity after it has
fallen a distance (z1-z2) ~ z1 is approximately:
𝑉 = 2𝑔𝑧
• The above flowrate equations can also be obtained using points (3) and (4). 71
Flowrate Measurement – Sluice Gate
• As we discussed on the flow from an orifice

where the fluid cannot turn a sharp 90° corner,
in the sluice gate, a vena contracta is formed
with a contraction coefficient, Cc = z2/a, less
than 1.
• Typically, Cc ~ 0.61 over the depth ratio range of
0 < a/z1 < 0.2.
• For large value of a/z1, the value of Cc increases
rapidly, approaching 1.
• More on this in Section 10.6. Vena contracta
occur
72
Example 3.12 Sluice Gate Read it yourself
• Water flows under the sluice gate in figure below. Determine the
approximate flowrate per unit width of the channel.
73
Solution 3.12 Sluice Gate Read it yourself
• For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the flowrate is:
2𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑄 2𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧 (Flow rate per unit width b)

𝑄=𝑧 𝑏 =𝑧
1 − (𝑧 /𝑧 ) 𝑏 1 − 𝑧 /𝑧
• With z1 = 5.0 m and a = 0.80 m, the ratio a/z1 = 0.16 < 0.20. Assuming
contraction coefficient is approximately Cc = 0.61; z2 = Cc a = 0.61 (0.80 m) =
0.488 m. The flowrate per unit width:
𝑄 2 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 5.0 𝑚 − 0.488 𝑚
= 0.488 𝑚 = 4.61 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑏 0.488
1− 𝑚
5.0
• If we consider z1 >> z2 and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream
fluid, we will have:
𝑄
=𝑧 2𝑔𝑧 = 0.488 𝑚 2 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 5.0 𝑚 = 4.83 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑏
74
c. 3 Flowrate Measurement - Weir
c.3.1 Rectangular Weir

• Another device used to measure flow in
an open channel is a weir.
• For a typical rectangular, sharp-
crested, the flowrate over the top of the
weir plate is dependent on the weir
height, Pw, the width of the channel,
b, and the head, H, of the water above
the top of the weir.
• Application of the Bernoulli equation
can provide a simple approximation
of the flowrate expected for these
situations, even though the actual flow
is quite complex.
75
Flowrate Measurement – Weir – Actual Flow
• Between points 1 and 2 the pressure and gravitational fields cause the fluid to accelerate from
velocity V1 to velocity V2.
• At 1 the pressure is p1 = γh, while at point 2 the pressure is at atmospheric or p2 = 0.
• Across the curved streamlines directly above the top of the weir plate (at section a–a):
• Pressure varies from atmospheric on the top surface to some maximum value within the fluid
stream, and then to atmospheric again at the bottom surface.
• Due to this pressure distribution, combined with the streamline curvature and gravity, produces a
rather non-uniform velocity profile across this section.
• This velocity distribution can be obtained from experiments or a more advanced theory (CFD).
76
Flowrate Measurement - Weir
• In this class, we take a very simple approach and assume that the
weir flow is similar in many respects to an orifice-type flow
with a free streamline. With this assumption:
• Average velocity across the top of the weir to be proportional to 2𝑔𝐻
• Area for this rectangular weir equal to: Hb
• Hence, the flowrate:
/
1 1 1
Where C1 is a constant to be determined

during calibration (see Chapter 10).
77
Flowrate Measurement – Weir – Triangular
c.3.2 V-notch or Triangular Weir (Example 3.13)

• Assume steady, inviscid and incompressible
flow, then as before (Eq. 3.18), the average
velocity is proportional to: 2𝑔𝐻
• The flow area for a depth of H,
• Therefore, the flowrate is then:

2 /
2 2
78
79
Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the total energy
remains constant along a streamline. The Bernoulli Equation in
units of head [m or ft]:
Where:
• p/ : The head due to local static pressure (pressure energy)
• V2/2g : The head due to local dynamic pressure (kinetic energy)
• z : The elevation head (potential energy)
• H : The total head for the flow
80
• Energy Line (EL): represents the total head

height.
• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) height represents

the sum of the elevation and static pressure
heads. Also called the piezometric head.
• The difference in heights between the EL and the

HGL represents the dynamic (velocity) head.
81
EL:
HGL:
EL can be measured by stagnation tube.

HGL can be measured by static tube.
EL -HGL:
82
Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) of A Large Tank
According to continuity
equation with the assumption
of incompressible fluid, as
the cross-section area of the
pipe is smaller, the velocity
increases. Thus,
𝑉 /2𝑔
And with, Result in, 83

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝
EL + + 𝑧 = constant HGL +𝑧
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
• The distance from the pipe to the

hydraulic grade line indicates the
pressure within the pipe.
 If the pipe lies below the
hydraulic grade line, the pressure
within the pipe is positive (above
atmospheric).
 If the pipe lies above the
hydraulic grade line, the pressure
is negative (below atmospheric).
• A scale drawing of a pipeline and the

hydraulic grade line can be used to
readily indicate regions of positive
Read Example 3.14: EL and HGL of a siphon-tube.
or negative pressure within a pipe.
84
a. Compressibility Effect
b. Unsteady Effect
c. Rotational Effect
d. Other Restrictions
85
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
• Again, as a reminder, Bernoulli Equation along a streamline, is:
Along a streamline
• Only applicable under several restrictions as follows:

1. Steady flow.
3. Frictionless flow.
4. Flow along a streamline.
• Deviation from these assumptions will cause incorrect use of the

Bernoulli Equation.
86
a. (3.8.1) Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s
Equation– Compressibility Effect
• The assumption of incompressibility is reasonable for
most liquid flows.
• In certain instances, the assumption of incompressible
fluid introduces considerable errors for gases.
• From the previous section, the difference of stagnation and
static pressure is: , provided
the density is constant.
• If this value is not too large, then the density change is not too
large, and the fluid can be considered incompressible.
• But since or pdynamic varies with V2, the error is also
quadratic if we assume the fluid is incompressible.
87
Criterion to check the validity of the incompressible assumption
• Instead of integrating the equation, lets find when incompressible assumption is good
enough.
∆ ∆
• From Eq. 1.13: . For a finite change: . If we assume the density change of
∆
3% is not significant, then we can model the fluid is incompressible if:
∆ ∆
• For isothermal condition, from Eq. 1.16, Ev = p, so that
∆ ∆ ∆
• For isentropic condition, From Eq. 1.17, Ev= kp, so: . For k = 1.4 (air), then:
∆ ∆
0.03. or: .
.
• The Bernoulli Equation in this chapter applies to isentropic process. Without elevation
change, then Thus, we can model a flow as incompressible if:
For air at standard condition (where we know p and for
air), this condition refers to V = 102 m/s (355 ft/s); or about 30% of Ma (Ma = 0.3).
• Therefore, for air with Ma < 0.3, we can assume it as incompressible.
• At high speed, compressibility may become important.
• Further consideration is in Chapter 11.
<Next 3 slides are hidden, since they are from Ed. 6. Will be discussed more detail in Chapter 11>
88
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s Equation– Compressibility Effect <This is from 6th Ed.>
• For isothermal flow of ideal gas where, 𝜌 = 𝑝/𝑅𝑇, then the Bernoulli equation from point 1
to 2 along the streamline:
𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑉 𝑅𝑇 𝑝 𝑉
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 RT + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 +𝑧 + ln = +𝑧
𝜌 2 𝑝 2 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑝 2𝑔
• For isentropic flow of ideal gas, the density and pressure are related by p/ρk = C, where k =
specific heat ratio
𝑑𝑝 1 1
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 𝐶 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 constant
With, 𝜌 = 𝑝 𝐶 𝜌 2 2
(In Chapter 11)
Constant C can be evaluated at either point, 𝐶 = 𝑝 𝜌 or 𝐶 = 𝑝 𝜌 thus give,
𝑘 ⁄ ⁄
𝐶 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = 𝐶 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑝 𝑉 𝑘 𝑝 𝑉
𝑘 𝑝 𝑝 + + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧
= − Final form of 𝑘−1 𝜌 2 𝑘−1 𝜌 2
𝑘−1 𝜌 𝜌 compressible,
isentropic, steady 89
flow of a gas perfect
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s Equation– Compressibility Effect <This is from 6th Ed.>
• To find the pressure ratio as a function of Mach number

c is Speed of sound
From Chapter 11:
The upstream Mach number:
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑘+1
Compressible flow = 1+ 𝑀 −1
𝑝 2
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑉 𝑘
Incompressible flow 𝑝
=
2𝑅𝑇
= 𝑀
2
At a very low Mach number (approximately Ma1 < 0.3, or at V = 335

ft/s = 228 mi/hr), compressible ideal gas flow can be assumed and
calculated as an incompressible flow and only result a slight error.
90
Example and Solution 3.15 Compressible Flow-Mach Number
The jet shown in Fig. E3.15 flies at Mach 0.82 at an altitude of 10
km in a standard atmosphere. Determine the stagnation
pressure on the leading edge of its wing if the flow is
incompressible; and if the flow is compressible isentropic.
• From Table 1.8 and C.2 we find that p1 = 26.5 kPa (abs), T1 = -
49.9 ᵒC, ρ = 0.414 kg/m3, and k =1.4. Thus, if we assume
incompressible flow,
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑘 (0.82)
= 𝑀 = 1.4 = 0.471
𝑝 2 2
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 0.471 26.5𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 12.5𝑘𝑃𝑎
• Whereas if we assume isentropic flow,

.
𝑝 −𝑝 1.4 + 1 .
= 1+ 0.82 − 1 = 0.555
𝑝 2
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 0.555 26.5𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 14.7𝑘𝑃𝑎

91
b. Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation– Unsteady Effect
• Another restriction of the Bernoulli equation is the assumption that the
flow is steady.
• For Steady flow, on a given streamline the velocity is a function of only s, the location
along the streamline, thus V = V(s) along the streamline.
• For Unsteady flow, on a given streamline the velocity is a function of the location along
the streamline (s) and time (t). Thus, V = V(s, t).
𝑑𝑉
• In the case of unsteady flow, rather than, 𝑎 =𝑉
𝑑𝑠
, acceleration at the
direction of streamline is, 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 For steady,
𝑎 = +𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 1
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 + 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0
2
• Thus, from Eq. 3.4: For Unsteady,
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑉 1
−𝛾 − = 𝜌𝑎 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 + 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0 (along a streamline)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑡 2
• For incompressible flow, integrate the equation, resulting:

1 𝜕𝑉 1 For unsteady, incompressible and
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 inviscid flow (unsteady form of
2 𝜕𝑡 2 92
Bernoulli Eq., along a streamline).
Example and Solution 3.15 Unsteady Flow-U Tube Read it yourself
An incompressible, inviscid liquid is placed in a vertical, constant diameter U-

tube as indicated in Fig. E3.16. When released from the non-equilibrium
position shown, the liquid column will oscillate at a specific frequency.
Determine this frequency.
• Let points 1 and 2 be at the air–water interfaces of the two columns of the
tube and z = 0 correspond to equilibrium position of these interfaces. Hence
p1 = p2 = 0, and if z2 = z, then z1 = -z. For constant tube V1 = V2 = V. Thus,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑙 Where l is the total length of the liquid column
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
• And,
𝑑𝑉
𝛾 −𝑧 = 𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧
𝑑𝑡
• Since,
𝑑𝑧
𝑉= and 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑 𝑧 2𝑔 ODE Solution
𝛾 −𝑧 = 𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧 + 𝑧=0 𝑧 𝑡 = 𝐶 sin 2 𝑔⁄𝑙 𝑡 + 𝐶 cos 2 𝑔 ⁄𝑙 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
Thus, the 𝜔 = 2 𝑔⁄𝑙
93
frequency:
Example and Solution 3.16 Unsteady or Steady Flow Read it yourself
A submarine moves through seawater (SG = 1.03) at depth of 50

m with velocity Vo = 5 m/s.
• In a coordinate system fixed to the ground, the flow is
unsteady (water velocity at 1 is zero with the submarine in its
initial position, but at the instant when the nose, 2, reaches
point 1 the velocity there become V1 = -Voi) . Thus, application
of Bernoulli equation is incorrect because static pressure
is greater than stagnation.
1
𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉
2
• We can either use unsteady analysis for the flow or redefine

the coordinate system so that it is fixed on the submarine,
that result in steady flow with respect to this new system.
Thus, the Bernoulli equation become,
1
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑔 = 1.03 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 5𝑚/𝑠 /2 + 9.8 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 1.03 50𝑚
2
= 518𝑘𝑃𝑎
94
c. (3.8.3) Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation– Rotational Effect
• Another of the restrictions of the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable along
the streamline. Thus, application of the Bernoulli equation across
streamlines can lead to considerable errors.
• Example 3.17: Take a look at figure on the right,
• Between point 1 and 2,
1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = +𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶
2 2
• Since V1 = V2 = Vo, and z1 = z2 = 0, then p1 = p2 = po
1
𝐶 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉
2
• Similarly, between point 3 and 4, V3 = V4 = Vo, z3 = z4 = h,
If we apply 𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝛾ℎ and 𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝛾ℎ to Bernoulli equation,
We obtain that 𝑝 = 𝑝
• Thus,
1 1
𝐶 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 𝐶 =𝐶 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = Constant through the flow for any streamline
2 2
• For point 4 and 5, 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝛾𝐻 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑝 =0
If we apply Bernoulli equation across streamlines between point 4 and 5,
𝑝 𝑉 Evident that using Bernoulli equation
𝛾 2𝑔 which is not correct (Correct result: 𝐻 = 𝑝 /𝛾)
𝐻= + 95
across streamline result in error
d. (3.8.4) Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s Equation– Other Restrictions
• Another restriction on the Bernoulli equation is that the flow is inviscid.

The Bernoulli equation is actually the first integral of Newton’s second law along a
streamline. This general integration was possible because, in the absence of viscous
effects, the fluid system considered was a conservative system. The total energy of the
system remains constant. If viscous effects are important the system is non-
conservative and energy losses occur. A more detailed analysis is needed for this
case. More detail in Chapter 5.
• The final basic restriction on use of the Bernoulli equation is that there are
no mechanical devices (such as pumps or turbines) in the system between
the two points along the streamline for which the equation is applied.
Note: Bernoulli Equation is the most used and the most abused equation in fluid mechanics…
96
Comprehension Questions:
97
Several
Important
Equations of
Chapter 3
98
Engineering at the Institut Teknologi Bandung starting Semester 2. copyright of the material has not been obtained from John Wiley & Sons and other
sources, these slides may not be distributed beyond the cla2018-2019Sincessroom. The use of the slides other then in the classroom is strictly prohibited
and the lecturers and the institution should not be responsible if such case occurs.
99
1

Week - 5
Introduction
• Content:
• Will study the Kinematics or the fluid motions, such as the velocity and
acceleration of the fluid, and the description and visualization of its motion.
• The Dynamics or the forces that cause the motion will be studied in the
following chapters.
• Sub-Topics:
• The Velocity Field
• The Acceleration Field
• Control Volume and System Representations
• The Reynolds Transport Theorem

1. discuss the differences between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of
fluid motion,
2. identify various flow characteristics based on the velocity field,
3. determine the streamline pattern and acceleration field given a velocity field,
4. discuss the differences between a system and control volume, and
5. apply the Reynolds transport theorem and the material derivative.
2
3
Field Representation of flow
• Fluid can be regarded as a continuum consisting particles of fluids, that includes
molecules of fluid, moving with a velocity and an acceleration.
• Representation of fluid parameters (such as as functions of the spatial
coordinates at a given time is termed a field representation of the flow.
• Fluid parameters should be represented as:
• Function of spatial coordinates (e.g., x, y and z),
• Function of time (t).
• Example: The velocity field can be shown as follows:
𝑉 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝚤̂ + 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝚥̂ + 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑘 = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
Where: u, v, and w are the Magnitude of velocity
x, y, and z components of
the velocity vector V. (speed):
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑉 =
𝑑𝑡
/
𝑉 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑟⃗ = position vector
4
Example 4.1 Velocity Field Representation
A velocity field is given by where V0 and  are

constants.
• At what location in the flow field is the speed equal to V0?
• Make a sketch of the velocity field for x ≧ 0 by drawing arrows
representing the fluid velocity at representative locations.
5
Solution 4.1 Velocity Field Representation
• The velocity field is given by: 𝑉 = 𝑉 /ℓ −𝑥𝚤⃗ + 𝑦𝚥⃗ .

• The x, y, and z components of the velocity are given by
u = -V0x/, v = V0y/ , and w = 0 so that the fluid speed V:
/
𝑉 /
𝑉 = (𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 )
ℓ
• The speed is V = V0 at any location on the circle of radius 
centered at the origin [(x2 + y2)1/2= ] as shown in the figure
at the right (a). [Ans. a]
• The direction of the fluid velocity relative to the x axis is
given in terms of θ = arctan(v/u) as shown in the figure at far
right (b). For this flow:
𝑣 𝑉 𝑦/ℓ 𝑦
tan θ = = =
𝑢 −𝑉 𝑥/ℓ −𝑥
[Ans. b]
• The velocity profile is similar to the velocity profile of a wind
blowing to the center of a street sign shown on the bottom
of the far-right figure.
6
4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian: Two general approaches in analysing fluid mechanic problems.
Eulerian Method: Lagrangian Method:

Obtain properties of the flow in terms of what Follow (or tag) individual fluid particle as it
happens at fixed points in space as the fluid move and determine how the fluid properties,
flows past those points. associated with the particle, change as a
function of time.
Analogy: Analogy:
Attaches the temperature-measuring device to Attaches the temperature-measuring device to
a particular point (in this case only x, y) and a particular fluid particle. Then measure the
record the temperature at that point as a temperature as it moves. TA = TA(t)
function of time (t). Thus, T(x, y, z, t)
In Fluid Mechanics, it is Examples of Lagrangian Method:

usually easier to use the using dye to see how fluid moves,
Eulerian Method. following birds migrating, etc.
Example 4.1 uses Eulerian

Method. 7
4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• Flow analysis depends on the number of space coordinates required to
specify the flow field.
• The complexity of analysis increases with the number of dimensions.
• 3D dimensional (Generally actual flow) can be simplified to 2-D or 1-D
(under certain assumptions).
3D 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝚤̂ + 𝑣𝚥̂ + 𝑤𝑘
Can be simplified to
2D 𝑉 = 𝑢𝚤̂ + 𝑣𝚥̂ or,
1D 𝑉 = 𝑢𝚤̂
Note: u, v and w are function of x, y, and z (and possibly t).
8
4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows
• In general, a flow can be steady or unsteady.
• Example, for velocity, at a given point:
• Steady flow:
• Unsteady flow:
Types of Unsteady Flow:

Non-periodic flow
Periodic flow
Truly random flow
Unsteady flow created by sudden
closing by a solenoid valve can create a
water hammer (see Section 1.7.3).
9
4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines
• Streamline: a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector.
• Steady: Streamline unchanged. Unsteady: Streamline may change with time.
• For 2-D flow, the slope of the streamline, dy/dx, must be equal to the 𝑑𝑦 𝑣
tangent of the angle that the velocity vector makes with the x axis, or =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
the ratio of the velocities in the two axes.
• If the velocity field is known, this equation can be integrated to give
the equation of streamlines.
• Streakline: consists of all particles in a flow that have previously passed

through a common point. Streakline is more of a laboratory tool than an
analytical tool. Take photos of a dye or a smoke continuously released from
a point.
• Pathlines: a line traced out by a given particle as it flows from one point to
another, using Lagrangian concept (Path or trajectory of a fluid particle).
• Steady: pathline has the same shape with streamline and streakline.
• Unsteady: pathline has a different shape than streamline and streakline.
The streamline is often used in analytical works, while the streakline and pathline are often used in experimental
10 work
Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines (3.05” video)
https://youtu.be/8MUPQbazkLQ
11
Example 4.2 Streamlines for a Given Velocity Field
Determine the streamlines for the two-dimensional steady flow, with: 𝑉 = 𝑉 /ℓ −𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂
• Since
• The streamlines are given by solution of the equation:
• Integrating equation above:
constant
Thus, along streamline: xy = C, where C is a constant.

For different values of Cs, plot the streamlines:
Plotted
12
Very important Example
Example 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines
• Water flowing from the oscillating slit shown in Figure (a) produces a velocity field
given by , where u0, v0, and ω are constants. Thus, the
y component of velocity remains constant (v = v0) and the x component of velocity at
y = 0 coincides with the velocity of the oscillating sprinkler head:
(at the tip of the sprinkler).
.
• (a) Determine the streamline that passes through the origin at t = 0; at t = π/2ω.
• (b) Determine the pathline of the particle that was at the origin at t = 0; at t = π/2.
• (c) Discuss the shape of the streakline that passes through the origin.
13
Solution 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines (Question a)
a) Streamline: line tangent to the velocity vector.

• Since 𝑢 = 𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑦⁄𝑣 and 𝑣 = 𝑣 , the streamlines are given by the solution of
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑣
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑦⁄𝑣
Separating variables and integrating,

𝑦 𝑦
𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥, 𝑢 𝑣 ⁄𝜔 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − =𝑣 𝑥+𝐶 Where C = constant
𝑣 𝑣
• For the streamline at t = 0 that passes through the origin (x = y = 0), the above equation
gives the value of C = u0v0/ω. The equation for this streamline is:
𝑢 𝜔𝑦
𝑥= cos −1
𝜔 𝑣
• Similarly, for the streamline at t = π/2ω that passes through the origin, C = 0. The
equation for this streamline:
𝑢 𝜋 𝑦 𝑢 𝜋 𝜔𝑦 𝑢 𝜔𝑦
𝑥= cos 𝜔 − = cos − 𝑥= sin
𝜔 2𝜔 𝑣 𝜔 2 𝑣 𝜔 𝑣
14
Solution 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines (Question a)
Plotted Streamline
𝑢 𝜔𝑦
𝑥= sin
𝜔 𝑣
𝑢 𝜔𝑦
𝑥= cos −1
𝜔 𝑣
15
Solution 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines (Question b)
b) Pathline: line traced out by a particle.

• The pathline of a particle can be obtained from the velocity field and definition of the
velocity. Since u = dx/dt and v = dy/dt:
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑢 sin 𝜔(𝑡 − ) and =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
• Integrate y equation to give the y coordinate of the pathline (vo is constant):

𝑦 = 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑪𝟏 Where C1 is a constant.
• With this known y = y(t) dependence, the x equation for the pathline becomes:
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑡+𝐶 𝐶𝜔 𝐶𝜔
= 𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − = −𝑢 sin integrated 𝑥 = − 𝑢 sin 𝑡 + 𝑪𝟐 Where C2 is a
𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
constant.
• For the particle that was at the origin (x = y = 0) at time t = 0, we found that C1 = C2 = 0.
Thus, the pathline is:
𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦=𝑣 𝑡
16
Solution 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines (Question b)
• Similarly, for the particle that was at the origin at t = π/2ω, we found that C1 = -πv0/2ω and
C2 = -πu0/2ω. Thus, the pathline for this particle is:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥=𝑢 𝑡− 𝑦=𝑣 𝑡−
2𝜔 and 2𝜔
• The pathline can be drawn by plotting the locus of x(t), y(t) value for t ≥ 0 or by eliminating
the parameter t from equation above to give:
𝑣
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑢
𝑣
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑢
Plotted Pathline
𝑥=0 and 𝑦 = 𝑣 𝑡
17
Solution 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines (Question c)
c) Steakline: all particles previously passed a common point.

• The streakline through the x = y =0 at t = 0: Positions of 16 particles
• Locus of particles at t = 0 that previously (t < 0) passed through the origin.
• Each particle that flows through the origin travels in a straight
line (pathlines), pathlines slope lies between ±v0/u0.
• Particles passing through the origin at different times :
• Located on different rays from the origin
• At different distances from the origin.
• If a stream of dye continually injected at the origin, the
streakline would have the shape shown in figure on the right.
• Because of the unsteadiness, the streakline will vary with
time, although it will always have the oscillating, sinuous
character shown.
18
19
Acceleration Field
To apply the Newton’s Second Law, , we have to use the

acceleration of the fluid’s particle:
• For Eulerian method, the fluid acceleration is described as:
• For Lagrangian method, the fluid acceleration is described as:
20
4.2.1 Acceleration and the Material Derivative
• Consider the velocity of a fluid particle A in space
at time t:
𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑟 ,𝑡 = 𝑉 𝑥 𝑡 ,𝑦 𝑡 ,𝑧 𝑡 ,𝑡
• The acceleration, by definition, and the use of
chain rule of differentiation:
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑧
𝑎⃗ = = + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
• Using the fact that:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
=𝑢 , =𝑣 , =𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Thus,
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎⃗ = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Since equation above also valid for all particles, the

general form for acceleration is,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎⃗ = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 21
Material Derivative
• The scalar components are:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎⃗ = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 𝑎 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
A shorthand notation
This operator is called the
𝐷𝑉 𝐷 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... Material Derivative or
𝑎⃗ = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 Substantial Derivative, because it
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
gives the rate of change as we
𝜕 ... follow a particle of the material or
In general, = + 𝑉 ⋅ ∇ ... substance.
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ...

∇ ... = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 𝑉 ⋅ ∇ ... = 𝑢 𝚤̂ + 𝑣 𝚥̂ + 𝑤 𝑘
(For Cartesian) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
22
(del: the gradient operator) (dot product of velocity vector and gradient operator))
Material Derivative
• Material Derivative concept is useful in

analysis involving various fluid parameters,
not just the acceleration.
• For example, for temperature field of fluid
can be described as (using the chain rule):
𝑑𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝑧
= + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
• Which can be written, in general, as:
𝐷𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + 𝑉 ⋅ ∇𝑇
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Material Derivative Operator for Temperature
23
Example 4.4 Acceleration along a Streamline
An incompressible, inviscid fluid flows steadily past a sphere of radius R, as
shown in Figure E4.4 (a), below. According to a more advanced analysis of the
flow, the fluid velocity along streamline A-B is given by
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑢 𝑥 𝚤̂ = 𝑉 1+ 𝚤̂
𝑥
where V0 is the upstream velocity far ahead of the sphere.

Determine the acceleration experienced by fluid particles as they flow along
this streamline.
24
Solution 4.4 Acceleration along a Streamline
• The acceleration along streamline A-B
𝜕V 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u
a = + u = + u i or a =
𝜕t
+ u , a = 0, a = 0
𝜕x
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕t 𝜕x
• Since the flow is steady, u/ t = 0. With the given velocity distribution along
the streamline, the acceleration becomes:
𝜕u R 1 + 𝑅/𝑥
a = u = V 1+ V R −3X −4 a = −3 V /𝑅
𝜕x X 𝑥/𝑅
(Ans.)
This is the
deceleration of
the air relative
to the ball.
25
4.2.2 Unsteady Effect
Material Derivative Formula:
𝐷 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ...
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Spatial or Convective Derivatives (next slide)
Time or Local derivative: Represent unsteadiness of flow.
𝜕 ... There is no change of flow parameters at a fixed
For steady flow, =0 point in space, but there may be a change of the
𝜕𝑡
parameter for the fluid particles as it moves.
For unsteady flow, 𝜕 . . . ≠ 0
𝜕𝑡
• Thus, if the parameter involves acceleration,
𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
Local acceleration
26
4.2.3 Convective Effect
Material Derivative Formula:
𝐷 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ... 𝜕 ...
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
Spatial or Convective derivative: represents the fact that a flow property associated
with a fluid particle may vary because of the motion of the particle from one
point in space to another point in space where its value is different.
• Thus, if the parameters involve acceleration,
𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + 𝑉⋅∇ 𝑉
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Convective acceleration
Example:
Steady flow, thus =0
Acceleration at x direction due to nozzle thus,
𝜕𝑢 Fluid accelerates then
𝑎 =𝑢
𝜕𝑥 decelerates 27
Example and Solution 4.5 Acceleration from a Given Velocity Field
Consider the steady, two-dimensional flow field discussed in Example 4.2.
Determine the acceleration field for this flow.
Solution:
• In general, the acceleration is given by,
𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎⃗ = = + 𝑉⋅∇ 𝑉 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Where from Example 4.2, 𝑉 = 𝑉 /ℓ (−𝑥𝚤⃗ + 𝑦𝚥⃗), or: 𝑢 = − 𝑉 /ℓ 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑉 /ℓ 𝑦

• For steady, two-dimensional flow:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎⃗ = 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝑢 +𝑣 𝚤⃗ + 𝑢 +𝑣 𝚥⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑎⃗ = − (𝑥) − + (𝑦)(0) 𝚤⃗ + − (𝑥)(0) + (𝑦) 𝚥⃗
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ
𝑉 𝑥 𝑉 𝑦
or 𝑎 = 𝑎 =
ℓ ℓ
28
Solution 4.5 Acceleration from a Given Velocity Field
• For this flow the magnitude of the acceleration is constant on circles centered at the origin,
/
𝑉 /
𝑎 = (𝑎 +𝑎 +𝑎 ) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 )
ℓ
• The acceleration vector is oriented at an angle  from the x axis, where:

𝑎 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑎 𝑥
• Plot:
29
Example 4.6 The Material Derivative Read it yourself
A fluid flows steadily through a two-dimensional nozzle of length as shown

in Fig. E4.6a. The nozzle shape is given by
𝑦⁄𝑙 = ±0.5/ 1 + 𝑥 ⁄𝑙
If viscous and gravitational effects are negligible, the velocity
field is approximately ,
𝑢 = 𝑉 1 + 𝑥 ⁄𝑙 𝑣 = −𝑉 𝑦⁄𝑙
and the pressure field is

𝑝 − 𝑝 = − 𝜌𝑉 ⁄2 𝑥 + 𝑦 ⁄𝑙 + 2 𝑥 ⁄𝑙
where V0 and p0 are the velocity and pressure at the origin, x = y = 0. Note
that the fluid speed increases as it flows through the nozzle. For example,
along the center line (y = 0), V = Vo at x = 0 and V = 2Vo at x = l.
Determine, as a function of x and y, the time rate of change of pressure
felt by a fluid particle as it flows through the nozzle.
30
Solution 4.6 The Material Derivative Read it yourself
• The time rate of change of pressure at any given, fixed point in this steady flow is zero.
However, the time rate of change of pressure felt by a particle flowing through the nozzle is
given by the material derivative of the pressure and is not zero. Thus,
𝐷𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
= + 𝑉 ⋅ ∇𝑝 = +𝑢 +𝑣 =𝑢 +𝑣
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• x- and y- components of the pressure gradient can be written as,

𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉 𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉 𝑦
=− +1 and =−
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑙 𝜕𝑦 𝑙 𝑙
• Thus, by combining, 𝐷𝑝 𝑥 𝜌𝑉 𝑥 𝑦 𝜌𝑉 𝑦 𝐷𝑝
=−
𝜌𝑉 𝑥
+1 −
𝑦
=𝑉 1+ − + 1 + −𝑉 −
𝜕𝑝
=−
𝜌𝑉 𝑥
+1
𝐷𝑡 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 or 𝐷𝑡 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝑙 𝑙
𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉 𝑦
=−
𝜕𝑦 𝑙 𝑙
𝑢 = 𝑉 1 + 𝑥 ⁄𝑙
𝑣 = −𝑉 𝑦⁄𝑙
𝐷𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
=𝑢 +𝑣
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 31
4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates
Streamline coordinate is a coordinate system
defined in terms of the streamline of the flows
(see also Section 3.10), and denotes by:
𝑠⃗ and 𝑛
Why using the streamline coordinates?

• The velocity is always tangent to
the s direction:
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠⃗
This allows simplification in describing the

fluid particle acceleration and in solving
the equations governing the flow.
At any point, s and n directions are always

perpendicular, but the s and n lines are not
always straight.
32
Streamline Coordinates
• If the streamlines are curved, both of the speed of the particle and its
direction of flow are defined by,
• For a given particle, the value of s changes with time, but the value of n
remains fixed because the particle flows along a streamline defined by n =
constant.
• Application of the chain rule for acceleration in 2-D flow gives:
𝐷 𝑉𝑠̂ 𝐷𝑉 𝐷𝑠̂ 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑠̂ 𝜕𝑠̂ 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑠̂ 𝑑𝑛
𝑎⃗ = = 𝑠̂ + 𝑉 = + + 𝑠̂ + 𝑉 + +
𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝑑𝑡
̂
• For steady flow, , velocity along the streamline, and
particles remain on the streamline .
Thus,
33
Newton Second Law
The magnitude of is constant and equals to 1. It is a unit vector.
⃑ ⃑
The triangles AOB and A’O’B’ are similar so that: ⃑
or
Similarly, in the limit , the direction of is normal to the streamline.
Therefore:   
s s n
s
 lim

s 0

s R
Hence, the acceleration for steady, 2-D flow, in

terms of s and n: 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑠̂
𝑎⃗ = 𝑉 𝑠̂ + 𝑉 𝑉
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑉 𝑉
𝑎⃗ = 𝑉 𝑠⃗ + 𝑛
𝜕𝑠 𝑅
Streamwise acceleration, as: Normal acceleration, an:

Convective acceleration along the Centripetal acceleration (one of convective
streamline acceleration) normal to the fluid motion 34
35
Control Volume and System Representations
Control Volume: System (Control Mass):
• Volume in space (a geometry entity, independent of • Collection of matter of fixed identity, which
mass) through which fluid may flow. may move, flow, and interact with its
surroundings.
• The geometric boundary of the control volume (CV)
is called the “Control Surface (CS).” • Specific, identifiable quantity of matter.
• Can be a moving, fixed, or non-deformable. • May consist of a relatively large or
infinitesimal amount of fixed mass.
• Matter within a control volume may change with
time as the fluid flows through it. • May continually change in size and shape,
but always contains the same mass.
• Eulerian (we remain stationary and observe the
fluid behaviour as it moves). • Langrangian (we follow the fluid and observe it
as it moves)
36
Control Volume and System Representations
Control Volume: System (Control Mass):
• Volume in space (a geometry entity, • Collection of matter of fixed identity, which

independent of mass) through which fluid may may move, flow, and interact with its
flow. surroundings.
• The geometric boundary of the control volume • Specific, identifiable quantity of matter.
(CV) is called the “Control Surface (CS).” • May consist of a relatively large or
• Can be a moving, fixed, or non-deformable. infinitesimal amount of fixed mass.
• Matter within a control volume may change • May continually change in size and shape,
with time as the fluid flows through it. but always contains the same mass.
• Eulerian (we remain stationary and observe • Lagrangian (we follow the fluid and observe
the fluid behaviour as it moves). it as it moves).
37
38
Extensive and Intensive Properties
• We need a tool to shift from a system (control mass) to a control volume

and vice versa.
• The tool is the Reynolds transport theorem, but first we need to
understand about extensive and intensive properties as follows:
• B represent extensive properties (mass, linear momentum, angular

momentum, energy, and entropy).
• b represent intensive property (extensive property per unit mass), b = B/m.
Mass
Momentum
Kinetic Energy 39
Extensive and Intensive Properties
• For infinitesimal fluid particles of a system of volume and mass
• Time rate of change of an extensive property of a fluid system is then,
Similar form, different

physical interpretation
• For the control volume,

The Reynolds transport
theorem provides the
relationship between the time
rate of change of an extensive
property for a system and that
for a control volume
40
Read it yourself
Example 4.7 Time Rate of Change for a System and a Control Volume
Find flows from the fire extinguisher tank shown in Figure E4.7.
Discuss the differences between dBsys/dt and dBcv/dt if B represents
mass.
Figure E4.7
41
Read it yourself
Example 4.7 Time Rate of Change for a System and a Control Volume
• With B = m, the system mass, it follows that b = 1
and
• If mass is to be conserved, then the mass of the fluid in the system is constant, so that,
• On the other hand, some of the fluid has left the control volume through the nozzle on the
tank. Hence,
42
4.4.1 Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem – Simplified Condition
Consider a 1-D flow through a fixed control volume of a variable area duct section
At t ：BSYS(t) ≡ BCV(t)
At t + δt ： BSYS (t + δt ) ≡ BCV (t + δt ) - BⅠ (t + δt ) + BⅡ (t + δt )
The change in the amount of B in the system in the time interval δt:
𝛿𝐵 𝐵 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 − 𝐵 𝑡 𝐵 (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝐵 𝑡 𝐵 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 𝐵 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡
= = − +
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
43
Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem – Simplified Condition
Since: then: 1 2 3
𝛿𝐵 𝐵 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 − 𝐵 𝑡 𝐵 (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝐵 𝑡 𝐵 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 𝐵 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡
= = + −
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
1 Time rate of change of the amount of B within the control volume:

𝐵 (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝐵 (𝑡) 𝜕𝐵 𝜕 ∫ 𝑏𝜌𝑑𝑉̶
lim = =
→ 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2 Outflow rate of B from the control volume:
3 Inflow rate of B into the control volume:
44
Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem – Simplified Condition
• Combining to the original equation: The relationship between the time rate
of change of B for the system and that for the control volume:
(Eqn. 4.14)
or
This is a simplified version of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

valid under the restrictive assumptions as follows:
1. Fixed control volume with one inlet and one outlet,
2. uniform properties across the inlet and outlet (density,
velocity, and parameter b), and
3. velocity normal to sections (1) and (2).
45
Example 4.8 Use of the Reynolds Transport Theorem Read it yourself
Consider again the flow from the fire extinguisher from Example 4.7.
Let the extensive property of interest be the system mass (B = m, the
system mass, or b = 1) and write the appropriate form of the Reynolds
transport theorem for the flow.
Figure E4.7
46
Solution 4.8 Use of the Reynolds Transport Theorem Read it yourself
• For this case:

No inlet at section (1)
There is an outlet at section (2).
• Thus, the Reynolds transport theorem can be written as,
D𝑚 𝜕 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
= +𝜌 𝐴 𝑣
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The basic law of D𝑚

conservation of mass =0
𝐷𝑡
𝜕 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
= −𝜌 𝐴 𝑣
𝜕𝑡
47
Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem –
General Condition
In general:
1. The flow field may be quite simple (as in the above one-dimensional flow considerations),
or it may involve a quite complex, unsteady, three-dimensional situation.
2. The control volume may contain more, or less than one inlet and one outlet.
48
Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem – General Condition
Using Eqn. 4.14: 1 2 3
2 General condition - Outflow rate of B from the control volume.

𝜌𝑏𝛿𝑉̶ (𝜌𝑏𝑉 cos 𝜃 𝛿𝑡)𝛿𝐴
𝛿Ḃ = lim = lim = 𝜌𝑏𝑉 cos 𝜃 𝛿𝐴
→ 𝛿𝑡 → 𝛿𝑡
Ḃ = 𝑑Ḃ = 𝜌𝑏𝑉 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
For outflow, -90 < θ < 90, thus the value of 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 > 0
49
3 General condition - Inflow rate of B into the control volume, similarly:
Ḃ = 𝑑Ḃ =− 𝜌𝑏𝑉 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = − 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝜃 = angle between the velocity vector and the outward pointing

normal to the surface, 𝑛
For inflow, 90o < θ < 270o, thus the value of 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 < 0
At the surface, 𝐵̇= 0.
50
• The net flux (flowrate) of parameter B across the entire control

surface is
𝐵̇ − 𝐵̇ = 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − − 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
= 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 (Eqn. 4.18)
• Finally, combining Eq. 4.14 and 4.18 and using: 𝑐𝑣

𝐷 𝐵 𝜕𝐵 The General Form of Reynolds Transport Theorem
= + 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 This is the general relation between the rate of
𝜕 change of any arbitrary extensive property, B, of a
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 system and the variations of this property
𝜕𝑡
associated with a control volume.
51
4.4.2 Reynolds Transport Theorem - Physical Interpretation
𝐷 𝐵
is the time rate of change of any arbitrary extensive property B
𝐷𝑡
of the system.
𝜕
𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉̶ is the rate of change of any arbitrary extensive property B
𝜕𝑡
within the control volume at a given time.
𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 is the net flow rate of extensive property B out through the
control surface.
C
A: Inlet 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 < 0 A B
B: Outlet 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 > 0
C: Remainder of the
52
control surface 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 = 0
4.4.3 Reynolds Transport Theorem - Relationship with Material Derivative
Material Derivative:
Reynolds Transport Theorem:
Convective effect:
The effect associated with the
Unsteady effect particle’s motion.
• Both are applicable for scalars (such as T) or vectors (such as V).

• The Material Derivative is essentially the infinitesimal (or derivative) equivalent of the finite
size (or integral) Reynold Transport Theorem.
53
4.4.4 Reynolds Transport Theorem - Steady Effect
• Under steady flow, Steady, but why non-zero?
0
• For steady flows:

1. The amount of the property B within the control volume does not change with time.
2. The amount of the property B associated with the system may or may not change with
time, depending on the particular property considered and the flow situation involved.
Example of statement 2, for a black box below:
 If B is mass, according to mass conservation left-hand side of the equation must be zero.
 If B is momentum, left-hand side of the equation is not necessarily to be zero.
54
4.4.5 Reynolds Transport Theorem - Unsteady Effect
• Unsteady condition involves both change of B in control
volume, and/or a net non-zero flow across control surfaces.
• In special case where, 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0 (inflow = outflow)
𝐷𝐵 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉̶
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
• For example, in constant area pipe:
If B is momentum,
𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝚤̂ −𝑉 𝑑𝐴 + 𝜌 𝑉 𝚤̂ 𝑉 𝑑𝐴 = 0
Thus, 𝐷𝐵 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉̶
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
• Meanwhile, in variable area pipe:
In this case, inlet velocity is not the same as the outlet. Hence, the
out- flux of momentum from the control volume is not equal to
the in-flux of momentum. Thus,
𝐷𝐵 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑏𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 55
4.4.6 Moving Control Volume
In certain cases, control volume may deform,
accelerate or move. Thus, if:
𝑉 is the velocity of control volume.
𝑉 is the absolute velocity measured relative

to inertial coordinate system.
𝑊 is the relative velocity measured relative to

the moving control volume – the fluid
velocity seen by an observer riding along on
the control volume.
Then: 𝑊 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 or 𝑉 =𝑊+𝑉
Example of moving CV: Turbine blades, airplane, etc.
56
Reynolds Transport Theorem for Moving Control Volume
The Reynolds transport equation for a moving, non deforming control volume:
• Relative to the moving CV, the fluid velocity observed is the relative velocity, W.
• Therefore:
We change 𝑉 to 𝑊, where: 𝑊 = 𝑉 − 𝑉
57
4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume
• There is no wrong CV, but some are much easier to use.
• Tips:
1. Ensure that the points, associated with unknown parameters, are located on the
control surface, not buried within the control volume.
2. If possible, the control surface should be normal to the fluid velocity.
• Example: Consider three choices of CV below:
If the problem is to determine the pressure at point (1)

• (a) is better than that of (b) → Point (1) lies on the control surface.
• (a) is better than that of (c) → Flow is normal to the inlet and exit portions of the CV.
Thus, options (b) and (c)are wrong? No. It is just easier to use (a) as the CV.
58
59
Some important equations of the chapter
60
61
1
Chapter 5
Finite Control
Volume Analysis
Week – 6
Sub Chapters 5.1 – 5.2
Introduction
• Sub-Topics:
• 5.1 Conservation of Mass – The Continuity Equation
• 5.2 Newton Second Law – The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-
Momentum Equations
• After completing Chapter 5, you should be able to:

1. Select an appropriate finite control volume to solve a fluid mechanics
problem.
2. Apply conservation of mass and energy and Newton’s second law of
motion to the contents of a finite control volume to get important
answers.
3. Explain how velocity changes and energy transfers in fluid flows are
related to forces and torques.
4. Choose between the Bernoulli equation and the mechanical energy
equation for flow along a streamline.
2
This Chapter studies the analysis of Control Volume.
Laws of Physics that can be used in the analysis:

• Conservation of mass: for tracking fluid flow.
• Newton’s second law of motion: forces can result from or cause
changes in a flowing fluid velocity’s magnitude or direction.
• First law of thermodynamics: states the conservation of energy.
• Second law of thermodynamics: states that there is loss of useful
energy associated with every actual process.
3
Recall: Reynolds Transport Theorem, from Chapter 4:
The Reynolds Transport Theorem
Fundamental relation between the rate of change of any arbitrary

extensive property, B, of a system and the variations of this
property associated with a control volume.
4
Derivation of Continuity Equation
Fixed, Non-deforming Control Volume
Moving, Non-deforming Control Volume
Deforming Control Volume
5
5.1.1 Derivation of Continuity Equation
• Conservation of mass for a system (control mass):
𝐷𝑀
=0 Where: 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶
𝐷𝑡
• Using Reynolds Transport Theorem with B = mass & b = 1:

𝐷 𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 0
• If the system is steady, 𝜕𝑡
• 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 is volumetric flow rate (Q) through dA; and 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 is the mass flow rate (𝒎̇) through dA.
• By integrating the control surface, we obtain:
𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑚̇ − 𝑚̇ Where 𝑚̇ is mass flow rate (lbm/s, slug/s, or kg/s)
𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = + (net flow is out of the control volume)
𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = − (net flow is into the control volume)

6
Derivation of Continuity Equation
• Therefore, by combining the previous equations, the control volume expression for conservation
of mass/continuity equation for a fixed, non-deforming unsteady control volume is:
𝜕 Reynolds Transport Theorem can
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡 be used to derive this equation
This equation states that: to conserve mass the time rate of change of the mass of the
contents of the control volume plus the net rate of mass flow through the control
surface must equal zero.
• Meanwhile, the mass flowrate through a section of control surface having area A can be written
as:
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
If flow not uniformly ∫ 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴

distributed, use average 𝑉=
𝜌𝐴
velocity normal to the A for V.
∫ 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
If the velocity is uniformly 𝑉= =𝑉
𝜌𝐴
distributed over section A.
7
5.1.2 Fixed, Non-deforming Control Volume
• As it has been discussed before, when the flow is steady:
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 0
𝜕𝑡
• An unsteady, but cyclical flow can be considered steady on a time-average basis.
• Net amount of mass flowrate, through the control surface is therefore,
For incompressible flow
𝑚̇ − 𝑚̇ =0 𝑄 − 𝑄 =0
𝑚̇
𝑄=
(mass flow rate) 𝜌 (volume flow rate)
• When the flow is unsteady, the instantaneous time rate of change of the mass of the
contents of the control volume is not necessarily zero. When the value of,
+, mass of the contents of the control volume is increasing.
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶
𝜕𝑡
-, mass of the contents of the control volume is decreasing.
8
Fixed, Non-deforming Control Volume
When the flow is:

• Uniformly distributed over the opening in the control surface (one-
dimensional flow),
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 Where V = uniform value of velocity normal to area A.
• Non-uniformly distributed over the opening in the control surface
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 Where 𝑉 = average value of velocity normal to area A.
• For steady flow involving only one stream of a specific fluid flowing through the
control volume at sections (1) and (2), the mass flow rate is:
𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉
• For incompressible flow, the volumetric flow rate is:
• For steady flow with more than one stream going in and out:
𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇
9
Example 5.1 Conservation of Mass – Steady, Incompressible flow
• Water flows steadily through a nozzle at the end of a fire. According to local
regulations, the nozzle exit velocity must be at least 20 m/s.
• Determine the minimum pumping capacity, Q, required, in m3/s.
Schematic:
Different example in Ed. 8: Fresh air exchange rate to maintain complete change of air every 3 minutes.
10
Solution 5.1 Conservation of Mass – Steady, Incompressible flow
Assumptions:
1. Flow is steady.
3. Liquid has constant properties.
Analysis:
• Based on assumption 1,
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡 Plotted Q1 vs D2 by varying the value of D2
• The system only has one inflow and one outflow,

𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 − 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 = 0
• Because 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝜌𝑄
𝜌 𝑄 =𝜌 𝑄
• Based on assumption 2, 𝜌 =𝜌
𝜋 𝜋 40𝑚𝑚
𝑄 =𝑄 =𝐴 𝑉 =𝑉 𝐷 = 20𝑚/𝑠
4 4 1000𝑚𝑚/𝑚
= 0.0251𝑚 /𝑠 This example shows that the problem is easy when
assumed the flow is steady and incompressible. 11
(Ans.)
Example 5.2 Conservation of Mass—Steady, Compressible Flow
Air flows steadily between two sections in a long, straight portion of 4-in. inside
diameter pipe as indicated in Fig. E5.2. The uniformly distributed temperature
and pressure at each section are given. The average air velocity (non-uniform
velocity distribution) at section (2) is 1000 ft/s.
Calculate the average air velocity at section (1).
• Schematic:
12
Solution 5.2 Conservation of Mass—Steady, Compressible Flow
Assumptions:
• Steady flow
• Ideal gas
Analysis:
• Continuity Equation:
Steady flow
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑚̇ − 𝑚̇ = 0 ⇒ 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇
𝜕𝑡 CS CS
or: ρ 𝐴 𝑉 = ρ 𝐴 𝑉
ρ
• Since A = A
1 2
𝑉 =
ρ
𝑉
• Using ideal gas relation
𝑝
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
• Average velocity at section (1)
𝑝 𝑇 This example shows that the continuity equation
𝑉 = 𝑉 = 219 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 (Ans.) is also valid for compressible fluids.
𝑝 𝑇
13
Example 5.3 Conservation of Mass—Two Fluids
The inner workings of a dehumidifier are shown in Fig. E5.3a. Moist air (a
mixture of dry air and water vapor) enters the dehumidifier at the rate of 600
lbm/hr. Liquid water drains out of the dehumidifier at a rate of 3.0 lbm/hr. A
simplified sketch of the process is provided in Fig. E5.3b.
Determine the mass flowrate of the dry air and the water vapor leaving the
dehumidifier.
14
Solution 5.3 Conservation of Mass—Two Fluids
Assumption:
• Steady flow
Analysis:
• From continuity Equation
Steady flow
𝜕
𝜕𝑡 CS
𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ = 0
CS
This example shows that the continuity

𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ − 𝑚̇ = 600 𝑙𝑏𝑚/ℎ𝑟 − 3.0𝑙𝑏𝑚/ℎ𝑟 = 597𝑙𝑏𝑚/ℎ𝑟 (Ans.) equation ca be used for multiple entries
Note: Using Thermodynamics and Psychrometric Chart/calculation, one can calculate the
temperature and humidity of the air entering and leaving the dehumidifier.
15
Example 5.4 Conservation of Mass—Non-uniform Velocity Profile
Incompressible, laminar water flow develops in a straight pipe having radius R
as indicated in Figure E5.4. At section (1), the velocity profile is uniform; the
velocity is equal to a constant value U and is parallel to the pipe axis everywhere.
At section (2), the velocity profile is axisymmetric and parabolic, with zero
velocity at the pipe wall and a maximum value of umax at the centerline.
• How are U and umax related?
• How are the average velocity at section (2), , and umax related?
• Schematic:
16
Solution 5.4 Conservation of Mass—Non-uniform Velocity Profile
Assumptions:
• Steady, incompressible flow
Analysis:
• From continuity equation,
Steady flow
𝜕
𝜕𝑡 CS
• At section (1) flow is uniform,
Combine 𝜌 𝑢 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 − 𝜌 𝐴 𝑈 = 0
𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝜌 𝐴 𝑈
Since the flow is incompressible, and by inputting the eqn. of u2.
• At section (2) flow is not uniform, 𝑟
2𝜋𝑢 1− 𝑟𝑑𝑟 − 𝐴 𝑈 = 0
𝑅
𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌 𝑢 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
2𝜋𝑢 − − 𝜋𝑅 𝑈 = 0 Or: umax = 2U (Ans. a)
2 4𝑅
∫ ∫
At (2): (Ans. b)
17
(Eqn. 5.7) This example shows that the continuity equation can be used for non-uniform flows.
Example 5.5 Conservation of Mass—Unsteady Flow
A bathtub is being filled with water from a faucet. The rate of flow
from the faucet is steady at 9 gal/min. The tub volume is
approximated by a rectangular space as indicate Figure E5.5(a).
Estimate the time rate of change of the depth of water in the
tub, , in in./min at any instant.
• Schematic:
Different in Ed. 8: How

fast CO2 can fill a trench.
18
Solution 5.5 Conservation of Mass—Unsteady Flow
• The continuity equation:

𝜕
𝜕𝑡 CS
𝜕 𝜕
= 𝜌 𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌 𝑑𝑉̶ − 𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕
For air 𝜌 𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑚̇ =0 If we repeat the calculation for the
𝜕𝑡
same flow rate but different Dj:
𝜕
For water 𝜌 𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝑚̇
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
𝜌 𝑑𝑉̶ =𝜌 [ℎ(2𝑓𝑡)(5𝑓𝑡) + (1.5𝑓𝑡 − ℎ)𝐴 ]
𝜕𝑡
• Combining these two equations:
𝜕ℎ
𝜌 (10𝑓𝑡 − 𝐴 ) = 𝑚̇
𝜕𝑡
𝜕ℎ 𝑄
= 𝜕ℎ 𝑄 𝜕ℎ (9 𝑔𝑎𝑙/ min) (12 𝑖𝑛./𝑓𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 (10𝑓𝑡 − 𝐴 ) if 𝐴 << 10 𝑓𝑡 = = = 1.44 𝑖𝑛./ min
𝜕𝑡 (10 𝑓𝑡 ) 𝜕𝑡 (7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙/𝑓𝑡 )(10 𝑓𝑡 )
(Ans.)
19
5.1.3 Moving, Non-deforming Control Volume
• Examples of this case:
• gas turbine engine on an aircraft in flight,
• exhaust stack of a ship at sea, or
• gasoline tank of an automobile passing by.
• Reynolds transport theorem for a system with B = m in this case:
= ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + ∫ 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0 As it has been discussed in Chapter 4,

𝑉=𝑊+𝑉
• For moving, non-deforming control volume,
𝑉 is the velocity of control volume as seen
from Eq. 4.23: from a fixed coordinate.
𝜕 𝑉 is the absolute velocity measured relative

𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡 to inertial coordinate system.
𝑊 is the relative velocity measured relative to

For Steady flow 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
the moving control volume – the fluid
velocity seen by an observer riding along on
the control volume.
20
Example 5.6 Conservation of Mass - Compressible Flow with a
Moving Control Volume
An airplane moves forward at speed of 971 km/hr as shown in Figure E5.6 (a). The frontal intake
area of the jet engine is 0.80 m2 and the entering air density is 0.736 kg/m3. A stationary observer
determines that relative to the earth, the jet engine exhaust gases move away from the engine with a
speed of 1050 km/hr. The engine exhaust area is 0.558 m2, and the exhaust gas density is 0.515
kg/m3.
Estimate the mass flowrate of fuel into the engine in kg/hr.
• Schematic:
• Assumption:
• Steady 1D dimensional flow 21
Solution 5.6 Conservation of Mass - Compressible Flow with a Moving Control Volume
• From the continuity equation for a steady flow:

𝜕
𝐶𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉
̶+ 𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡
• Assuming one-dimensional flow:

m fuel in  1 A1W1   2 A2W2  0
m fuel in   2 A2W2  1 A1W1
Assume W1 = Vplane
W2  V2  V plane  1050km / hr  971km / hr  201kmkm/hr
2021 / hr
m fuel in  ( 0.515kg / m 3 )( 0.558m 2 )( 2021km / hr )( 1000m / km ) 
( 0.736kg / m 3 )( 0.8m 2 )( 971km / hr )( 1000m / km )

 9100kg / hr (Ans.) 22
Example 5.7 Conservation of Mass—Relative Velocity
• Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler Schematic
through its base at the steady rate of
1000 ml/s as sketched in Figure E5.7.
The exit area of each of the two
nozzles is 30 mm2.
• Determine the average speed of the
water leaving each nozzle, relative to
the nozzle, if
• (a) the rotary sprinkler head is stationary,
• (b) the sprinkler head rotates at 60 rpm,
and
• (c) the sprinkler head accelerates from 0
to 600 rpm.
23
Solution 5.7 Conservation of Mass—Relative Velocity
• Assumption:
• Steady, incompressible flow
Analysis:
• From the continuity equation:
𝜕
𝐶𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0 or 𝜌 𝐴 𝑊 − 𝜌 𝐴 𝑊 =0
𝜕𝑡
• For one inlet, two outlets, and incompressible flow:
𝜌 𝐴 𝑊 +𝜌 𝐴 𝑊 −𝜌 𝐴 𝑊 =0
Or: 𝐴 𝑊 +𝐴 𝑊 −𝐴 𝑊 =0
• With,
𝑄=𝐴 𝑊 𝐴 =𝐴 𝑊 =𝑊
• Thus,
𝑄 (1000𝑚𝑙/𝑠)(0.001𝑚 /𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟)(10 𝑚𝑚 /𝑚 )
𝑊 = = = 16.7𝑚/𝑠 (Ans.)
2𝐴 (1000𝑚𝑙/𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟)(2)(30𝑚𝑚 )
The value of W2 is independent of the speed of rotation of the sprinkler head and represents the average speed
of the water exiting from each nozzle with respect to the nozzle for cases (a), (b), and (c). But velocity of water
24
viewed from a stationary reference V2 = W2 – U, where U = 𝜔 R. The values of V2 can be calculated if required.
5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume
• A deforming control volume involves changing volume size and control
surface movement. Thus, the Reynolds Transfer Theorem can be used as:
𝐷𝑀 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Usually non-zero Relative velocity

• Since the control volume is deforming, the control surface velocity is not
necessarily uniform and identical to the control volume velocity. Thus,
for the deforming control volume:
𝑉 =𝑊+𝑉
velocity of the control surface as seen by a fixed observer
25
Example 5.8 Conservation of Mass—Deforming Control Volume
A syringe is used to inoculate a cow. The plunger has a face area of
500 mm2. The liquid in the syringe is to be injected steadily at a rate
of 300 cm3/min. The leakage rate past the plunger is 0.1 times the
volume flowrate out of the needle.
At what speed should the plunger be advanced?
• Schematic:
26
Solution 5.8 Conservation of Mass—Deforming Control Volume
Assumptions:
• Incompressible flow
• 𝐴 ≅𝐴
Analysis:
• From continuity equation:
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑚̇ + 𝜌𝑄 =0
𝜕𝑡
because,
𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝜌(ℓ𝐴 + 𝑉̶ )
−𝜌𝐴 𝑉 + 𝜌𝑄 + 𝜌𝑄 =0
𝜕 𝜕ℓ
→ 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝜌𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑄 +𝑄 𝑄 + 0.1𝑄
𝑉 = = = 660 mm/ min (Ans.)
𝜕ℓ 𝐴 𝐴
Note that, − = 𝑉 and, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄
𝜕𝑡
Vp = velocity of plunger, ℓ = length of CV. 27

Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 28
5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
• Newton’s second law of motion for a system is,
Time rate of change of the Sum of external forces
=
linear momentum of the system acting on the system
𝐷
𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝐹⃗ (Eqn. 5.19)
𝐷𝑡
• Any reference or coordinate system for which this statement is true is called
inertial. A fixed coordinate system or a coordinate moving in a straight line
and constant velocity is also inertial.
• When a control volume is coincident with a system at an instant of time,
∑ 𝐹⃗ = ∑ 𝐹⃗contents of the coincident CV . (Eqn. 5.20)
• For the system and a fixed, nondeforming control volume that are coincident at
an instant of time, 𝐷 𝜕 Reynolds transfer theorem,
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑉𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 with B = mV = momentum
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 CS
Time rate of change of Time rate of change of the Net rate of flow of
the linear momentum = linear momentum of the + linear momentum
of the coincident content of the coincident through the control
system control volume surface 29
Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
• Combining the previous 3 equations, thus, for a control volume that is
coincident with a system at an instant of time, fixed (inertial) and non-
deforming control volume, the control volume formulation of Newton’s
second law of motion becomes,
𝜕
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑉𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝑡 CS contents of the CV
Linear momentum equation
The forces involved in equation above are

body and surface forces that act on what is
contained in the control volume.
30
Example 5.10 Linear Momentum—Change in Flow Direction
As shown in Figure E5.10 (a), a horizontal jet of water exits a nozzle
with a uniform speed of V1 = 10 ft/s, strike a vane, and is turned
through an angle θ.
Determine: the anchoring forces (FAx and FAz) needed to hold the
vane stationary. Neglect gravity and viscous effects.
31
Solution 5.10 Linear Momentum—Change in Flow Direction
Assumptions:
• Gravity and viscous effects are neglected.
• Steady flow
Analysis:
• The x and z direction components of linear momentum equation
𝜕
𝑢𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹 𝑢 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 − 𝑢 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐹
𝜕𝑡 CS
𝜕 or
𝑤𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑤𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹 𝑤 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 − 𝑤 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐹
𝜕𝑡 CS
• With negligible gravity and viscous effect, V1 = V2, and :
𝐴 =𝐴
• Thus, 𝑉 cos 𝜃 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 − 𝑉 𝜌𝑉 𝐴 = 𝐹 𝐹 = −𝜌𝐴 𝑉 (1 − cos 𝜃) = −11.64(1 − cos 𝜃) 𝑙𝑏
𝑉 sin 𝜃 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 − (0)𝜌𝑉 𝐴 = 𝐹 𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 sin 𝜃 = 11.64 sin𝜃 𝑙 𝑏
32
(Ans.)
Too long to be covered in class. Read it yourself.
Example 5.11 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, and Change in Speed

• As shown in Fig. E5.11a,
water flows through a
nozzle attached to the end of
a laboratory sink faucet with
a flowrate of 0.6 liters/s.
The nozzle inlet and exit
diameters are 16 and 5 mm,
respectively, and the nozzle
axis is vertical. The mass of
the nozzle is 0.1 kg. The
pressure at section (1) is
464 kPa.
• Determine the anchoring
force required to hold the
nozzle in place.
33
Solution 5.11 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, and Change in Speed
Assumptions:
• Steady incompressible flow
• w is uniformly distributed
Analysis:
• The z direction component of linear moment equation
𝜕
𝑤𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑤𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹 − 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑊 + 𝑝 𝐴
𝜕𝑡 CS
𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = ± 𝑤 𝑑𝐴
With the “+” used for flow out of the control volume and “-” used for flow in.
• With both assumptions that have been stated above,
(−𝑚̇ )(−𝑤 ) + 𝑚̇ (−𝑤 ) = 𝐹 − 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑊 + 𝑝 𝐴
Solving for
𝐹 = 𝑚̇ 𝑤 − 𝑚̇ 𝑤 + 𝑊 + 𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴
anchor force
• From mass conservation, 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑄 = 0.599𝑘𝑔/𝑠 Thus,
𝐹 = 𝑚̇ 𝑤 − 𝑤 +𝑊 +𝑝 𝐴 +𝑊 −𝑝 𝐴
34
Solution 5.11 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, and Change in Speed
𝑄 𝑄
𝑤 = = = 2.98 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 𝜋 𝐷 /4
𝑄 𝑄
𝑤 = = = 30.6 𝑚
𝐴 𝜋 𝐷 /4
𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑔 = (0.1𝑘𝑔)(9.81𝑚/𝑠 ) = 0.981𝑁
1
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑉̶ 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝜋ℎ(𝐷 + 𝐷 + 𝐷 𝐷 ) 𝑉̶ 𝑔
12
= 0.0278 𝑁
Finally, we obtain:
𝐹 = 𝑚̇(𝑤 − 𝑤 ) + 𝑊 + 𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴
= 77.8 𝑁
(Ans.)
35
5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
Several important generalities on the application of the linear momentum equation:
𝜕
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑉𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝑡 CS contents of the CV
1. One-dimensional flows (uniformly distributed velocity) are easier to work with than
flows involving non-uniform velocity distributions.
2. Linear momentum is directional (May have components in as many as three coordinate
directions). Maybe positive or negative according to the direction of axis.
3. Inflow to CV: negative 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 product. Outflow from CV: positive 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 product.
4. For steady/unsteady flows:
𝜕 𝜕
Steady: 𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 0 Unsteady: 𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ ≠ 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
5. If the control surface is perpendicular to the flow, the surface force exerted at these
locations by fluid outside the control volume will be due to pressure. When subsonic
flow exits from a control volume into the atmosphere, p at exit = patm.
6. Forces due to atmospheric pressure acting on the control surface may need
consideration. For some cases, forces due to atmospheric pressure on the control
surface cancel each other, and calculation can use pgage.
36
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
Several important generalities about the application of the linear momentum

equation (cont.):
7. The external forces have signs, according to the coordinate direction.

8. Only external forces acting on the contents of the control volume are
considered in the linear momentum equation.
• If the fluid alone is included in a control volume, reaction forces
between the fluid and the surface or surfaces in contact with the fluid
[wetted surface] will need to be considered.
9. The force required to anchor an object will generally exist in response to
surface pressure and/or shear forces acting on the control surface, to a
change in linear momentum flow through the control volume containing
the object, and to the weight of the object and the fluid contained in the
control volume.
37
Example 5.12 Linear Momentum—Pressure and Change in Flow Direction
Water flows through a horizontal, 180° pipe bend. The flow cross-section area
is constant at a value of 0.1 ft2 through the bend. The magnitude of the flow
velocity everywhere in the bend is axial and 50 ft/s. The absolute pressure at
the entrance and exit of the bend are 30 and 24 psia, respectively.
Calculate the horizontal (x and y) components of the anchoring force required
to hold the bend in place.
• Schematic:
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible flow
38
Solution 5.12 Linear Momentum—Pressure and Change in Flow Direction
• The x direction component of linear moment equation:

𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹
CS
• At sections (1) and (2), the flow is in the y direction and therefore u = 0 at
both sections. Thus,
𝐹 =0 (Ans.)
• The y direction component of linear moment equation,

𝑣𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹 +𝑝 𝐴 +𝑝 𝐴
CS
• For one dimensional flow,
(+𝑣 )(−𝑚̇ ) + (−𝑣 )(+𝑚̇ ) = 𝐹 +𝑝 𝐴 +𝑝 𝐴
• And from conservation of mass,

𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑣 𝐴 = 9.70 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑠
• Thus,
𝐹 = −𝑚̇ 𝑣 + 𝑣 − 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝 𝐴 = −1324 𝑙𝑏 (Ans.)
39
Example 5.13 Linear Momentum—Pressure, Change in Speed, and Friction
Air flows steadily between two cross sections in a long, straight portion of 4-in.
inside diameter pipe as indicated in Figure E5.13, where the uniformly distributed
temperature and pressure at each cross section are given. If the average air velocity
at section (2) is 1000 ft/s, we found in Example 5.2 that the average air velocity at
section (1) must be 219 ft/s.
Assuming uniform velocity distributions at sections (1) and (2), determine the
frictional force exerted by the pipe wall on the air flow between sections (1) and (2).
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Ideal gas
40
Solution 5.13 Linear Momentum—Pressure, Change in Speed, and Friction
• The axial component of linear moment equation
𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝑅 + 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝 𝐴
CS
• For uniform velocity distribution, (+𝑢 )(−𝑚̇ ) + (+𝑢 )(+𝑚̇ ) = −𝑅 + 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝 𝐴

• From conservation of mass, 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇
• Thus, 𝑚̇(𝑢 − 𝑢 ) = −𝑅 + 𝐴 (𝑝 − 𝑝 )
𝑅 = 𝐴 (𝑝 − 𝑝 ) − 𝑚̇(𝑢 − 𝑢 )
• For an ideal gas,
𝑝
𝜌 =
𝑅𝑇
• Thus,
𝑝 𝜋𝐷
𝑚̇ = 𝑢 = 0.297𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑠
𝑅𝑇 4
• Finally, we can obtain that:

𝑅 =𝐴 𝑝 −𝑝 − 𝑚̇ 𝑢 − 𝑢 = 793 𝑙𝑏 (Ans.)
41
Example 5.14 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, Friction, and
Non-uniform Velocity Profile
• If the flow of Example 5.4 is

vertically upward, develop
an expression for the fluid
pressure drop that occurs
between sections (1) and (2).
42
Solution 5.14 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, Friction, and Non-uniform Velocity Profile
• The axial component of linear moment equation, from Eq. 5.22, assuming
steady flow:
Rz is the resultant force of the
𝑤𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑅 − 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴 wetted surface on the fluid
CS
⇒ (+𝑤 )(−𝑚̇ ) + (+𝑤 )𝜌(+𝑤 𝑑𝐴 ) = 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑅 − 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴 (1)
CS
with 𝑤 = 2𝑤 1 − (𝑟/𝑅)
𝑅
𝑤 𝜌(+𝑤 𝑑𝐴 ) = 𝜌 𝑤 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜌𝑤 (2)
CS 3
Combining equations (1) and (2):
4
−𝑤 𝜌𝜋𝑅 + 𝑤 𝜌𝜋𝑅 = 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑅 − 𝑊 − 𝑝 𝐴
3
𝜌𝑤 𝑅 𝑊
⇒𝑝 −𝑝 = + + (Ans.)
3 𝐴 𝐴
Note that the average velocities in (1) and (2) are the same, but the momentums are not.
∫
For non uniform flow, we can have momentum coefficient, 𝛽 = , Hence, the
momentum flux can be written as: ∫ 𝑤𝜌𝑉 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝛽 𝑤 𝜌𝜋𝑅 + 𝛽 𝑤 𝜌𝜋𝑅 .
For laminar flow, 𝛽=4/3. for turbulent flow in a pipe 𝛽 ≈1.02. For uniform flow, 𝛽=1. 43
Example 5.15 Linear Momentum-Thrust
A static thrust stand as sketched in Figure E5.15 is to be designed for testing a
jet engine. The following conditions are known for a typical test: Intake air
velocity = 200 m/s; exhaust gas velocity = 500 m/s; intake cross-section area =
1 m2; intake static pressure = -22.5 kPa = 78.5 kPa (abs); intake static
temperature = 268 K; exhaust static pressure = 0 kPa = 101 kPa (abs).
Estimate the nominal anchoring force (Fth) to design.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Ideal gas
3. 1D flow
44
Solution 5.15 Linear Momentum-Thrust
• The axial or x direction component of linear moment equation (using absolute pressures):
𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑝 𝐴 + 𝐹 − 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝 (𝐴 − 𝐴 )
CS
• For one dimensional flow, (+𝑢 )(−𝑚̇ ) + (+𝑢 )(+𝑚̇ ) = (𝑝 − 𝑝 )𝐴 − (𝑝 − 𝑝 )𝐴 + 𝐹 (1)
• From conservation of mass, 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑢 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑢 (2)
• Combining equations (1) and (2), and use gage pressure,

𝑚̇(𝑢 − 𝑢 ) = 𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝 𝐴 + 𝐹
• Then,
𝐹 = −𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑚̇(𝑢 − 𝑢 )
• Using ideal gases formula to find 𝑚̇:
𝑝
𝜌 = = 1.02 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑢 = 204𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑅𝑇
• Finally using all the data provided and calculated,

𝐹 = −𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑚̇ 𝑢 − 𝑢 = 83,700 𝑁
45
(Ans.)
Please read and try it yourself
Example 5.16 Linear Momentum—Nonuniform Pressure
A sluice gate across a channel
of width b is shown in the
closed and open position in
Figure E5.16(a) and (b).
Is the anchoring force required
to hold the gate in place larger
when the gate is closed or
when it is open?
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
3. Uniform velocity distribution
46
Please read and try it yourself
Solution 5.16 Linear Momentum—Nonuniform Pressure
• When the gate is closed, the horizontal forces acting on the contents of the control volume
are identified in Figure E5.16 (c).
0
1 1
𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑏 − 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑏
CS 2 2
• When the gate is open, the horizontal forces acting on the contents of the control volume are
identified in Figure E5.16 (d).
1 1
𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑏 − 𝑅 − 𝛾ℎ 𝑏 − 𝐹 (1)
CS 2 2
• With, the assumption of uniform velocity distribution,
𝑢𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢 𝜌 −𝑢 𝐻𝑏 + +𝑢 𝜌 +𝑢 ℎ𝑏 (2)
CS
• Thus, combining (1) and (2)
1 1
−𝜌𝑢 𝐻𝑏 + 𝜌𝑢 ℎ𝑏 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑏 − 𝑅 − 𝛾ℎ 𝑏 − 𝐹
2 2 (3)
1 1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐻 >> ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 << 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑏 − 𝛾ℎ 𝑏 − 𝐹 − 𝜌𝑢 ℎ𝑏
2 2
• Using continuity equation 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑏𝐻𝑢 = 𝜌𝑏ℎ𝑢 , Equation (3) can be rewritten as,
1 1 Since u2 > u1, then, Rx when the gate is
𝑅 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑏 − 𝛾ℎ 𝑏 − 𝐹 − 𝑚̇ 𝑢 − 𝑢 (Ans.)
2 2 opened is less than than when it is closed. 47
Inertial, Moving, Non-deforming Control Volume
• For a system and an inertial, moving, non-deforming control volume that are both
coincident at an instant of time, the Reynolds Transport Theorem (Eq. 4.23) is:
𝐷
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ =
𝜕
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑉𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 (5.23)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 CS
Combining this eq (5.23) 𝜕
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑉𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹⃗
with Eqns. 5.19 and 5.20: 𝜕𝑡 CS contents of the CV
• When the equation relating absolute, relative, and control volume velocities is used, 𝑉 = 𝑊 + 𝑉 :
𝜕
(𝑊 + 𝑉 )𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + (𝑊 + 𝑉 )𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝑡 CS contents of the control volume
• For a constant control volume velocity, Vcv, and steady flow in the control volume reference
frame:
𝜕
𝑊+𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 0
𝜕𝑡
• Also, for this inertial, non-deforming control volume:
𝑊+𝑉 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑊𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 + 𝑉 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
CS CS CS
• For steady flow, continuity equation:
𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
48
Inertial, Moving, Non-deforming Control Volume
• Combining all of the previous equations:

𝜕
(𝑊 + 𝑉 )𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + (𝑊 + 𝑉 )𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝑡 CS contents of the control volume
𝜕
𝑊+𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑊+𝑉 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑊𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 + 𝑉 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴

CS CS CS
𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
• Therefore, for an inertial, moving, nondeforming control volume, the

linear momentum equation of steady flow:
Eq. 5.29.
𝑊𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹⃗ See Example 5.17 for the
CS contents of the control volume application of this equation
49
Example 5.17 Linear Momentum—Moving Control Volume
A vane on wheels move with a constant velocity V0 when a stream of water
having a nozzle exit velocity of V1 is turned 45° by the vane as indicated in
Figure E5.17(a). (Note that this is the same moving vane considered in Section
4.4.6 earlier.) The speed of the water jet leaving the nozzle is 100 ft/s, and the
vane is moving to the right with a constant speed of 20 ft/s.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the force, R, exerted by the stream
of water on the vane surface.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
3. Uniform velocity distribution
4. Inviscid flow
5. Neglect elevation effect
50
Solution 5.17 Linear Momentum—Moving Control Volume
• The x direction component of linear moment equation, using Eq. 5.29 just derived:
𝑊 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝑅
CS
⇒ (+𝑊 )(−𝑚̇ ) + (+𝑊 cos 4 5°)(+𝑚̇ ) = −𝑅 Where: 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑊 𝐴 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑊 𝐴
• The z direction component of linear moment equation:
𝑊 𝜌𝑊 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑅 − 𝑊
CS
⇒ (+𝑊 sin 4 5°)(+𝑚̇ ) = 𝑅 − 𝑊
• From Bernoulli equation and continuity of mass:

𝑊 = 𝑊 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 = 100𝑓𝑡/𝑠 − 20𝑓𝑡/𝑠 = 80𝑓𝑡/𝑠 and 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑊 𝐴 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑊 𝐴
• Combining equations above,
𝑅 = 𝜌𝑊 𝐴 1 − cos 4 5° = 21.8 𝑙𝑏
𝑅 = 𝜌𝑊 𝐴 sin 4 5° + 𝑊 = 53 𝑙𝑏 Where: 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴 ℓ
• Finally, magnitude and direction of force exerted to the vane,

𝑅= 𝑅 +𝑅 = 57.3𝑙𝑏 The power generated by the
𝑅 (Ans.) water jet is: 𝑊̇ = 𝑅 𝑉 = ⋯ =
𝛼 = tan = 67.6°
𝑅 0.79 hp. 51
From the preceding examples:
• A flowing fluid can be forced to:
• Change direction
• Speed up or slow down
• Have a velocity profile change
• Do only some or all of the above
• Do none of the above
• Typical forces considered in this book include:
• Pressure
• Friction
• Weight
• Constraints to guide the flowing fluid (which may also move and produce power):
• Vane
• Channel
• Conduit
• Selection of CV is important.
• For determining anchoring forces, fluid and its constraint may be included in the CV.
• For determining forces between a fluid and its constraint, consider only the fluid in
the CV.
52
5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
• In many engineering problems, the moment of a force, or torque is important. In this case, the
moment of momentum is more convenient to use than the linear momentum equation.
• Applying Newton’s second law of motion to a particle of fluid:
𝐷
(𝑉𝜌𝛿𝑉̶) = 𝛿𝐹⃗ Where V is the particle’s velocity measured in an inertial reference system.
𝐷𝑡
• Taking moment of each side with respect to the origin of an inertial coordinate system,
𝐷 𝑟⃗ is the position vector from the origin of the
𝑟⃗ × (𝑉𝜌𝛿𝑉̶)
𝐷𝑡 inertial coordinate system to the fluid particle.
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝛿𝐹⃗
• Note that, by Chain Rule:
𝑉
𝐷 𝐷𝑟⃗ 𝐷 𝐷𝑟⃗
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝛿𝑉̶ = × 𝑉𝜌𝛿𝑉̶ + 𝑟⃗ × (𝑉𝜌𝛿𝑉̶) And, since: = 𝑉, 𝑉 × 𝑉 = 0
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡
0
𝐷
Then: (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝛿𝑉̶ = 𝑟 × 𝛿𝐹⃗
𝐷𝑡
53
• For a system (collection of fluid particles):

𝐷 𝐷
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝛿𝑉̶ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝛿𝐹⃗ becomes (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝛿𝑉̶ = (𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ) (5.39)
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡
The time rate of change of the Sum of external torques

= acting on the system
Moment-of-momentum of the system
• For a control volume that is instantaneously coincident with the system,
(𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ) = (𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ )
• For the system and the contents of the coincident control volume that is fixed and non-
deforming, the Reynolds transport theorem (Eq. 4.19) leads to,
𝐷 𝜕 Note:
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉) 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 (5.41) 𝑏 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑉 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑚 = (𝑟 × 𝑉)(𝜌𝑑𝑉)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Time rate of change Time rate of change of the Net rate of flow of
of the moment-of- moment-of-momentum moment-of-momentum
momentum of the = of the content of the + through the control
system coincident control surface
volume 54
• Combining,
𝐷
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝛿𝑉̶ = (𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ )
𝐷𝑡
(𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ) = (𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ )
𝐷 𝜕
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉) 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
• Therefore, for fixed and nondeforming control volume, the

moment-of-momentum equation is:
Applicable for machines that rotate around a single axis, such as: rotary lawn sprinklers, ceiling fans,
lawn mower blades, wind turbines, turbochargers, gas turbine engines, etc., called turbomachines.
55
5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
• The Moment-of-Momentum Equation that we have just derived:,
may be simplified in several ways as follows:

1. The flows are one-dimensional with uniform velocities. 𝜕
2. The flows are steady or steady-in-the-mean cyclical flows, 𝜕𝑡 (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 0 <First Term>
3. Using the axial component of the moment-of-momentum equation to analyze this flow.
Using the fixed and non-

deforming control volume which
contains within its boundaries the
spinning or stationary sprinkler
head and the portion of the water
flowing through the sprinkler
contained in the control volume.
56
Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
<Second Term>
• (𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 can be non-zero only where the fluid is crossing the CV.
• At section (1), 𝑟⃗ × 𝑉 = 0
• At section (2), 𝑟⃗ × 𝑉 = 𝑟 𝑉
• r2 is the radius from the axis of rotation to the
nozzle centerline.
• V2 is the tangential component of the velocity of
the flow exiting each nozzle as observed from a
frame of reference attached to the fixed and non-
deforming control volume.
𝑉 =𝑊+𝑈
𝑈 is the velocity of the moving nozzle as

measured relative to the fixed control surface.
𝑊 is relative velocity of exit flow as viewed from
the nozzle
𝑉 is the absolute velocity of exit flow relative to a
fixed control surface.
57
𝑟⃗ × 𝑉 “+” or “-” is obtained by

using the right-hand rule
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝑉⋅𝑛 “-” for flow into CV

“+” for flow out of CV
(𝑟⃗ × 𝑉)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 |𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = −𝑟 𝑉 +𝑚̇
Where 𝑚̇ is the total mass flowrate through both nozzles.

The mass flowrate is the same whether the sprinkler rotates or not.
The correct algebraic sign of the axial component of 𝑟⃗ × 𝑉

can be easily remembered in the following way:
If Vθ and U are in the same direction, use +
If Vθ and U are in opposite direction, use -
58
<Third Term>
• The torque term (𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ )
content of the control volume
(𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ) =𝑇 = −𝑟 𝑉 𝑚̇
content of the CV
• Interpreting Tshaft being a negative quantity to mean that the shaft torque actually oppose to the
rotation of the sprinkler arms. The shaft torque Tshaft, oppose rotation in all turbine devices.
• For Shaft Power,
𝑊̇ =𝑇 𝜔 = −𝑟 𝑉 𝑚̇𝜔
• Since the speed of each sprinkle nozzle, 𝑈 = 𝑟 𝜔

𝑊̇ =− 𝑈 𝑉 𝑚̇
• And Shaft Work per unit Mass,

W shaft Negative shaft work is work out of the control volume, that
w shaft   U 2V 2 is, work done by the fluid on the rotor and thus its shaft.
m
59
Example 5.18 Moment-of-Momentum—Torque
Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler through its base at the steady rate of 1000 ml/s as sketched in
Figure E5.18a. The exit area of each of the two nozzle is 30 mm2 and the flow leaving each nozzle is in
the tangential direction. The radius from the axis of rotation to the centerline of each nozzle is 200 mm.
Determine:
(a) The resisting torque required to hold the sprinkler head stationary.
(b) The resisting torque associated with the sprinkler rotating with a constant speed of 500 rev/min.
(c) The speed of the sprinkler if no resisting torque is applied.
Schematic:
Assumption:
1. Steady flow
3. Non-deforming CV
60
Solution 5.18 Moment-of-Momentum—Torque
a) 𝑇 = −𝑟 𝑉 𝑚̇
• Because the control volume is fixed and non deforming and the flow exiting from each nozzle
is tangential, 𝑉 = 𝑉
• Thus, 𝑇 = −𝑟 𝑉 𝑚̇
• From Example 5.7 𝑉 = 16.7𝑚/𝑠
• Thus, (1000𝑚𝑙/𝑠)(10 𝑚 /𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟)(999𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )
𝑚̇ = 𝑄𝜌 = = 0.999𝑘𝑔/𝑠
(1000𝑚𝑙/𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟)
(200𝑚𝑚)(16.7𝑚/𝑠)(0.999𝑘𝑔/𝑠)[1(𝑁/𝑘𝑔)/(𝑚/𝑠 )]
𝑇 = = −3.34𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
b) Sprinkler is rotating at 500 rpm:
• The absolute velocity of the fluid leaving each nozzle,
𝑉 =𝑊 −𝑈
where 𝑊 = 16.7𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑈 = 𝑟 𝜔
(200𝑚𝑚)(500𝑟𝑒𝑣/ min) (2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑟𝑒𝑣)
𝑉 = 16.7𝑚/𝑠 − = 6.2𝑚/𝑠
(1000𝑚𝑚/𝑚)(60𝑠/ min)
61
Solution 5.18 Moment-of-Momentum—Torque
thus, the resisting torque on the sprinkle,

𝑇 = −𝑟 𝑉 𝑚̇
(200𝑚𝑚)(6.2𝑚/𝑠)(0.999𝑘𝑔/𝑠)[1(𝑁/𝑘𝑔)/(𝑚/𝑠 )]
𝑇 =− = −1.24𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
c) When no resisting torque is applied to the rotating sprinkler head, 𝑇 = −𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝑟 𝜔)𝑚̇ = 0

Thus,
𝑊 (16.7𝑚/𝑠)(1000𝑚𝑚/𝑚)
𝜔= = = 83. 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 = 797𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑟 (200𝑚𝑚)
62
• When the moment-of-momentum equation is applied to a more general, steady one-
dimensional flow through a rotating machine, we obtain,
The “-” is used with mass flowrate into the control volume, min,
and the “+” is used with mass flowrate out of the control
volume, mout, to account for the sign of the dot product.
The “+” or “-” is used with the rV product depends on
the direction of 𝑟⃗ × 𝑉
A simple way to determine the sign of the rV product is
to compare the direction of V and the blade speed U.
If V and U are in the same direction, the
product rV is positive.
If V and U are in opposite direction, the
product rV is negative.
63
• The shaft power,

𝑊̇ =𝑇 𝜔
𝑇 = −𝑚̇ ±𝑟 𝑉 + 𝑚̇ ±𝑟 𝑉
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ±𝑟 ω𝑉 + 𝑚̇ ±𝑟 ω𝑉
• Since, 𝑈=𝑟 𝜔
Use “+” if U and V are at the
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ±𝑈 𝑉 + 𝑚̇ ±𝑈 𝑉 same direction. “-”
otherwise.
• From conservation of mass, 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ W is “+” if power is into the
fluid (a pump), “-” for a
• Thus, shaft work per unit of mass, turbine.
W shaft
w shaft    U in Vθin    U outVθout  See Example 5.19
m
64
Example 5.19 Moment of Momentum – Power
An air fan has a bladed rotor of 12-in. outside
diameter and 10-in. inside diameter as
illustrated in Figure E5.19(a). The height of
each rotor is constant at 1 in. from blade inlet
to outlet. The flowrate is steady, on a time-
average basis, at 230 ft3/min, and the absolute
velocity of the air at blade inlet, V1, is radial.
The blade discharge angle is 30° from the
tangential direction.
If the rotor rotates at a constant speed of 1725
rpm, estimate the power required to run the
fan.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
65
Solution 5.19 Moment of Momentum – Power
0 (V1 is radial)
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ±𝑈 𝑉 + 𝑚̇ ±𝑈 𝑉
• Mass flow rate entering the CV, 𝑚̇ = ρ𝑄 = 0.00912𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑠 = 0.294𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑠
• Rotor exit blade speed,

(6𝑖𝑛. )(1725𝑟𝑝𝑚)(2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑟𝑒𝑣)
𝑈 =𝑟𝜔= = 90.3𝑓𝑡/𝑠
(12𝑖𝑛./𝑓𝑡)(60𝑠/ min)
• In order to determine fluid tangential speed at fan rotor exit,

𝑉 =𝑊 +𝑈 𝑉 = 𝑈 − 𝑊 cos 3 0° 𝑊 sin 3 0° = 𝑉
𝑚̇ = ρ𝑄 = ρ𝐴 𝑉 = ρ2π𝑟 ℎ𝑉
𝑚̇
𝑊 = = 29.3𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝜌2𝜋𝑟 ℎ sin 3 0°
• Thus, 𝑉 = 𝑈 − 𝑊 cos 3 0° = 64.9𝑓𝑡/𝑠
• And finally, 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇𝑈 𝑉 = 0.097ℎ𝑝

66
67
1
Chapter 5
Finite Control
Volume Analysis
Week – 7
Sub Chapters 5.3 – 5.4
Class Session Introduction
• Sub-Topic:
• 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics – The Energy Equation
• 5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics – Irreversible Flow (not covered)
• After completing Chapter 5, you should be able to:

1. select an appropriate finite control volume to solve a fluid mechanics
problem.
2. apply conservation of mass and energy and Newton’s second law of
motion to the contents of a finite control volume to get important
answers.
3. know how velocity changes and energy transfers in fluid flows are
related to forces and torques.
4. understand why designing for minimum loss of energy in fluid flows is
important.
2
5.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics-
The Energy Equation
Derivation of Energy Equation
Application of Energy Equation
Comparison of Energy Equation with Bernoulli Equation
Application of Energy Equation to Non-uniform Flows
Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment of Momentum
3
5.3.1 Derivation of Energy Equation
• The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy) for a system states that,
Time rate of increase Net time of energy addition Net time rate of energy
of the total stored = by heat transfer into the + addition by work
energy of the system system transfer into the system
𝐷
or 𝑒 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝑄̇ − 𝑄̇ + 𝑊̇ − 𝑊̇
𝐷𝑡 𝑊̇net in
+ into the system
𝐷 𝑄̇net in - out from the system
or 𝑒 𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ = 𝑄̇net in + 𝑊̇net in
𝐷𝑡
Where the total stored energy per unit mass in the system, e,
𝑉
𝑒=𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧
2
Total stored Internal Kinetic Potential Chemical and nuclear
energies stored are not
energy per = energy per + energy per + energy per
unit mass of unit mass unit mass unit mass considered in this
the system course.
4
• For the control volume that is coincident with the system at an instant of
time:
• For the system and the contents of the coincident control volume that is
fixed and non-deforming -- Reynolds Transport Theorem (with b = e) leads
to: 𝐷 𝜕
𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉
̶= 𝐶𝑉 𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉
̶+ 𝐶𝑆 𝑒𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Net time rate of increase of The net rate of flow of the
Time rate of increase of total stored energy out of the
the total stored energy of
the total stored energy = + control volume through the
the contents of the control
of the system control surface
volume
• Combining all of the previous equations, the control volume formula for
the first law of thermodynamics then:
𝑐𝑣
5
• Power or the rate of work transferred into through the CS by the shaft work (positive for
work input, negative for work transferred out):
𝑊̇ =𝑇 𝜔
• If more than one shaft is involved:
𝑊̇Shaft net in = 𝑊̇Shaft in − 𝑊̇Shaft out
• Power done by fluid local normal stress, 𝝈 (= -p) at the CS:
𝛿Ẇnormal = 𝛿𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑉 = 𝜎𝑛𝛿𝐴 ⋅ 𝑉 = −𝑝𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝛿𝐴
(Flow Work, only at entrance (+) and exit (-),
𝑊̇ = σ𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝑝𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 0 at the pipe wall)
• Power done by shear stresses at the CS:
(tangential shear force is perpendicular to V at entrance and
δ𝑊̇tangential stress = δ𝐹⃗tangential stress ⋅ 𝑉 exit, and V = 0 at the pipe wall. Therefore, this work = 0)
• With other types of power equal to zero:
𝜕
𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + 𝑒𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄̇ + 𝑊̇ − 𝑝𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 Note: 𝑒 = 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡
Energy 𝜕 𝑝 𝑉
𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + (𝑢 + + + 𝑔𝑧)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄̇ / + 𝑊̇ /
Equation: 𝜕𝑡 𝜌 2
6
5.3.2 Application of Energy Equation
𝜕 𝑝 𝑉
𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉̶ + (𝑢 + + + 𝑔𝑧)𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄̇ / + 𝑊̇ /
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 2
𝜕
• First term: When steady, or cyclical: 𝐶𝑉𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉
̶=0
𝜕𝑡
• Second term:
𝑝 𝑉
𝐶𝑆 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 Nonzero only when fluid crosses the CS.
𝜌 2
When flow is uniformly distributed across c.s.a.:

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
𝐶𝑆 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚̇ − 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚̇
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝜌 2
If only one stream entering and leaving, remove the 𝛴:
𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
𝐶𝑆 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢 + + + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚̇ − 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚̇
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝜌 2
7
Application of Energy Equation
• If shaft work is included, for one-dimensional, cyclical (steady), and involves only one
stream of fluid entering and leaving the control volume (𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇), then:
𝑝 𝑝 𝑉
−𝑉
𝑚̇ 𝑢 −𝑢 + − + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇ + 𝑊̇
𝜌 𝜌 2
𝑝
• As enthalpy is defined as: ℎ = 𝑢 +
𝜌
• The energy equation can then be written in terms of enthalpy:
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑚̇ ℎ −ℎ + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇net in + 𝑊̇shaft net in
2
• If the flow is truly steady throughout (so that no work is done since fluid machines
involve locally unsteady flow), one-dimensional, and only one fluid stream is involved,
then the shaft work is zero and the energy balance becomes:
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑚̇ ℎ −ℎ + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇net in
2
8
Example 5.20 Energy-Pump Power
A pump delivers water at a steady rate
of 300 gal/min as shown in Figure
E5.20. Just upstream of the pump
[section(1)] where the pipe diameter is
3.5 in., the pressure is 18 psi. Just
downstream of the pump [section (2)]
where the pipe diameter is 1 in., the
pressure is 60 psi. The change in water
elevation across the pump is zero. The
rise in internal energy of water, u2-u1,
associated with a temperature rise Assumptions:
across the pump is 93 ft·lb/lbm. 1. Steady flow
2. Adiabatic CV
If the pumping process is considered to 3. No elevation change
be adiabatic, determine the power (hp) 4. Flow uniformly distributed
required by the pump.
9
Solution 5.20 Energy-Pump Power
• One-dimensional energy equation for steady-in-the-mean flow,

= 0 (Adiabatic flow)
𝑝 𝑝 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑚̇ 𝑢 −𝑢 + − + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇ + 𝑊̇
𝜌 𝜌 2
(1.94𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 )(300𝑔𝑎𝑙/ min) (32.174𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔

𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 = = 41.8 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑠
(7.48𝑔𝑎𝑙/𝑓𝑡 )(60𝑠/ min)
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= = 𝑉 = = 10.0𝑓𝑡/𝑠 𝑉 = = 123𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐴 𝜋𝐷 /4 𝐴 𝐴
• Input all known data, we finally obtain

Due to internal energy(temperature) change : 7.09 hp
𝑊̇ = 32.2 ℎ𝑝
Due to pressure change: 7.37 hp
(Ans.) Due to increase of KE: 17.8 hp.
Analysis is similar to those done in Thermodynamics

10
Example 5.21 Energy-Turbine Power per Unit Mass of Flow
• A steam turbine generator unit used
to produce electricity is shown in Fig.
E5.21a. Assume the steam enters a
turbine with a velocity of 30 m/s and
enthalpy, h1, of 3348 kJ/kg. The steam
leaves the turbine as a mixture of
vapor and liquid having a velocity of
60 m/s and an enthalpy of 2550
kJ/kg. The flow through the turbine is
adiabatic, and changes in elevation
are negligible.
• Determine the work output involved
per unit mass of steam through-flow.
11
Solution 5.21 Energy-Turbine Power per Unit Mass of Flow
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
3. Adiabatic CV
4. No elevation change
Analysis: = 0 (Adiabatic flow)
𝑚̇ 𝑢 −𝑢 + − + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇ + 𝑊̇
𝜌 𝜌 2
𝑊̇ 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑤̇ = =ℎ −ℎ +
𝑚̇ 2
𝑤̇ = −𝑤̇
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑤̇ =ℎ −ℎ + = 797 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2
(Ans.)
12
Example 5.22 Energy-Temperature Change
• The 420-ft waterfall shown in Fig. Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
E5.22a involves steady flow from 2. Adiabatic system
one large body of water to another. 3. Incompressible flow
• Determine the temperature

change associated with this flow .
13
Solution 5.22 Energy-Temperature Change
• The temperature change is related to the change of internal energy of the water,
𝑢 −𝑢
𝑇 −𝑇 =
𝑐̆
where 𝑐̆ = 1 Btu/(lbm ⋅ °R) is the specific heat of water
• One-dimensional energy equation for steady-in-the-mean flow without shaft work,

V1 = 0, V2 = 0 0 (Adiabatic flow)
𝑚̇ 𝑢 − 𝑢 + − + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇
𝜌 𝜌 2
• Thus,
𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) (32.2𝑓𝑡/𝑠 )(420𝑓𝑡)
𝑇 −𝑇 = = = 0.540°𝑅
𝑐̆ [778𝑓𝑡 ⋅ 𝑙𝑏/(𝑙𝑏𝑚 ⋅ °𝑅)][32.2(𝑙𝑏𝑚 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡)/(𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑠 )]
(Ans.)
(It takes a considerable potential energy to produce even a small increase of temperature)
14
5.3.3 The Mechanical Energy Equation and the Bernoulli Equation
• As it has been discussed before, for truly steady (no W), incompressible flow
(constant ), one-dimensional flow, the Energy Equation becomes:
• Divide this equation by , and rearranging:
• In the mean-time, the Bernoulli Equation derived from Newton’s law is:
• Therefore, the Energy Equation becomes the Bernoulli Equation when it is

frictionless, or when:
15
Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation
• For steady, incompressible, frictional flow,

• Therefore, in the energy equation below:
We can consider as equal to useful or available energy,

and: as loss of useful or available energy.
Thus, we can rewrite the energy equation as:
16
Example 5.23 Energy – Effect of Loss of Available Energy
As shown in Fig. E5.23a, air flows from a room through two
different vent configurations: a cylindrical hole in the wall having
a diameter of 120 mm and the same diameter cylindrical hole in
the wall but with a well-rounded entrance. The room pressure is
held constant at 1.0 kPa above atmospheric pressure. Both vents
exhaust into the atmosphere. As discussed in Section 8.4.2, the
loss in available energy associated with flow through the
cylindrical vent from the room to the vent exit is 0.5V22/2 where
V2 is the uniformly distributed exit velocity of air. The loss in
available energy associated with flow through the rounded
entrance vent from the room to the vent exit is 0.05V22/2, where
V2 is the uniformly distributed exit velocity of air.
Compare the volume flowrates associated with the two
different vent configurations.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
17
Solution 5.23 Energy – Effect of Loss of Available Energy
• For steady, incompressible flow with friction, the energy equation

No elevation change V1 = 0 No elevation change
𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑙 𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑉
𝑉 = 2 − 𝑙 𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑙 𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾
𝜌 2
KL is the loss coefficient (KL =
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑉
𝑉 = 2 −𝐾 0.5 and 0.05 for the two vent
𝜌 2 configurations involved
𝑝 −𝑝
𝑉 =
𝜌 1 + 𝐾 /2
𝜋𝐷 𝑝 −𝑝 𝑄 = 0.372𝑚 /𝑠 Cylindrical, KL = 0.5 Rounded entrance passes

𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 = more air. Sharp/cylindrical
4 𝜌 1 + 𝐾 /2 𝑄 = 0.445𝑚 /𝑠 Rounded, KL = 0.05 entrance create higher
losses.
(Ans.) 18
Example 5.24 Energy-Fan Work and Efficiency
• An axial-flow ventilating fan driven by a
motor that delivers 0.4 kW of power to
the fan blades produces a 0.6-m
diameter axial stream of air having a
speed of 12 m/s. The flow upstream of
the fan involves negligible speed.
Determine how much of the work to the
air actually produces useful effects, that
is, fluid motion and a rise in available
energy.
• Estimate the fluid mechanical efficiency
of this fan.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Neglect effects on elevation
19
Solution 5.24 Energy-Fan Work and Efficiency
• For steady, incompressible flow with friction and shaft work,

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = + + 𝑔𝑧 − + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
• p1 = p2 = 0 = atmospheric pressure; V1 = 0; z1 = z2 = no elevation change

𝑉
𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = = 72.0𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚/𝑘𝑔
2
• Efficiency
𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 0.4 kW
𝜂=
𝑤
𝑊̇ 𝑊̇
𝑤 = = = 95.8𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚/𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 𝜌𝐴𝑉
• Thus, 𝜂 = 0.752
(Ans.) Note: about 75% power was delivered to the air, 25% lost to air friction
20
For 1-D, Incompressible, Steady-in-the-mean flow with Friction and Shaft Work
such as in Pumps, Blowers, Fans and Turbines
• For steady, incompressible flow with friction and shaft work:
𝑚̇ 𝑢 −𝑢 + − + +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 = 𝑄̇ + 𝑊̇
𝜌 𝜌 2
• Divide this equation by 𝑚̇:
𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 − (𝑢 −𝑢 −𝑞 )
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
This is called the mechanical energy equation
or 𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉 or the extended Bernoulli equation.
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 Unit: energy per unit mass
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
[ft.lb/slug = ft2/s2 or N.m = m2/s2]
• If multiplied by density:
𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉 Energy per unit volume
𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 =𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 + 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 [lb/ft2, or N/m2]
2 2
• If divided by acceleration of gravity:

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉 Energy per unit weight
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧 +ℎ −ℎ [ft or m]
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Total 𝑤shaft net in 𝑊̇shaft net in 𝑊̇shaft net in 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Shaft work head ℎ = ≡ =
Head loss ℎ =
Head, H 𝑔 𝑚̇𝑔 𝛾𝑄 𝑔 21
Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation
𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
Define a total head 𝐻 = + + 𝑧, then: + +𝑧 = + +𝑧 +ℎ −ℎ
becomes: Hout = Hin + hs - hL
Where:
𝑤shaft net in 𝑊̇shaft net in 𝑊̇shaft net in

Shaft head ℎ =
𝑔
≡
𝑚̇𝑔
=
𝛾𝑄
(-) for turbine, (+) for pump
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Head loss ℎ = always reduces Hout
𝑔
When hL = 0, then: hs = Hout – Hin = ideal head change

22
Example 5.25 Energy-Head Loss and Power Loss
The pump shown in Fig. E5.25a adds 10 horsepower to the water as it pumps
water from the lower lake to the upper lake. The elevation difference between
the lake surfaces is 30 ft and the head loss is 15 ft.
Determine the flowrate and the power loss associated with this flow.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow.
2. Incompressible fluid.
23
Solution 5.25 Energy-Head Loss and Power Loss
• The energy equation,

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧 +ℎ −ℎ
𝑝 =𝑝 =0 𝑉 =𝑉 =0
• The pump head,

𝑊̇ /
ℎ =ℎ +𝑧 −𝑧 = = 88.1/𝑄 = 15 ft + 30 ft = 45 ft
𝛾𝑄
• The flow rate,
𝑄 = 1.96𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
• Power loss,
𝑊̇ = 𝛾𝑄ℎ = 3.33ℎ𝑝 (Ans.)
24
5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Non-uniform Flows
• If the velocity profile at any section where flow crosses the control surface is not uniform,
𝑉
𝐶𝑆
2
𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 require special attention.
• For one stream of fluid entering and leaving the control volume,
𝑉 𝛼 𝑉 𝛼 𝑉
𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑚̇ −
2 2 2
Where  is the kinetic energy coefficient and 𝑽 is the average velocity.
 ≥ 1 for any velocity profile,  = 1 for uniform flow.
where: or:
• For non-uniform velocity profile,

𝑝 𝛼 𝑉𝑝 𝛼 𝑉
+ + 𝑔𝑧
+ =
+ 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 energy per unit mass basis
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝜌𝛼 𝑉 𝜌𝛼 𝑉
𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 =𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 + 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌(𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠) energy per unit volume basis
2 2
𝑝 𝛼 𝑉 𝑝 𝛼 𝑉 𝑤
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧 + −ℎ energy per unit weight basis
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝑔
25
Example 5.26 Energy-Effect of Non-uniform Velocity Profile
The small fan shown in Figure E5.26 moves air at a
mass flowrate of 0.1 kg/min. Upstream of the fan, the
pipe diameter is 60 mm, the flow is laminar, the
velocity distribution is parabolic, and the kinetic
energy coefficient, α1, is equal to 2.0. Downstream of
the fan, the pipe diameter is 30 mm, the flow is
turbulent, the velocity profile is quite uniform, and
the kinetic energy coefficient, α2 , is equal to 1.08.
If the rise in static pressure across the fan is 0.1 kPa
and the fan motor draws 0.14 W, compare the value
of loss calculated: (a) assuming uniform velocity
distributions, (b) considering actual velocity
distribution.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Laminar flow in Section (1) and turbulent flow in Section (2)
3. Uniform velocity (problem a)
26
Solution 5.26 Energy-Effect of Non-uniform Velocity Profile
• The energy equation for non-uniform velocity profile,

𝑝 𝛼 𝑉 𝑝 𝛼 𝑉
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 / − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝑝 −𝑝 𝛼 𝑉 𝛼 𝑉
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤 − + −
𝜌 2 2
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑤 / =
𝑚̇
(0.14𝑊)[(1𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚/𝑠)/𝑊]
= (60𝑠/ min) = 84.0𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚/𝑘𝑔
0.1𝑘𝑔/ min
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝑉 = = 0.479𝑚/𝑠 𝑉 = = 1.92𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝐴 𝜌𝐴
27
Solution 5.26 Energy-Effect of Non-uniform Velocity Profile
• For uniform velocity profile,

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤 / − + −
𝜌 2 2
𝑚
= 0.975 𝑁 ⋅ for 𝛼 = 𝛼 = 1
𝑘𝑔
(Ans.)
• For non-uniform velocity profile,

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤 / − + −
𝜌 2 2
𝑚
= 0.940 𝑁 ⋅ for 𝛼 = 2, 𝛼 = 1.08
𝑘𝑔
(Ans.)
The difference of loss is not significant compared to the value of wshaft net in (80 N.m/kg).
28
Read it yourself
Example 5.27 Energy-Effect of Non-uniform Velocity Profile

• Apply Eq. 5.87 to develop an expression
for the fluid pressure drop that occurs
between sections (1) and (2). By
comparing the equation for pressure
drop obtained presently with the result of
Example 5.14, obtain an expression for
loss between sections (1) and (2).
Assumption:
1. Steady flow
29
Solution 5.27 Energy-Effect of Non-uniform Velocity Profile Read it yourself
• The equation used,

𝑝 𝛼 𝑉 𝑝 𝛼 𝑉
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 / − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
• Solving for pressure drop,

𝛼 𝑤̄ 𝛼 𝑤̄
𝑝 −𝑝 =𝜌 − +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
2 2
∫ 𝐴 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝐴
𝛼 =
𝛼 =1 𝑚̇𝑤̄
• Substituting velocity profile to the equation,

𝜌 ∫ 2𝑤 1 − 𝑟 ⁄𝑅 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝛼 = From conservation of mass, A1 = A2, thus, 𝑤 = 𝑤̄
𝜌𝐴 𝑤̄ 𝑤̄
• Thus, 𝛼 =
16
1 − 3 𝑟 ⁄𝑅 + 3 𝑟 ⁄𝑅 − 𝑟 ⁄𝑅 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 2
𝑅
30
Solution 5.27 Energy-Effect of Non-uniform Velocity Profile Read it yourself
2𝑤̄ 1𝑤̄
𝑝 −𝑝 =𝜌 − +𝑔 𝑧 −𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
2 2
• Based on conservation of mass, 𝑤̄ = 𝑤̄ = 𝑤̄

𝜌𝑤̄
𝑝 −𝑝 = + 𝜌𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝜌 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
2
𝑊
𝜌𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧 =
𝐴
𝜌𝑤̄ 𝑊
• Thus: 𝑝 −𝑝 =
2
+ + 𝜌 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐴
• From Example 5.14:
• Therefore: (Ans.)
31
5.3.5 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-
Momentum Equation
The combination involves Eqs. 5.54 and 5.82:
Eqn. 5:82: 𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
W shaft
Eqn. 5:54: w
shaft    U in Vθin    U outVθout 
m
Example 5.28 Energy-Fan Performance:

For the fan of Example 5.19, show that only some of the
shaft power into the air is converted into a useful effect.
Develop a meaningful efficiency equation and a
practical means for estimating lost shaft energy.
32
Solution 5.28 Energy-Fan Performance
Eqn. 5:54:
Eqn. 5:82:
𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉 W shaft
𝜌
+
2
+ 𝑔𝑧 = +
𝜌 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 w shaft    U in Vθin    U outVθout 
m
useful effect = 𝑤shaft net in − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉 {[(𝑝 /𝜌) + (𝑉 /2) + 𝑔𝑧 ] − [(𝑝 /𝜌) + (𝑉 /2) + 𝑔𝑧 ]}
𝜂=
= + + 𝑔𝑧 − + + 𝑔𝑧 𝑈 𝑉
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
Provides us with a practical means to
evaluate the efficiency of the fan
Efficiency 𝑤 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜂=
𝑤
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑉 − [(𝑝 /𝜌 + 𝑉 /2 + 𝑔𝑧 ) − (𝑝 /𝜌 + 𝑉 /2 + 𝑔𝑧 )]
Provides us with a useful method of

From momentum equation (Eq. 5.54),
evaluating the loss due to fluid friction
𝑤 = +𝑈 𝑉 in the fan
(Ans.)
33
Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy Equation
Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
Note: 5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics: will not be covered in this course. 34
5.4.1 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy
Equation
• Applying 1-D, steady flow energy equation of the CV:
• The first T-ds Equation for all pure substances:
• Combining both equations:
• Or, dividing by 𝒎̇ and letting: , then:
35
5.4.2 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second
Law of Thermodynamics
• A general statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics:
• The right-hand side:
• The left-hand side, using the Reynolds Transport Theorem:

• Combining:
36
• At any instant for steady flow:
• If only one stream through the CV and if the properties are uniformly distributed (1-D),
then the last two equations become:
• For infinitesimally thin CV:
• If all of the fluid in the infinitesimally thin and CV is at uniform temperature, T:
or
= for any steady and reversible (frictionless) flow.

> for any steady and irreversible (friction) flow.
37
5.4.3 Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics
• Combining equations: and
• Then:
= for any steady and reversible (frictionless) flow.
> for any steady and irreversible (friction) flow.
• This equation can also be written as:
Loss = 0 for any steady and reversible flow.

Loss > 0 for any steady and irreversible flow.
• Therefore, for steady frictionless flow, Newton’s second law of motion, and the first and
second laws of thermodynamics lead to the same differential equation:
38
• If shaft work is involved, then for the infinitesimally thin CV, it can derived:
• Combining: and:
• For incompressible flow: , then:

Integrating for a finite CV, we obtain:
• For compressible flow, , then:
Indicating that is not equal to loss.
39
40
Some Important Equations of the
Chapter
41
42

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1

MS2220 Basic Fluid Mechanics

Solid deforms or bends Fluid continuously deforms

The dimension of this equation is,

Restricted homogeneous equation: restricted to a particular system of units.

Force N = kg/m.s2 lb = m (slugs) × g (ft / sec2) lb (lbf)

Redefining the SI Unit (http://www.npl.co.uk/si-units/redefining-the-si-units/):

Example: kN = kilonewtons = 103 N

Try Example 1.2 on unit conversion

Study of Fluid Mechanics:

Now: study the fluid properties first.

Symbol: ρ (rho) γ (gamma) SG

ρ H2O , 4oC ＝ 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3

New constant added to the equation, known as absolute viscosity,

• The constant of proportionality is  and is called the

Fluids for which the shearing stress is not

The slope is called the apparent viscosity, μap.

Examples Many colloidal Water-corn starch Toothpaste and

At low shear, non-Newtonian fluid have the same behaviour as

Figure B.1 Figure B.2

The bulk modulus has dimensions of pressure: FL-2: psi or Pa.

and, if ideal gas: 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇 Try Example 1.7 on

• The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a

Swimming An ant and a water drop

(non wetting liquid,

MS2220 Basic Fluid Mechanics

Because we consider this element as a point,

We can conclude that,

For this case, forces acting on the mass of

Let p be the pressure at the center of the

For simplicity, the surface forces

The resultant force acting on the element, in vector form, is:

Where: Is the gradient or “del” vector operator

Since the z axis is vertical, the weight of the element is:

Or: This is the general equation of motion for a

Body forces only occur due to gravity.

Additionally, volume and gρ are,

Finally the body force is formulated by,

Pressure at the right face

Using the same derivation as in the previous slide, pressure force in x

The pressure force in z direction

• The net surface forces acting on the element

These are the vector form of

• Finally, the surface force of the element is:

• Combining both body force and surface force we obtain,

• Further combining equation above with,

• the result become,

This is the general equation of motion

• Therefore, for fluid at rest, pressure varies with elevation as:

• For flowing fluid, see Chapters 3, 6 and 9.

Where: h = z － z ，h is the depth of fluid

measured downward from the location of p2.

This type of pressure distribution is called a hydrostatic distribution. 21

• The pressure difference between two points in a fluid at rest:

h (m) is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height

• The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is

• The required equality of pressure at equal elevations

• The transmission of fluid

• The pressure at the tank bottom (2):

• By separating the variables, and then integrating the equation, assuming

• Usually, it is safe to assume g is constant. If we need to assume g is not constant,

• To integrate the equation, we need to know the nature of temperature variation

From the figure, the variation of p