1

Chapter 3
Elementary Fluid
Dynamics– The
Bernoulli Equation
MS2220 Basic Fluid Mechanics
Week - 4
Introduction

• Sub-Topics:
1. Newton’s Second Law
2. F = m.a Along a Streamline
3. F = m.a Normal to a Streamline
4. Physical Interpretation and Alternate Forms of Bernoulli Equation
5. Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressures
6. Examples of the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
7. The Energy Line (EL) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
8. Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

• After completing this week chapter, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the application of Newton’s Second Law to fluid flows,
2. Explain the development, uses, and limitations of the Bernoulli equation,
3. Use the Bernoulli equation (stand-alone or in combination with the continuity
equation) to solve simple flow problems,
4. Apply the concepts of static, stagnation, dynamic and total pressures, and
5. Calculate various flow properties using the energy and hydraulic grade lines.

2
3
3.1 Newton’s Second Law
• As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it may experience an
acceleration or deceleration.
• Newton’s second law of motion:

Force Mass Particle’s

particle acceleration

• Assume: no friction, therefore no shear stress, therefore no viscosity

(inviscid), while other forces (such as due to gravity and pressure difference)
are more dominant.
• For inviscid or frictionless flow, the fluid motion is only governed by p and
g, or:

4
Newton’s Second Law

• Another assumption: Steady flow:

no property changes with time at
a given location in the flow field.

Coordinate System:
• To apply the Newton’s second law rectangular (x, y, z) cylindrical (r, , z)
to a fluid, an appropriate
coordinate system must be
chosen to describe the motion.
• In general, the motion will be 3-D and
unsteady so that three space
coordinates and time must be used.
Most used coordinates in fluid
mechanics are rectangular and
cylindrical coordinates.

5
Newton’s Second Law
• However, notice that each particle slides along its path with lines tangent to the velocity
vectors throughout the flow field are called streamlines.
• The particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t), obtained from the
particle speed V = ds/dt, along the streamline from some convenient origin, and the local
radius of curvature of the streamline, R = R(s), that shape the streamline.
• The streamline can be described by streamline coordinates: , and to allow
simplification of the equations because velocity is always tangent to the streamlines.

We will use streamline

(s-n) coordinates in
this chapter

6
Streamline Coordinates
• If the streamlines are curved, the speed of the particle and its direction of flow
are defined by,
𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑠, 𝑛, 𝑡) 𝑠⃗ = 𝑠⃗(𝑠, 𝑛, 𝑡)
• For a given particle, the value of s changes with time, but the value of n remains
fixed because the particle flows along a streamline defined by n = constant.
• The acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity of the particle:
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑎⃗ = = 𝑎 𝑠⃗ + 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑉 𝑠⃗ + 𝑛 Note: 𝑎 = = = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑅
(Chain rule of differentiation)
Stream wise acceleration: Normal acceleration:
Acceleration along the streamline Acceleration normal to the streamline

• Possible accelerations: Note: As will be discussed in Section

3.6.2, for incompressible flow, the
velocity is inversely proportional
to the streamline spacing.
Therefore, converging flowlines
produce acceleration.
7
F ma

8
F = ma along a Streamline

• Consider the small fluid particle of size of s by n

in the plane of the figure, and y normal to the figure.
Forces are only due to p and g.
• For steady flow, the component of Newton’s second
law along the streamline direction is:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑚 𝑎 = 𝛿𝑚 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝛿𝑉̶ 𝑉
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

𝑉̶ = Volume = 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑦
𝑉 = Velocity
𝛿𝐹 = sum of the s components of all
the force acting on the particle.

• Valid for compressible and incompressible fluids

(𝜌 may vary along the flow field).
9
 F = ma along a Streamline
One term Taylor-
series expansion
• The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the
streamline direction:
𝛿𝑊 = −𝛿𝑊 sin 𝜃 = −𝛾𝛿𝑉̶ sin 𝜃

• The net pressure force on the particle in the

streamline direction:
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑛𝛿𝑦 − 𝑝 + 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑛𝛿𝑦 = −2𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑛𝛿𝑦 = − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑠
• Combining all forces in streamline direction,
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐹 = −𝛾 sin 𝜃 − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑉
𝛿𝐹 = 𝜌𝛿𝑉̶𝑉
𝜕𝑠

Equation of motion along the

Obtain
streamline direction

10
F = ma along a Streamline

Physical Interpretation: Or, since:

𝛿𝑧 𝑑𝑧
sin 𝜃 = =
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Physical Interpretation: a combination of particle weight and pressure

gradient along the streamline may cause a change in fluid particle
speed (in streamline direction).

• For fluid static situation, the balance between pressure and gravity
force is such that no change in particle speed is produced (as = 0). Thus,

• Remember the important assumption: inviscid fluid (no viscous force

of )
11
Example 3.1 Pressure Variation along a Streamline
Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the
horizontal streamline A-B in front of the sphere of radius a, as
shown in figure below. From a more advanced theory of flow past a
sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is

Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point

A far in front of the sphere (xA = - and VA = V0) to point B on the
sphere (xB = -a and VB = 0).

12
Solution 3.1 Pressure Variation along a Streamline

• The equation of motion along the streamline (because the streamline from
A-B is a straight line, sin = 0), for the inviscid fluid:
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎 = −𝜌𝑉
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• The acceleration term, 𝑉
𝜕𝑠
=𝑉
𝜕𝑥
(Because s is a straight line in x coordinates.)
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑎 3𝑉 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 1+ − = −3𝑉 1+
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

• Therefore, the pressure gradient • The pressure along the streamline (by
along the streamline is: integrating pressure gradient from p = 0
(gage) at x = -∞ to pressure p at location x.
𝜕𝑝 3𝜌𝑎 𝑉 1 + 𝑎 /𝑥
= 𝑎 (𝑎/𝑥)
𝜕𝑠 𝑥 𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉 +
𝑥 2

13
F = ma along a Streamline
The equation of motion can be rearranged and integrated as follows:
• As,
𝛿𝑧 𝑑𝑧
sin 𝜃 = =
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑠 (along the streamline)

𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 = = =𝑉
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑝
Along the streamline the value of n is constant thus*, 𝜕𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑉
−𝛾 − = 𝜌
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
∗: 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝑠 14
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑠
 F = ma along a Streamline

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑉
−𝛾 − = 𝜌
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠

Integrate by ds 1
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 + 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0
2
Integrate 𝑑𝑝 1 In general, the density may not be constant,
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 Need to know how density varies with pressure.
Assume g 𝜌 2
constant

• For the special case of incompressible flow (density & specific weight are constant)
BERNOULLI
EQUATION
Along streamline
RESTRICTIONS:
1. Viscous effects are negligible.
2. Steady flow. (What does each restriction imply?)
3. Incompressible flow.
4. Flow along a streamline. 15
Example and Solution 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation
Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with velocity V0, as is shown
in figure below. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
The Bernoulli’s equation applied along the streamline that passes through (1)
and (2)

z1 = z2
(1) is in the free stream V1 = V0
(2) is at the tip of the bicyclist’s nose V2 = 0*
Thus,

* This is valid when our reference is moving with the bicycle and V1 is relative to the speed of the bicycle
16
F ma

17
F = ma Normal to a Streamline

• Consider the small fluid particle of size of s by

n in the plane of the figure, and y normal to the
figure. Forces are only due to p and g.
• For steady flow, the component of Newton’s
second law in the normal direction n:
𝛿𝑚 𝑉 𝜌 𝛿𝑉̶ 𝑉
𝛿𝐹 = =
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉̶ = Volume = 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑦
𝑉 = Velocity

𝛿𝐹 = sum of the s components

of all the force acting on the
particle.

18
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline One term Taylor-
series expansion

𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑛
𝛿𝑝 =
𝜕𝑛 2
• The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the
𝛿𝑉 = 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑛. 𝛿𝑦
normal direction:
𝛿𝑊 = −𝛿𝑊 cos 𝜃 = −𝛾𝛿𝑉̶ cos 𝜃

• The net pressure force on the particle in the

normal direction:
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 − (𝑝 + 𝛿𝑝 )𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 = −2𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑦 = − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑛

• Combining all forces in the normal direction:

𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐹 = −𝛾 cos θ − 𝛿𝑉̶
𝜕𝑛
𝜌𝛿𝑉̶𝑉
𝛿𝐹 =
𝑅
Equation of motion along the
Obtain normal direction
19
F = ma Normal to a Streamline

Physical Interpretation:
Or, since:
𝛿𝑧 𝑑𝑧
cos 𝜃 = =
𝛿𝑛 𝑑𝑛

Physical Interpretation: a combination of particle weight and pressure

gradient normal to the streamline may cause a change in fluid particle
speed (in normal direction).

If gravity is neglected (for gas flows), or if the flow is horizontal (dz/dn = 0),
then the equation becomes:
𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
=−
𝜕𝑛 𝑅

This indicates that the pressure increases with distance from the center.

20
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline

• If we multiply the previous equation by dn, divide by , and the fact

that if s is constant, the integration in n direction becomes:
𝑑𝑝 𝑉
+ 𝑑𝑛 + 𝑔𝑧 = Constant across the streamline
𝜌 𝑅

In general, the density may not be constant, Without knowing the n dependent in V = V(s, n) and
Need to know how density varies with pressure. R = R(s, n) this integration cannot be completed.

• For the special case of incompressible flow (density & specific weight are
constant):
BERNOULLI EQUATION
Across the streamline

RESTRICTIONS:
1. Viscous effects are negligible.
2. Steady flow.
3. Incompressible flow.
21
4. Flow normal a streamline.
Example 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to a Streamline
Shown in Figure below (a) and (b) are two flow fields with circular
streamlines. The velocity distributions are:
𝐶 In book:
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝐶 𝑟 (𝑎) 𝑉(𝑟) = (𝑏) C1 = Vo/ro
𝑟
C2 = Vo.ro

Assuming the flows are steady, inviscid, and incompressible

with streamlines in the horizontal plane (dz/dn = 0).

Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each, given that p = po

at r = ro.
22
Solution 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to a Streamline
Assumptions:
• Flows are steady, inviscid and incompressible.
• For flow in the horizontal plane, dz/dn = 0.
• The streamlines are circles. Thus, /n = -/r.
• The radius of curvature R = r.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
−𝛾 − = =
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛 𝑅 𝜕𝑟 𝑟

• For case (a) this gives

𝜕𝑝 1
= 𝜌𝐶 𝑟 𝑝 = 𝜌𝐶 𝑟 −𝑟 +𝑝
𝜕𝑟 2

• For case (b) this gives

𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝐶 1 1 1
= 𝑝 = 𝜌𝐶 − +𝑝
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟

(although these equations are different than in Ed. 8, they are similar) 23
Comparison of Equations of Motion for Along Streamline or Across Streamlines

Along Streamline Assumptions: Across/Normal to Streamline

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉 Inviscid 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎 −𝛾 cos 𝜃 − = = 𝜌𝑎
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛 𝑅
Steady

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉
−𝛾 − = 𝜌 −𝛾 − =
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝑅

𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑉
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 + 𝑑𝑛 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
𝜌 2 𝜌 𝑅

𝑝+𝜌
𝑉
+ 𝛾𝑧 = constant
Incompressible 𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = constant
2 (Bernoulli Equation) 𝑅

24
25
3.4 Physical Interpretation
• The Bernoulli Equations are under the basic assumptions where:
• The flow is steady,
• The fluid is inviscid and
• The fluid is incompressible.
• A violation of one or more of the above assumptions result in
an incorrect match between the “real world” and solutions
obtained by using the Bernoulli’s equation.
• Fortunately, many “real-world” situations are adequately
modeled by the use of both equations.
• In “real-world” situation the flow is nearly steady and
incompressible, and the fluid behaves as if it were nearly
inviscid.
26
Physical Interpretation
• Application of F = ma and integration of equation of motion
along and normal to the streamline result in:
𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶 Constant along the streamline
2
𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶 Constant normal to the streamline
𝑅

 Along the streamline, to produce an acceleration, there must

be an unbalance of the resultant force, of which only pressure
and gravity were considered to be important. Thus, there are
three processes involved in the flow:
1. Mass times acceleration (the V2/2 term),
2. pressure (the p term), and
3. weight (the z term).
The Bernoulli’s equation is a mathematical statement of:
“The work done on a particle of all force acting on the particle is equal to the
change of the kinetic energy of the particle”. 27
Alternative forms of Bernoulli Equation
• If the Bernoulli equation is divided by we will have an alternative form with
units of energy per mass (J/kg):

Due to pressure Due to kinetic energy Due to elevation or potential energy

Sections 5.3.3 and 5.4 derive the Bernoulli Equation from the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
• Another alternative form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing
each term by  (specific weight) where each term has the unit of height. In
this term we call this as head (m).

Constant along a streamline

Pressure Head Velocity Head Elevation Head 28

Example 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and Pressure Energies in a
System
Consider a syringe as shown in the figure on the left.
Discuss the energy of the fluid at points (1), (2) and
(3) by using the Bernoulli’s equation.

29
Example 3.5 Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream
Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow shown in figure
below. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while from C to
D they follow circular paths. Describe the pressure variation between
points (1) and (2) and points (3) and (4).

30
Solution 3.5 Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream

• For the portion from A to B: R = .

p+ Point (1)~(2)
Using p2 = 0, z1 = 0, and z2 = h2-1

=
Since the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite, the pressure variation in the
vertical direction is the same as if the fluids were stationary.
• For the portion from C to D: R = R.

= Point (3)~(4)

With p4 = 0 and z4 - z3 = h4-3 ,this becomes

Need to know the variation of V and R with z.
The lower pressure at (3) caused by the curved streamline is
necessary to accelerate the fluid around a curved path.
31
32
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressures

• Bernoulli Equation can be used to describe other concepts such as

stagnation and dynamic pressures.
• Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a form
of pressure with units of psi, lb/ft2 or N/m2:

Several definitions on pressure in a flow:

1. Hydrostatic Pressure ( )
2. Stagnation Pressure
3. Static Pressure (p)
4. Dynamic Pressure ( )
5. Total Pressure (C)

33
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 𝑉
𝑝+𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶
2
1. Static Pressure (p) definition (Point 3):
• The actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it flows.
• If the fluid is stationary, e.g., water in a tank, it is obvious that the pressure along
the depth is static pressure or hydrostatic pressure.
• If the fluid is flowing, it still has static pressure, but we need to “move along”
with the fluid so we see that the fluid is relatively not moving or “static”.
• Static Pressure can be measured by:
• Drilling a hole of a relatively flat surface, then using a wall pressure “tap”, or a
static pressure probe such as piezometer (Point 3).

• The pressure in the flowing fluid at point 1 is

𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝 is the same as if the fluid were
static. At point 3, the pressure is, 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
thus, 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ.
34
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressures

2. Hydrostatic pressure (z), between points (1) and (2):

• Not actually a pressure, but it does represent the change in pressure
possible due to potential energy variations of the fluid as a result of
elevation changes.

35
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

3. Dynamic Pressure (V2/2) is a pressure produced due to the

fluid motion. It can be interpreted as the addition of pressure
at the end of a small tube inserted into the flow and pointing
upstream, due to the stopping of fluid at the tip of the tube.

36
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

4. Stagnation Pressure: Point (2)

• The fluid inside the second tube, including that at its tip (2), will be stationary. That is, V2 = 0, or
point (2) is a stagnation point. The pressure at this point is called the Stagnation Pressure.
• There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed into a flowing fluid. Some of
the fluid flows “over” and some “under” the object.
• The dividing line is termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation
point on the body.

37
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stagnation-flow-schematics-a-Boundary-layer-stagnation-b-T-Junction-stagnation_fig1_320845015
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

• If we neglect elevation changes (z1 = z2), and apply Bernoulli’s Equation for
point 1 to 2, which are in the same streamline, then:
0 because point 2 is stagnation point

Stagnation pressure

Static pressure Dynamic pressure

• At point 2 we will have a stagnation pressure as the velocity at that point is zero.
• Neglecting the elevation effects, the stagnation pressure is the largest
pressure obtainable along a given streamline.
38
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

5. Total pressure:
• The sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure, and
hydrostatic pressure.
• The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total
pressure remains constant along a streamline.

Constant along a streamline

P static P dynamic P hydrostatic P total

P stagnation

P total 39
Summary of Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressures

Static Dynamic Hydrostatic Stagnation Total

Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure

Actual Pressure due to Not actually a Pressure at a Sum of static,

thermodynamic the motion of pressure but point where hydrostatic, and
pressure of the fluid. represent the stagnation point dynamic
fluid as it flows. change in occurs (V = 0) pressures.
pressure possible Constant along
due to potential streamline.
energy variations
(elevation
differences). 𝑝 + 𝜌 , or
𝑉 Static Pressure +
𝑝 𝜌 𝛾𝑧 𝑝
2 Dynamic Pressure

40
Pitot-Static Tube
• Knowledge of the values of the static and stagnation pressure
in a fluid implies that the fluid speed can be calculated. This is
the principle on which the Pitot-Static Tube is based.
• To understand the principle of Pitot-static tube, consider as https://in.rsdelivers.com/product/testo/0635-
follows: 2145/testo-0635-2145-digital-pressure-meter-pitot-
tube/4609869
• On the upstream of pitot tube, fluid flows with velocity of V
and pressure of p.
• At point 2 and 3, we will have a stagnation point. Thus,
𝑝 = 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 /2 Stagnation pressure
• If we neglected the elevation difference between points 1 and
4, or 𝑧 ≈ 𝑧 , then, the static pressure:
𝑝 =𝑝 =𝑝
Static pressure
• Substituting the value of p4 to p and rearrange the equation.
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 /2
• Finally, we can rearrange this equation again to obtain,
2
𝑉= 2(𝑝 − 𝑝 )/𝜌

Thus, we can measure the fluid velocity Made from two

by using a pitot static tube From: H. de Pitot (1695-1771) concentric tubes
41
Pitot-Static Tube

42
Pitot-Static Tube

• The use of pitot-static tube depends on the ability to measure the

static and stagnation pressures.
• An accurate measurement of static pressure requires that
none of the fluid’s kinetic energy be converted into a pressure
rise at the point of measurement.
• This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections.

43
Pitot-Static Tube

• The pressure along the surface of an object varies from the

stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to value that may be
less than free stream static pressure.
• It is important that the pressure taps be properly located to
ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static
pressure.

Quick question:
What if the pressure
a taps is located near
point a or b?

44
Pitot-Static Tube

• Any misalignment between pitot-static tube and flow direction

will produce a nonsymmetrical flow field that may result in
errors.
• Typically, yaw angles up to 12 to 20o (depending on the
particular probe design) give results that are less than 1% in
error from the perfectly aligned results.
• In general, it is more
difficult to measure
static pressure than
stagnation pressure.

45
Pitot-Static Tube

• One method of determining the flow direction and its speed (thus the
velocity) is to use a Directional-Finding Pitot Tube as shown below.
𝛽 = 29.5𝑜

• Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular cylinder, fitted with
small tubes, and connected to three pressure transducers. The cylinder is
rotated until the pressures in the two side holes are equal, thus
indicating that the center hole points directly upstream.
𝑝 =𝑝
If θ = 0 2 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑉=
𝜌
46
Example 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube
• An airplane flies 200 miles/hr at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a standard atmosphere
as shown in figure below. Determine the pressure at point (1) far ahead of the
airplane, point (2), and the pressure difference indicated by a Pitot-static probe
attached to the fuselage.

47
Solution 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube

The static pressure and density at the altitude 10,000 ft (use Table C.1)
𝑙𝑏
𝑝 = 1456 = 10.11 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝜌 = 0.001756 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠
If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible and elevation changes
between point 1 and 2 are neglected, then the Bernoulli’s equation becomes:
𝜌𝑉
𝑝 =𝑝 +
2

With V1 = 200 mi/hr = 293 ft/s, and V2 = 0

𝑝 = 1456 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 + (0.001756 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 )(293 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠 )/2
= 1456 + 75.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 (𝑎𝑏𝑠)

In terms of gage pressure 𝑝 = 75.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 = 0.524𝑝𝑠𝑖

The pressure difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube:

Vary the speed, then plot:
48
3.6 Applications of Bernoulli Equation
a. Free Jets Assuming: steady, inviscid and incompressible flow along a streamline:
b. Confined Flows 𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉
𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧
c. Flowrate Measurement 2 2

49
a. (3.6.1) Free-Jets
• Flow of a liquid from a large reservoir to the environment such as shown
below.

Vertical flow from a tank Horizontal flow from a tank Vena contracta effect from a
sharp-edge orifice.

Flow from a coffee tank/urn Flow from a plant watering tank 50

Free-Jets: Vertical Nozzle Nozzle: a device shaped to
accelerate the fluid
• At points 1 and 2, on the same (along the)
streamline,
𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉
𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧
2 2

• Because point 1 is open to atmosphere,

p1 = 0. Also, V1 = 0, and z1 - z2 = h.
• At points 2 and 4, across the streamlines:
𝑉
• By applying equation, 𝑝 + 𝜌 𝑅 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = Constant
• And if the the streamlines at the tip of the
nozzle are straight (R = ∞), and we know
that z2 and z4 are in the same elevation.
𝑝 =𝑝
• Furthermore, as point 4 is in contact with
atmosphere, p4 = 0. Thus, p4 = p2 = 0.
• Thus, All PE is converted to KE.
𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉 2𝛾ℎ Obtained by Toricelli in 1643.
𝛾𝑧 = + γ𝑧 → = 𝛾ℎ → 𝑉 = = 2𝑔ℎ
2 2 𝜌 Can also be derived using points (3) & (4)

Use the total distance from the surface.

At point 5: p5 = 0: 𝑉 = 2𝑔 ℎ + 𝐻
Velocity increases further from the
51 nozzle.
Free-Jets: Horizontal Nozzle
• For the horizontal nozzle, the
velocity V2 > V1, and also V3 > V2
(Due to elevation differences)
• However, in general, d << h and
thus, we can use the V2 as
average velocity.
• For a sharp-edged orifice, a vena
contracta effect occurs (diameter of
free jet is less than the hole’s
diameter, dj < dh).
• The effect is the result of the inability
of the fluid to turn the sharp 90°
corner.
52
Typical Flow Patterns and Contraction Coefficients

Typical Flow Patterns and

Contraction Coefficients for Various
Round Exit Configuration.

• The diameter of a fluid jet is often

smaller than that of the hole from
which it flows.
Define Cc = contraction coefficient :

Aj = area of the jet at the vena contracta

Ah = area of the hole.

53
b. (3.6.2) Confined Flow
• When the fluid is physically constrained within a device, its pressure
cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for the free jet.
• Such cases include nozzles and pipes of variable diameters for which the
fluid velocity changes because the flow areas are different from one
section to another.
• For such situations, it is necessary to use the concept of conservation of
mass (the continuity equation) along with the Bernoulli equation.

54
b.1 Confined Flow

• Consider a fluid flowing through a

fixed volume that has one inlet
and one outlet.

• Conservation of mass* requires:

1 1 1 2 2 2

• For incompressible flow, the

continuity equation is:
1 1 2 2 1 2.

Volumetric
Flow rate

* More on this in Chapters 4 and 5.

55
Example 3.7 Flow from a Tank－ Gravity Driven
A stream of water of diameter d = 0.01 m flows steadily from a tank
of diameter D = 0.2 m as shown in figure below.
Determine the flowrate, Q, needed from the inflow pipe if the
water depth remains constant at h = 0.2 m.

56
 Read it yourself
Solution 3.7 Flow from a Tank－ Gravity

• The Bernoulli equation applied between points (1) and (2) is:

With p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h, and z2 = 0:

For steady and incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires

Q1 = Q2, where Q = AV. Thus, A1V1 =A2V2 , or:

57
Solution 3.7 Flow from a Tank－ Gravity Read it yourself

• Combining,
1 1 𝑑
𝑉 + 𝑔ℎ = 𝑉 and 𝑉 =( ) 𝑉
2 2 𝐷

2𝑔ℎ 2(9.81𝑚/𝑠 )(0.2𝑚)

𝑉 = = = 1.98𝑚/𝑠
1 − (𝑑/𝐷) 1 − (0.01𝑚/0.2𝑚)

• Thus,
𝜋
𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉 = (0.01𝑚) (1.98𝑚/𝑠) = 1.56𝑥10 𝑚 /𝑠
4
If the tank diameter is large compared to the jet diameter (D >>d),
then V1 ≈ 0. The ratio of the flow rate if V1 is not zero compared to if
V1 = 0 is:

58
Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank－ Pressure Driven Read it yourself

Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter D = 0.03 m

and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of diameter d = 0.01 m as
shown in figure below. The pressure in the tank remains constant at
3.0 kPa (gage) and the atmospheric conditions are standard
temperature and pressure. Determine the flowrate and the
pressure in the hose.

59
Solution of Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank－ Pressure Read it yourself

For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli

equation along the streamline:

With z1 = z2 = z3 , V1 = 0, and p3 = 0

The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the perfect gas law,
using standard absolute P and T:

60
(must use absolute p and T values)
Solution of Example 3.8 Flow From a Tank－ Pressure Read it yourself

• Thus,

2𝑝 2(3.0 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 ) 𝜋
𝑉 = = = 69.0𝑚/𝑠 or 𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑑 𝑉 = 0.00542𝑚 /𝑠
𝜌 1.26𝑘𝑔/𝑚 4

• The pressure within the hose can be obtained from:

𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 /𝐴 = 7.67𝑚/𝑠

1 1
𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝜌𝑉 = 3.0 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 − (1.26𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )(7.67𝑚/𝑠)
2 2
= (3000 − 37.1)𝑁/𝑚 = 2963𝑁/𝑚

61
Example 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe Read it yourself

Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Figure below. The

static pressures at (1) and (2) are measured by the inverted U-tube
manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.
Determine the manometer reading, h.

Not a practical design…

62
 Solution 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe Read it yourself

• For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along the streamline:
1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧
2 2

• The continuity equation:

𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉

• Combining these two equations:

1
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝛾(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + 𝜌𝑉 [1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 ) ]
2
• This pressure difference measured by the manometer: 1
(1 − 𝑆𝐺)𝛾ℎ = 𝜌𝑉 1−
𝐴
2 𝐴
𝑝 − 𝛾(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) − 𝛾 − 𝛾ℎ + 𝑆𝐺𝛾ℎ + 𝛾 = 𝑝

Or: 𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝛾(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + (1 − 𝑆𝐺)𝛾ℎ Since V2 = Q/A2

1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 )
ℎ = 𝑄/𝐴
2𝑔 1 − 𝑆𝐺

63
b.2 Confined Flow-Cavitation A ventury

• If the fluid velocity is increased, the

pressure will decrease.
• This pressure decrease can be
large enough so that the pressure
in the liquid is reduced to its vapor
pressure (The concept is from
Chapter 1 and Thermodynamics
class).
• When vapor pressure is achieved,
liquid starts to boil.
• Change of liquid to vapor in fluid
flow result in phenomenon called
Cavitation.
• If these bubbles then enter a higher-
pressure region, the bubbles can
implode and cause damage to the Incipient cavitation represents the beginning
surrounding surfaces. stage of cavitation where light popping noises are
heard.
64
 Confined Flow-Example of Cavitation https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cavitation_Prop
eller_Damage.JPG

https://homdor.com/search/cavitation

Example of cavitation occur in submarine

propellers
As the bubbles created due to cavitation in low pressure
move to region with higher pressure, the bubbles will be
compressed until they implode. When the bubbles
“popped”, they produce high density energy, high local
temperature, and also high pressure at a short time. If the
bubbles popped near a solid body over time, they may
Damage due to cavitation on
damage the surface due to pitting.
a propeller blade

Read Example 3.10. in the textbook. 65

c. (3.6.3) Flowrate Measurement
c.1 Restriction Flowrate Measurement:
• Various flow meters are governed by the Bernoulli and continuity equations. The principle of
flow measurement is to measure pressure difference between the low-velocity, high-
pressure upstream at section 1, and the high-velocity, low-pressure downstream at section 2.

https://www.wika.us/flc_op_flc_fl_flc_ac_en_co.WIKA

http://www.delta-tcompany.com/

http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2016/
06/venturimeter-principle-construction-
working-diagram.html

66
 Flowrate Measurement

With assumptions at 1 and 2 that:

1. Flow is horizontal
2. Steady
3. Inviscid
4. Incompressible.
Then: 1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉
2 2
𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉

The theoretical flowrate then can be calculated by,

2 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑄=𝐴
𝜌 1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 )

Note that because this equation calculates theoretical flowrate, the actual flow rate will be smaller
because of various differences between the “real world” and assumptions used in the equation.
Usually, a correction factor, C obtained by calibration is added to the equation (Section 8.6.1). 67
Example 3.11 Venturi Meter Read it yourself

• Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the Venturi meter shown in figure
below with flowrates between 0.005 and 0.050 m3/s. Determine the
range in pressure difference, p1 – p2, needed to measure these
flowrates.

Known Q, Determine p1-p2

68
Solution 3.11 Venturi Meter Read it yourself

• For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the relationship between flowrate and pressure:
𝑄 𝜌[1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 ) ]
2 𝑝 −𝑝 𝑝 −𝑝 =
𝑄=𝐴 2𝐴
𝜌 1 − (𝐴 /𝐴 )

• The density of the flowing fluid:

𝜌 = 𝑆𝐺 𝜌 = 0.85(1000 kg/m ) = 850 kg/m

• The area ratio:

𝐴 /𝐴 = (𝐷 /𝐷 ) = (0.006 m/0.10m) = 0.36

• The pressure difference for the smallest flowrate is:

(1 − 0.36 )
𝑝 − 𝑝 = (0.005 m /s) (850 kg/m )
2[(𝜋/4)(0.06 𝑚) ]
= 1160 N/m = 1.16 kPa
Range:
• The pressure difference for the largest flowrate is:
(1 − 0.36 ) 1.16 kPa ≤ 𝑝 − 𝑝 ≤ 116 kPa
𝑝 − 𝑝 = (0.05 )(850)
2[(𝜋/4)(0.06𝑚) ]
= 1.16 × 10 N/m = 116 kPa 69
c.2 Flowrate Measurement – Sluice Gate
• Other method to measure flow rate is sluice gate.
• This gate is often used to regulate and measure the flowrate in an open
channel.
• The flowrate, Q, is function of the water depth upstream, z1, the width of
the gate, b, and the gate opening, a.
• More on the open-channel flow devices in Chapter 10.

70
Flowrate Measurement – Sluice Gate
• Applying Bernoulli and continuity equations to points 1 and 2, and assuming the width of the
channel is the same as that of the gate (b):
1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧
2 2
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑏𝑉 𝑧 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑏𝑉 𝑧
• With p1 = p2 = 0, from above equations, the flowrate:
2𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧
𝑄=𝑧 𝑏
1 − (𝑧 /𝑧 )

• In the limit of z1 >> z2, this result simply becomes:

𝑄 = 𝑧 𝑏 2𝑔𝑧

• This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio, z1/z2, is large, the kinetic energy of
the fluid upstream of the gate is negligible, while A = z2.b, then the fluid velocity after it has
fallen a distance (z1-z2) ~ z1 is approximately:
𝑉 = 2𝑔𝑧
• The above flowrate equations can also be obtained using points (3) and (4). 71
 Flowrate Measurement – Sluice Gate

• As we discussed on the flow from an orifice

where the fluid cannot turn a sharp 90° corner,
in the sluice gate, a vena contracta is formed
with a contraction coefficient, Cc = z2/a, less
than 1.
• Typically, Cc ~ 0.61 over the depth ratio range of
0 < a/z1 < 0.2.
• For large value of a/z1, the value of Cc increases
rapidly, approaching 1.
• More on this in Section 10.6. Vena contracta
occur

72
Example 3.12 Sluice Gate Read it yourself

• Water flows under the sluice gate in figure below. Determine the
approximate flowrate per unit width of the channel.

73
Solution 3.12 Sluice Gate Read it yourself

• For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the flowrate is:

2𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑄 2𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧 (Flow rate per unit width b)

𝑄=𝑧 𝑏 =𝑧
1 − (𝑧 /𝑧 ) 𝑏 1 − 𝑧 /𝑧

• With z1 = 5.0 m and a = 0.80 m, the ratio a/z1 = 0.16 < 0.20. Assuming
contraction coefficient is approximately Cc = 0.61; z2 = Cc a = 0.61 (0.80 m) =
0.488 m. The flowrate per unit width:
𝑄 2 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 5.0 𝑚 − 0.488 𝑚
= 0.488 𝑚 = 4.61 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑏 0.488
1− 𝑚
5.0
• If we consider z1 >> z2 and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream
fluid, we will have:
𝑄
=𝑧 2𝑔𝑧 = 0.488 𝑚 2 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 5.0 𝑚 = 4.83 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑏
74
c. 3 Flowrate Measurement - Weir

c.3.1 Rectangular Weir

• Another device used to measure flow in
an open channel is a weir.
• For a typical rectangular, sharp-
crested, the flowrate over the top of the
weir plate is dependent on the weir
height, Pw, the width of the channel,
b, and the head, H, of the water above
the top of the weir.
• Application of the Bernoulli equation
can provide a simple approximation
of the flowrate expected for these
situations, even though the actual flow
is quite complex.
75
Flowrate Measurement – Weir – Actual Flow

• Between points 1 and 2 the pressure and gravitational fields cause the fluid to accelerate from
velocity V1 to velocity V2.
• At 1 the pressure is p1 = γh, while at point 2 the pressure is at atmospheric or p2 = 0.
• Across the curved streamlines directly above the top of the weir plate (at section a–a):
• Pressure varies from atmospheric on the top surface to some maximum value within the fluid
stream, and then to atmospheric again at the bottom surface.
• Due to this pressure distribution, combined with the streamline curvature and gravity, produces a
rather non-uniform velocity profile across this section.
• This velocity distribution can be obtained from experiments or a more advanced theory (CFD).

76
Flowrate Measurement - Weir

• In this class, we take a very simple approach and assume that the
weir flow is similar in many respects to an orifice-type flow
with a free streamline. With this assumption:
• Average velocity across the top of the weir to be proportional to 2𝑔𝐻
• Area for this rectangular weir equal to: Hb
• Hence, the flowrate:
/
1 1 1

Where C1 is a constant to be determined

during calibration (see Chapter 10).

77
Flowrate Measurement – Weir – Triangular

c.3.2 V-notch or Triangular Weir (Example 3.13)

• Assume steady, inviscid and incompressible
flow, then as before (Eq. 3.18), the average
velocity is proportional to: 2𝑔𝐻
• The flow area for a depth of H,

• Therefore, the flowrate is then:

2 /
2 2

78
79
Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the total energy
remains constant along a streamline. The Bernoulli Equation in
units of head [m or ft]:

Where:
• p/ : The head due to local static pressure (pressure energy)
• V2/2g : The head due to local dynamic pressure (kinetic energy)
• z : The elevation head (potential energy)
• H : The total head for the flow

80
Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

• Energy Line (EL): represents the total head

height.

• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) height represents

the sum of the elevation and static pressure
heads. Also called the piezometric head.

• The difference in heights between the EL and the

HGL represents the dynamic (velocity) head.

81
Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

EL:

HGL:

EL can be measured by stagnation tube.

HGL can be measured by static tube.

EL -HGL:

82
Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) of A Large Tank

According to continuity
equation with the assumption
of incompressible fluid, as
the cross-section area of the
pipe is smaller, the velocity
increases. Thus,

𝑉 /2𝑔

And with, Result in, 83

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝
EL + + 𝑧 = constant HGL +𝑧
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
 Energy Line (EL) & Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

• The distance from the pipe to the

hydraulic grade line indicates the
pressure within the pipe.
 If the pipe lies below the
hydraulic grade line, the pressure
within the pipe is positive (above
atmospheric).
 If the pipe lies above the
hydraulic grade line, the pressure
is negative (below atmospheric).

• A scale drawing of a pipeline and the

hydraulic grade line can be used to
readily indicate regions of positive
Read Example 3.14: EL and HGL of a siphon-tube.
or negative pressure within a pipe.
84
a. Compressibility Effect
b. Unsteady Effect
c. Rotational Effect
d. Other Restrictions
85
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

• Again, as a reminder, Bernoulli Equation along a streamline, is:

Along a streamline

• Only applicable under several restrictions as follows:

1. Steady flow.
2. Incompressible flow.
3. Frictionless flow.
4. Flow along a streamline.

• Deviation from these assumptions will cause incorrect use of the

Bernoulli Equation.

86
a. (3.8.1) Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s
Equation– Compressibility Effect
• The assumption of incompressibility is reasonable for
most liquid flows.
• In certain instances, the assumption of incompressible
fluid introduces considerable errors for gases.
• From the previous section, the difference of stagnation and
static pressure is: , provided
the density is constant.
• If this value is not too large, then the density change is not too
large, and the fluid can be considered incompressible.
• But since or pdynamic varies with V2, the error is also
quadratic if we assume the fluid is incompressible.
87
Criterion to check the validity of the incompressible assumption

• Instead of integrating the equation, lets find when incompressible assumption is good
enough.
∆ ∆
• From Eq. 1.13: . For a finite change: . If we assume the density change of
∆
3% is not significant, then we can model the fluid is incompressible if:
∆ ∆
• For isothermal condition, from Eq. 1.16, Ev = p, so that
∆ ∆ ∆
• For isentropic condition, From Eq. 1.17, Ev= kp, so: . For k = 1.4 (air), then:
∆ ∆
0.03. or: .
.
• The Bernoulli Equation in this chapter applies to isentropic process. Without elevation
change, then Thus, we can model a flow as incompressible if:
For air at standard condition (where we know p and for
air), this condition refers to V = 102 m/s (355 ft/s); or about 30% of Ma (Ma = 0.3).
• Therefore, for air with Ma < 0.3, we can assume it as incompressible.
• At high speed, compressibility may become important.
• Further consideration is in Chapter 11.
<Next 3 slides are hidden, since they are from Ed. 6. Will be discussed more detail in Chapter 11>
88
 Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s Equation– Compressibility Effect <This is from 6th Ed.>

• For isothermal flow of ideal gas where, 𝜌 = 𝑝/𝑅𝑇, then the Bernoulli equation from point 1
to 2 along the streamline:
𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑉 𝑅𝑇 𝑝 𝑉
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 RT + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 +𝑧 + ln = +𝑧
𝜌 2 𝑝 2 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑝 2𝑔

• For isentropic flow of ideal gas, the density and pressure are related by p/ρk = C, where k =
specific heat ratio
𝑑𝑝 1 1
+ 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 𝐶 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 constant
With, 𝜌 = 𝑝 𝐶 𝜌 2 2
(In Chapter 11)
Constant C can be evaluated at either point, 𝐶 = 𝑝 𝜌 or 𝐶 = 𝑝 𝜌 thus give,

𝑘 ⁄ ⁄
𝐶 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = 𝐶 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑝 𝑉 𝑘 𝑝 𝑉
𝑘 𝑝 𝑝 + + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧
= − Final form of 𝑘−1 𝜌 2 𝑘−1 𝜌 2
𝑘−1 𝜌 𝜌 compressible,
isentropic, steady 89
flow of a gas perfect
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s Equation– Compressibility Effect <This is from 6th Ed.>

• To find the pressure ratio as a function of Mach number

c is Speed of sound
From Chapter 11:

The upstream Mach number:

𝑝 −𝑝 𝑘+1
Compressible flow = 1+ 𝑀 −1
𝑝 2

𝑝 −𝑝 𝑉 𝑘
Incompressible flow 𝑝
=
2𝑅𝑇
= 𝑀
2

At a very low Mach number (approximately Ma1 < 0.3, or at V = 335

ft/s = 228 mi/hr), compressible ideal gas flow can be assumed and
calculated as an incompressible flow and only result a slight error.
90
Example and Solution 3.15 Compressible Flow-Mach Number
The jet shown in Fig. E3.15 flies at Mach 0.82 at an altitude of 10
km in a standard atmosphere. Determine the stagnation
pressure on the leading edge of its wing if the flow is
incompressible; and if the flow is compressible isentropic.
• From Table 1.8 and C.2 we find that p1 = 26.5 kPa (abs), T1 = -
49.9 ᵒC, ρ = 0.414 kg/m3, and k =1.4. Thus, if we assume
incompressible flow,
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑘 (0.82)
= 𝑀 = 1.4 = 0.471
𝑝 2 2

𝑝 − 𝑝 = 0.471 26.5𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 12.5𝑘𝑃𝑎

• Whereas if we assume isentropic flow,

.
𝑝 −𝑝 1.4 + 1 .
= 1+ 0.82 − 1 = 0.555
𝑝 2

𝑝 − 𝑝 = 0.555 26.5𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 14.7𝑘𝑃𝑎

91
b. Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation– Unsteady Effect
• Another restriction of the Bernoulli equation is the assumption that the
flow is steady.
• For Steady flow, on a given streamline the velocity is a function of only s, the location
along the streamline, thus V = V(s) along the streamline.
• For Unsteady flow, on a given streamline the velocity is a function of the location along
the streamline (s) and time (t). Thus, V = V(s, t).
𝑑𝑉
• In the case of unsteady flow, rather than, 𝑎 =𝑉
𝑑𝑠
, acceleration at the
direction of streamline is, 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 For steady,
𝑎 = +𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 1
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 + 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0
2
• Thus, from Eq. 3.4: For Unsteady,
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑉 1
−𝛾 − = 𝜌𝑎 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 + 𝛾𝑑𝑧 = 0 (along a streamline)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑡 2

• For incompressible flow, integrate the equation, resulting:

1 𝜕𝑉 1 For unsteady, incompressible and
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 inviscid flow (unsteady form of
2 𝜕𝑡 2 92
Bernoulli Eq., along a streamline).
Example and Solution 3.15 Unsteady Flow-U Tube Read it yourself

An incompressible, inviscid liquid is placed in a vertical, constant diameter U-

tube as indicated in Fig. E3.16. When released from the non-equilibrium
position shown, the liquid column will oscillate at a specific frequency.
Determine this frequency.
• Let points 1 and 2 be at the air–water interfaces of the two columns of the
tube and z = 0 correspond to equilibrium position of these interfaces. Hence
p1 = p2 = 0, and if z2 = z, then z1 = -z. For constant tube V1 = V2 = V. Thus,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑙 Where l is the total length of the liquid column
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
• And,
𝑑𝑉
𝛾 −𝑧 = 𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧
𝑑𝑡
• Since,
𝑑𝑧
𝑉= and 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑 𝑧 2𝑔 ODE Solution
𝛾 −𝑧 = 𝜌 + 𝛾𝑧 + 𝑧=0 𝑧 𝑡 = 𝐶 sin 2 𝑔⁄𝑙 𝑡 + 𝐶 cos 2 𝑔 ⁄𝑙 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
Thus, the 𝜔 = 2 𝑔⁄𝑙
93
frequency:
Example and Solution 3.16 Unsteady or Steady Flow Read it yourself

A submarine moves through seawater (SG = 1.03) at depth of 50

m with velocity Vo = 5 m/s.
• In a coordinate system fixed to the ground, the flow is
unsteady (water velocity at 1 is zero with the submarine in its
initial position, but at the instant when the nose, 2, reaches
point 1 the velocity there become V1 = -Voi) . Thus, application
of Bernoulli equation is incorrect because static pressure
is greater than stagnation.
1
𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉
2

• We can either use unsteady analysis for the flow or redefine

the coordinate system so that it is fixed on the submarine,
that result in steady flow with respect to this new system.
Thus, the Bernoulli equation become,
1
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑔 = 1.03 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 5𝑚/𝑠 /2 + 9.8 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 1.03 50𝑚
2
= 518𝑘𝑃𝑎

94
c. (3.8.3) Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation– Rotational Effect
• Another of the restrictions of the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable along
the streamline. Thus, application of the Bernoulli equation across
streamlines can lead to considerable errors.
• Example 3.17: Take a look at figure on the right,
• Between point 1 and 2,
1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = +𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶
2 2
• Since V1 = V2 = Vo, and z1 = z2 = 0, then p1 = p2 = po
1
𝐶 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉
2
• Similarly, between point 3 and 4, V3 = V4 = Vo, z3 = z4 = h,
If we apply 𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝛾ℎ and 𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝛾ℎ to Bernoulli equation,
We obtain that 𝑝 = 𝑝
• Thus,
1 1
𝐶 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 𝐶 =𝐶 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = Constant through the flow for any streamline
2 2
• For point 4 and 5, 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝛾𝐻 = 𝛾𝐻 𝑝 =0
If we apply Bernoulli equation across streamlines between point 4 and 5,
𝑝 𝑉 Evident that using Bernoulli equation
𝛾 2𝑔 which is not correct (Correct result: 𝐻 = 𝑝 /𝛾)
𝐻= + 95
across streamline result in error
d. (3.8.4) Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli’s Equation– Other Restrictions

• Another restriction on the Bernoulli equation is that the flow is inviscid.

The Bernoulli equation is actually the first integral of Newton’s second law along a
streamline. This general integration was possible because, in the absence of viscous
effects, the fluid system considered was a conservative system. The total energy of the
system remains constant. If viscous effects are important the system is non-
conservative and energy losses occur. A more detailed analysis is needed for this
case. More detail in Chapter 5.
• The final basic restriction on use of the Bernoulli equation is that there are
no mechanical devices (such as pumps or turbines) in the system between
the two points along the streamline for which the equation is applied.

Note: Bernoulli Equation is the most used and the most abused equation in fluid mechanics…

96
Comprehension Questions:

97
Several
Important
Equations of
Chapter 3

98
The original slides were taken from the slides given by Munson’s book: Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T. H. and Huebsch, W. W., Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2009. It was rewritten by the Assistant Academic: Evan Philander. Then enhanced and finalized by: T. A. Fauzi
Soelaiman for the sole purpose of lecturing of Fluid Mechanics course at the Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering at the Institut Teknologi Bandung starting Semester 2. copyright of the material has not been obtained from John Wiley & Sons and other
sources, these slides may not be distributed beyond the cla2018-2019Sincessroom. The use of the slides other then in the classroom is strictly prohibited
and the lecturers and the institution should not be responsible if such case occurs.

99