3.

2.) Types of Joints - formed by either slightly opposing or plane surfaces or

slightly convex and concave.
Ball-and-socket joint
-example: superior and inferior articular processes of
-example: multiaxial joint
the vertebrae in the spine.
- ball shaped head fits in the concave socket.

- example: head of Femur into the concave socket.

Hinge joint
4.) Structure of skeletal muscles
- convex surface fits in the concave surface; it is limited
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
to flexion and extension in a single plane. Functions of the Muscular System
- example: knee and elbow 1. Movement
2. Maintain posture
Pivot joint 3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
- unaxial joint bc the movement is limited. 5. Communication
- the bone rotates in a bony fossa around a longitudinal 6. Heart beat
axis. 7. Contraction of organs and vessels

- example: atlas vertebra Three Types of Muscle Tissues

• Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
Condyloid joint • These types differ in
-Also called ellipsoidal joint. • Structure
• Location
-Biaxial joint that consist of an oval-shaped condyle that • Function
fits to the ellipsoidal cavity. • Means of activation
• Each muscle is a discrete organ composed of
-Motion is possible in two ways muscle tissue, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and
connective tissue
- example: wrist and forearm
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Saddle joint • Found on organs
• 1 centrally located nucleus/cell
-biaxial joint; articular surface is concave in one • Not striated
direction or convex. • Less actin and myosin
• Under involuntary control
- example: flexion and extension; abduction and Cardiac Muscle Tissue
adduction • Heart
Gliding joint • 1 centrally located nucleus/cell
• Striated
-a type of synovial joint and multiaxiliary joint. • Rich in mitochondria
 • Intercalated disks: special cell junctions that A head with an ATPase, which breaks down ATP
allow cells to act as a unit
Skeletal Muscle Tissue A hinge region, which enables the head to move
• Makes up 40% of body weight A rod
• Named because they are attached to bones
(skeleton) A cross-bridge is formed when a myosin head binds to
• Many nuclei per cell (near periphery) the active site on G actin
• Striated Actin (thin) myofilaments
• Longest of muscle types (1 to 50 mm in length)
• Fascia is a general term for connective tissue Resemble 2 strands of pearls
sheets
G-actin (globular actin) undergo polymerization to form
Functions of Fascia:
F-actin (filamentous actin)
1. Separates and compartmentalizes individual
Troponin:
muscles or groups of muscles
- attachment site on actin for Ca2+
2. Provides a pathway for blood vessels and
nerves to reach muscle fibers Tropomyosin:
Skeletal Muscle Structure - filaments on grooves of actin
Epimysium: - attachment sites on actin for myosin
connective tissue that surrounds an entire skeletal Myofibril Structure
muscle
• Have cross striations due to overlapping A
Muscle fasciculi: (dark) bands and I (light) bands
skeletal muscle bundles • A band is where actin and myosin filaments
overlap
Perimysium:
• I band contains actin (thin) filaments only
connective tissue around each muscle fasciculus
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Muscle fibers:
• Z disk or Z line
skeletal muscle cells
- Found in the central region of the I band
Endomysium:
- form attachment site for actin
connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber
• H zone
- center of sarcomere, in the middle of the A band
Muscle Fiber Structure
- contains only myosin
Myofibrils:
• M line
-thread-like proteins that make up muscle fibers
- where myosin filaments are anchored
Myofilaments:
• Sarcomere
- proteins that make up myofibrils
- Basic contractile unit of skeletal muscles
- Ex. actin and myosin
- This is where the actual process of contraction
Myosin (thick) myofilaments
occurs via chemical interactions
• Consist of myosin molecules that resembles golf
Sarcotubular System
clubs
- Surrounds the myofibrils of muscle fibers and
• Each myosin molecule has:
composed of:
 • T system • “electricity”
- tubules are continuous - is a reversal of the resting membrane potential
so that the inside of the plasma membrane
with the sarcolemma of becomes positive
the muscle fiber
- stimulus that causes rapid depolarization and
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum that forms an irregular repolarization
curtain around each myofibril ; T system - causes muscle to contract
functions in rapid transmission of nerve
impulse at the cell membrane to all the Depolarization
thousands of fibrils
• change in charges
5.) THE PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
- inside becomes more + and outside more –
Three Factors that cause Muscle Contraction - Na+ channels open
• Neuroelectrical factors Repolarization
• Chemical interactions • Na+ channels close
• Energy sources • change back to resting potential
Neuroelectrical factors
Membrane Potentials
The nervous system stimulates muscles to
contract through electric signals called action
potentials
Plasma membranes are polarized, which means
there is a charge difference (resting membrane
potential) across the plasma membrane
It is negative inside with respect to the outside
Resting Membrane Potential
Outside cell Inside
cell________
• Na+
K+
Neuromuscular Junction
• + charge – charge
• The site where an axon and muscle fiber
• Na+ channels closed Some K+ channels communicate
open
• Motor neuron
Why is the inside of cell negative if K+ is positive?
• Motor end plate
• K+ is able to diffuse out of cell freely but other
larger negative molecules cannot. • Synaptic cleft
• Synaptic vesicles
• Neurotransmitter
- Acetylcholine (ACh) initiates skeletal muscle
contraction
Action Potential
 Energy Sources
STEPS IN MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. Action potential travels down the motor
neuron to presynaptic terminal causing
Ca2+ channels to open
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles release
acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor molecules
on Na+ channels, Na+ channels open, and
Na+ rushes into the postsynaptic terminal
(depolarization)
4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and T-tubules to
increase permeability of sarcoplasmic
reticulum and stored Ca2+ is released.
5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to
actin.
6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes
tropomyosin to move exposing attachment
sites for myosin.
7. Myosin heads bind to actin.
Muscle tone
8. ATP is released from myosin heads and the
heads bend toward the center of the
sarcomere.
9. Acetylchlolinesterase is released and Na+
channels close and contraction stops.
• Anaerobic respiration
- ATP synthesized provides energy for a short
time at the beginning of exercise and during
intense exercise
- Produces ATP less efficiently but more rapidly
than aerobic respiration
- Lactic acid levels increase because of anaerobic
respiration.
- Requires oxygen
- Produces energy for muscle contractions under
resting conditions or during endurance exercise
Types of Muscle Contraction
• Isometric contractions
- cause a change in muscle tension but no
change in muscle length
- Responsible for constant length of postural
muscles of the body such as muscles of the
back.
• Isotonic contractions
- cause a change in muscle length but no change
in muscle tension
- Movement of upper limbs and fingers
- Most muscle contractions are combination of
isometric and isotonic contractions
• Concentric contractions
- are isotonic contractions in which tension is
maintained as the muscle shortens
Example: flexing the elbow while holding a
weight in the hand.
• Eccentric contractions
- are isotonic contractions in which tension is
maintained as the muscle lengthens
Example: lowering a weight held in the hand
(extending the elbow)
• The maintenance of a steady tension for long
periods.
• Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging.
Fatigue
• The decreased ability to do work
• Can be caused by
-The central nervous system
(psychologic fatigue)
-Depletion of ATP in muscles (muscular
fatigue)
Physiologic contracture (the inability of muscles to
contract or relax) and rigor mortis (stiff muscles after
death) result from inadequate amounts of ATP
Speed of Contraction
• The three main types of skeletal muscle fibers
are
• Slow-twitch oxidative (SO) fibers
• Fast-twitch glycolytic (FG) fibers
• Fast-twitch oxidative glycolytic (FOG) fibers
• SO fibers contract more slowly than FG and FOG
fibers because they have slower myosin
ATPases than FG and FOG fibers
•
Fatigue Resistance
• SO fibers are fatigue-resistant and rely on
aerobic respiration
-Many mitochondria, a rich blood supply, and
myoglobin
• FG fibers are fatigable
-Rely on anaerobic respiration and have a high
concentration of glycogen
• FOG fibers have fatigue resistance intermediate
between SO and FG fibers
-Rely on aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Function
• SO fibers maintain posture and are involved
with prolonged exercise
- Long-distance runners have a higher
percentage of SO fibers
• FG fibers produce powerful contractions of
short duration
- Sprinters have a higher percentage of FG fibers
• FOG fibers support moderate-intensity
endurance exercises
- Aerobic exercise can result in the conversion
of FG fibers to FOG fibers
Muscular Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy
- is an increase in the size of muscles
-Due to an increase in the size of muscle fibers resulting
from an increase in the number of myofibrils in the
muscle fibers
Aerobic exercise
-Increases the vascularity of muscle
-Greater hypertrophy of slow-twitch fibers than fast-
twitch fibers
Intense anaerobic exercise
-Greater hypertrophy of fast-twitch fibers than slow-
twitch
Muscular Atrophy
-is a decrease in the size of muscle
-Due to a decrease in the size of muscle fibers or a loss
of muscle fibers
Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle
• By 80 years of age 50% of the muscle mass is
gone
• Due to a loss in muscle fibers
• Fast-twitch muscle fibers decrease in number
more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers
• Can be dramatically slowed if people remain
physically active
6.) Gross Anatomy and Functions of Skeletal Muscles
(Major Skeletal muscles of the body)
General Principles
Muscle attachments:
• Origin - the less movable end of a muscle
attachment;
• Insertion - the more movable end
• An agonist causes a certain movement and an
antagonist acts in opposition to the agonist
 • Synergists are muscles that function together • Muscles Moving the Shoulder
with the prime mover to produce a common • Muscles Moving the Humerus
action • Muscles Moving the Elbow
• Fixators stabilize the action of prime movers • Muscles Moving the Hand
• Action of muscles are their functions or • Muscles Moving the Thumb
movements they produce • Muscles Moving the Fingers
• Superficial muscles are those found directly • Muscles Moving the Abdominal Wall
under the skin • Muscles of Respiration or Breathing
• Some parts of the body like arms, legs, and • Muscles Moving the Femur
sides of the abdomen have superficial, middle, • Muscles Moving the Knee Joint
and deep muscles • Muscles Moving the Foot
Nomenclature • Muscles Moving the Toes
• Muscles are named according to their: Muscles of Facial Expressions
Location • Occipitalis – draws scalp backward
• Pectoralis (chest) • Frontalis – raises eyebrows and wrinkles the
• Gluteus (buttock) forehead
• Brachial (arm) • Zygomaticus – smiling and laughing
• Tibialis anterior • Levator labii superioris – raises upper lip
Size • Levator labii superioris alaequae nasi – raises
• Maximus (large) upper lip and dilates nostril
• Minimus (small) • Orbicularis oris – closes lips
• Major (larger of two muscles) • Buccinator – compresses your cheek
• Minor (smaller of two muscles) Muscles of Mastication
• Longus (long) • Masseter and temporalis – close the jaw by
• Brevis (short) bringing up the mandible in a bite grip
Shape • Pterygoid assists the masseter and temporalis
• Deltoid (triangular) Muscles of the Eye
• Quadratus (quadrate - rectangular) • Superior rectus – raises the eye
• Teres (round) • Inferior rectus – lowers the eye
Orientation of fasciculi • Medial rectus – rolls the eye medially
• Rectus (straight) • Lateral rectus – rolls the eye laterally
• Oblique (at an angle) • Superior and inferior oblique – rotate the
Number of heads eyeball on a axis
• Biceps (two) Muscles Moving the Head and Neck
• Triceps (three) • Sternocleidomastoid – major head flexor
Function • Splenius capitis and trapezius muscle – extends
• Abductor (away form midline) the head
• Adductor (towards midline) • Sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles –
• Masseter (a chewer) lateral head movements
Origin and Insertion
• Sternocleidomastoid Muscles Moving the Shoulder Girdle
Function • Elevation: levator scapulae, trapezius (superior
• Masseter part), and rhomboideus
FUNCTION AND LOCATION OF SELECTED SKELETAL • Depression: trapezius (inferior part), serratus
MUSCLES anterior, and pectoralis minor
• Muscles of Facial Expressions Muscles Moving the Humerus
• Muscles of Mastication • Pectoralis major – flexes and adducts arm
• Muscles of the Eye • Latissimus dorsi – extends, adducts, and rotates
• Muscles Moving the Head arm medially
Rotator cuff muscles:
• Teres minor – adducts and rotates the arm
• (Deltoid – abducts the arm and muscle that
receives injection)
• Supraspinatus – abducts arm
• Infraspinatus – rotates the arm
• Subscapularis – rotates humerus medially and
adducts it.
Muscles Moving the Elbow
• Brachialis and Brachioradialis – flexes forearm
• Biceps brachii – flexes arm and forearm, and
supinates hand
• Triceps brachii and anconeus – extends forearm
Muscles Moving the Wrist
• Flexor carpi ulnaris – flexes and adducts wrist
• Flexor carpi radialis – flexes and abducts wrist
• Palmaris longus – flexes wrist joint
• Extensor carpi radialis brevis and longus -
extends and abducts wrist joint
• Extensor carpi ulnaris – extends and adducts
wrist joint
• Extensor digitorum communis – extends wrist
joint
Muscles Moving the Hand
• Supinator – supinates forearm, bringing the
hand upward
• Pronator teres and pronator quadratus –
pronates forearm bringing the hand downward
• Supinator – supinates forearm, bringing the
hand upward
• Pronator teres and pronator quadratus –
pronates forearm bringing the hand downward
Muscles Moving the Thumb
• Flexor pollicis longus – flexes 2nd phalanx of
thumb
• Flexor pollicis brevis – flexes thumb
• Extensor pollicis longus – extends terminal
phalanx
• Extensor pollicis brevis – extends the thumb
• Adductor pollicis – aducts the thumb
• Abductor policis longus – abducts, extends
thumb
• Abductor pollicis brevis – abducts thumb
• Opponens pollicis – flexes and opposes thumb
Muscles Moving the Fingers
• Flexor digitorum – flex the fingers
• Extensor digitorum – extends the fingers
• Interrosei – cause abduction of the proximal
phalanges of the fingers
Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
• Compressor of abdominal wall:
- External oblique
- Internal oblique
- Tranversus abdominis
• Rectus abdominis – flexes vertebral column and
assist in compressing the abdominal wall
Muscles of Respiration or Breathing
• Diaphragm
- Contraction cause air to enter
- Relaxation – cause ribs to expand and fills the
lungs with air
• External intercostal – elevate the ribs when we
inspire
• Internal intercostal – depress the ribs when we
expire
Muscles Moving the Femur
• Psoas major – flexes and rotates thigh medially
• Psoas minor – flexes the trunk
• Iliacus – flexes and rotates thigh medially
Muscles Moving the Femur
• Gluteus maximus – extends and rotates the
thigh laterally
• Gluteus medius and gluteus minimus – abducts
and rotates the thigh medially
• Tensor fascia lata – tenses fascia lata
• Fascia lata – a thick band of connective
on the lateral side of the thigh
• For abduction of the femur
 • Flexors of the knee • They serve to engulf and destroy microbes like
- Biceps femoris bacteria and cellular debris
- Semitendinosous
4. Ependymal cells
- Semimembranosus
- Popliteus • Line fluid-filled ventricles of the brain
- Gracilis
Muscles Moving the Knee Joint • Produce cerebrospinal fluid
• Quadriceps femoris: • Move the fluid through the CNS
- Rectus femoris
- Vastus lateralis 5. Schwann cells
- Vastus medialis • Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the
- Vastus intermedius PNS
*extends the leg and flexes the thigh
• Sartorius – longest muscle of the body 8.) structural and functional types of neurons PNS
Muscles Moving the Foot
Structure of a Neuron
• Flexors of the Foot:
- Gastrocnemius (calf muscle)
- Tibialis posterior
- Soleus
- Peroneus longus
- Plantaris
Muscles Moving the Foot
• Flexors of the foot:
- Tibialis anterior
- Peroneus tertius
Muscles Moving the Toes
• Flexor hallucis brevis and longus – flex the
great toe
• Extensor hallucis – extends the toes

7.) Types and functions of Neuroglia cells

Neuroglia Cells – do not conduct impulses

1.Astrocytes

• star-shaped cells

• form supporting network in the brain and spinal

cord.
Cell body
• Help regulate nutrients and ions needed by the
nerve cells • With single nucleus

2. Oligodendrocyte • Cytoplasm with mitochondria, lysosomes, and

neurofibrils that extend into the axon (nerve
• Form semi-rigid connective tissue-like rows fiber)
between neurons in brain and spinal cord
• Extensive ER has granular structures called
• Produce fatty myelin sheath Nissl bodies or chromatophilic substance
3. Microglia cells • Where protein synthesis occurs
• Small cells that protect the CNS
2 kinds of Nerve Fibers:

• Dendrites which are short and branched

• Axon which begins as a slight enlargement of

the cell body called axonal hillock

• Axon terminals are fine extensions at the end

of the axon

• Axon is enclosed in fatty myelin sheath

• Nodes of Ranvier are narrow gaps in the

sheath

Structural Classification of Neurons

1. Multipolar neurons have several dendrites and one

axon

• Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord have
this type
2. Bipolar neurons
• With one dendrite and one axon
• Function as receptor cells in special sense
organs such as the retina of the eye, the inner
ear, and olfactory area of the nose
Functional Classification of Neurons
1. Sensory or afferent neuron
• The 1st nerve cell to receive nerve impulses
from a receptor.
• Unipolar type
• Peripheral process is in contact w/ the receptors

• Central process goes to the spinal cord

3. Unipolar neurons

• Single process that branches into a central

branch that functions as an axon and a
peripheral branch that functions as a dendrite.
2. Internuncial or association neurons • Convey information from CNS to muscles and
glands
• Found in brain and spinal cord
Subcategories of the Efferent Peripheral
• Multipolar type
System
• Receive nerve impulses from sensory neuron
1. Somatic nervous system
to brain or spinal cord for interpretation and
processing • Conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles
3. Motor or efferent neuron
• cause us to respond or react to changes in our
• Multipolar
external environment
• Receives the impulse from association neuron
2. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• It brings about the reaction to the original
• Conducts impulses from CNS to smooth muscle
stimulus
tissue, cardiac muscle tissue of the heart, and to
• A muscle or a gland brings about the response glands.

9.) organization of the nervous system, their • Involuntary

components and function
Two Divisions of the ANS
Two Major Categories
1. Sympathetic
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
division
• Brain and spinal cord
• Stimulates or speeds up activity
• Encased in the skull and vertebral column
• Involves energy expenditure
• CNS processes, integrates, stores, and responds
• Uses norepinephrine as neurotransmitter
to information from the PNS
• The fight or flight response

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

2. Parasympathetic
• Nervous tissue outside of the CNS
division
• Consists of sensory receptors and nerves
• Stimulates the body’s vegetative activities such
• PNS detects stimuli and transmits information
as digestion, urination, and defecation
to the CNS and receives information from the
CNS • Restores or slows down other activities

Two Subcategories of the PNS • Uses acetylcholine as neurotansmitters

1. Afferent peripheral system 10.) Action potential and synapses

• Consists of afferent or sensory neurons THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVE IMPULSE

• Convey information from receptors in the Membrane or Resting Potential

periphery of the body to the CNS
• Nerve cells are similar to muscle cells in terms
2. Efferent peripheral system of concentration of ions on the outside and
inside the cell membrane.
• Consists of efferent or motor neurons
• Greater concentration of Na+ outside

• More K+ ions inside
• This is maintained by Na-K pump
• Cl- and negatively charged organic molecules
make the inside negative
• This condition is known as MP or RMP
Action Potentials
• Results from a nerve impulse that cause the
reversal of electrical charge (depolarization) as
Na+ rushes in the cell
• AP moves in one direction down the axon
• K+ move to the outside to restore RMP
• Na+ are pumped out and K+ are pulled in to
restore the original charges (repolarization)
• The process continues along the length of the
nerve fiber (axon) acting like electrical current
Action Potential Propagation
• Action potential in a myelinated fiber is faster
because it is insulated with a myelin sheath
• Transmission of nerve impulse occurs only at
the nodes of Ranvier, so nerve impulses jump
from node to node.
• Nerve impulse is conducted along the entire
length of a unmyelinated fiber, but conduction
is slower.
Myelinated vs Unmyelinated Nerve fiber
• An impulse on a myelinated motor fiber going
to a skeletal muscle could travel about 120
meters per second
• An impulse on an unmyelinated fiber would
travel only 0.5 meter per second.
The All-or-None Law
• Action potentials occur on the same magnitude
or strength if the stimulus or change in the
environment is barely great enough (threshold)
to cause the fiber to carry the impulse.
THE SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION 11.) structure of the spinal cord (parts as observed in
the transverse section)
Synapses
THE SPINAL CORD
• Where the axon terminals of one neuron are
anchored to, but not touching the ends of the Structure
dendrites of another neuron
• 16 to 18 inches long
• One-way junctions that ensure that nerve
• Diameter varies at different levels of the
impulses travel in only one direction
vertebral column
• This area is called the synaptic cleft
• Surrounded by bones of the vertebrae and
• Other areas of synapses are between axon intervertebral disks
endings and muscles, or between axon endings
• Made up of series of 31 segments, each give
and glands
rise to a pair of spinal nerves

• Further protected by spinal meninges

• Dura mater is the tough outermost connective

tissue

• Arachnoid mater is the middle spinal meninx

• Pia mater is the innermost spinal meninx which

adheres to the surface of the cord

• Subdural space

• Between dura mater and arachnoid

matter

• Contains serous fluid

• Subarachnoid space

Transmission across Synapses • Between arachnoid and pia mater

• Neurotransmitters are release from synaptic • Where cerebrospinal fluid circulates

vesicles as nerve impulse travels down the axon
• Epidural space separates the spinal cord with
• Acetylcholine allows the impulse to travel to the the vertebrae
synaptic cleft then to the postsynaptic neuron
• Contains loose connective tissue and
• Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine some adipose tissue
after it performs its function
• Acts as a cushion around spinal cord
• ANS use adrenaline or epinephrine in addition
Functions of the Spinal Cord
to Ach
1. Conveys sensory impulses from the periphery to
• Other neurotransmitters are serotonin,
the brain by the ascending tracts and conducts
dopamine, and endorphins
motor impulses from the brain to the periphery
by the descending tracts

2. Provide a means of integrating reflexes.

 3. Each pair of spinal nerves connects to a
segment of the spinal cord by two points of
attachments called the roots
4. The posterior or dorsal root is sensory and
connects with the posterior or dorsal gray horn
5. The anterior or ventral root is motor and
connects to the anterior or ventral gray horn
SPINAL NERVES
• 31 pairs
• Arise from the union of dorsal and ventral roots
of spinal nerves
• Consist of both motor and sensory nerves
• Exit the vertebral column between the
vertebrae (intervertebral foramina)
• Named and numbered according to region of
the spinal cord where they emerge.
12.) Major Division of the brain and spinal cord
The Brain
• Is the control center for many of the body’s
functions
• Weighs about 3lbs
• Protected by cranial bones and meninges
• Dura mater
• Arachnoid mater
• Pia mater
• Also protected by the cerebrospinal fluid
Ventricles
• Cavities within the brain that connect with each
other, with the subarachnoid space, and with
the central canal of the spinal cord.
• Left & right lateral ventricles in each side of
cerebrum
• Third ventricle inferior to the thalamus
• Foramen of Monro, connects the lateral
ventricle with the 3rd ventricle
• Fourth ventricle lies between cerebellum and
lower brainstem
• Cerebral aqueduct connects the fourth ventricle
with the third ventricle
The Principal Parts of the Brain
A. The Brainstem
• Connects the brain with the spinal cord
Very delicate area of the brain
Damage to even small area can result to
death
It is composed of the: medulla
oblongata, pons, and midbrain
 Components of the Brainstem
1. Medulla oblongata
• contains ascending and descending tracts which
make up the white matter of the medulla
• Decussation of pyramids is the crossing of the
tracts.
• Control skeletal motor movements
• Reticular formation, an area of dispersed gray
matter with some white fibers
• Functions to maintain state of consciousness like
alertness and sleep
Reflex centers of the reticular system
• Vasomotor center – regulates the diameter of
blood vessels
• Cardiac center – regulates force of contraction
and heartbeat
• Medullary rhythmicity area – adjust basic
rhythm of breathing
2. Pons varolii
• Bridge that connects the spinal cord with the
brain
• Connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum
• Pontine nuclei
• Located in the ventral pons
• regulate breathing, swallowing, balance,
chewing, and salivation
3. Midbrain or - Mammillary bodies are reflex centers for olfaction

mesencephalon C. Cerebrum

• Superior to the pons • Makes up the bulk of the brain

• Ventral cerebral peduncles convey impulses • Cortex of the cerebrum is folded into ridges
from cerebral cortex to the pons and spinal cord called gyri and grooves called sulci or fissures

• Dorsal tectum • The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum

into left and right hemispheres
• Controls movement of the eyeballs and
head in response to visual stimuli • Each hemisphere has five lobes

• Controls movement of the head and Frontal lobes - are involved in voluntary motor
trunk in response to auditory stimuli function, motivation, aggression, the sense of smell,
and mood
B. The Diencephalon
Parietal lobes - contain the major sensory areas
• Located between the brainstem and the
receiving sensory input, such as touch, pain,
cerebrum
temperature, balance, and taste
• Consists of the
Occipital lobes - contain the visual centers
Thalamus - Principal relay station for sensory impulses
Temporal lobes - evaluate smell and hearing input
that reach the cerebral cortex coming from spinal cord,
and are involved in memory, abstract thought, and
brainstem, and parts of the cerebrum
judgment
Subthalamus - Interpretation center for conscious
Insula - is located deep within the lateral fissure;
recognition of pain and temperature and some
Site of gustatory cortex
awareness of crude pressure and touch
D. Cerebellum
Epithalamus - Inferior to the thalamus
• 2nd largest portion of the brain
-Involved in motor functions
• Consists primarily of white matter, the arbor
Contains:
vitae which connects the cerebellum to the
Habenular nuclei - which influence rest of the CNS
emotions through the sense of smell
• Gray matter forms the cerebellar cortex and
Pineal gland - play a role in the onset of nuclei of the cerebellum
puberty and the sleep-wake cycle

Hypothalamus - Main visceral control center of the

body and is vitally important to overall body
homeostasis.

- Autonomic control center (heart rate, blood pressure,

etc.)

- Center for emotional response/behavior

- Body temperature regulation

- Regulation of food intake

Functions of the Cerebellum
- Regulation of water balance
Functions as a reflex center to:
- Control of endocrine system functioning
 • coordinate complex skeletal muscular
movements,

• maintain proper body posture, and

• keep the body balanced.

• 12 pairs

• 10 pairs originate from the brainstem

• All 12 pairs exit the skull through various

foramina

13. ) Cranial Nerves and their Functions

• Some CN are only sensory or afferent

• Others are only motor or efferent

• Mixed cranial nerves have both sensory and

motor functions

14.) THE SPECIAL SENSES

• Sense: ability to perceive stimuli

• Sensation: conscious awareness of stimuli

received by sensory neurons

• Sensory receptors: sensory nerve endings that

respond to stimuli by developing action
potentials
Types of Receptors
Types of Receptors
Mechanoreceptors Thermoreceptors
- detect movement - detect temp.
- Ex. touch, pressure, changes
vibration
Nociceptors:
Chemoreceptors
- detect pain
- detect chemicals
- Ex. Odors
Photoreceptors
- detect light
Types of Touch Receptors

1. Merkel’s disks

2. Hail follicle receptors

3. Meisner’s corpuscles

4. Ruffini’s end organ

5. Pacinian Corpuscle

Five Special Senses

Olfaction
 • sense of smell - protects eyes from sweat

• occurs in response to odorants - shade from sun

• receptors are located in nasal cavity and hard • Eyelid/Eyelashes

palate
- protects from foreign objects
• we can detect 10,000 different smells
- lubricates by blinking
Sense of Taste/Gustation
• Conjunctiva
• Taste buds
- thin membrane that covers inner surface of eyelid
- sensory structures that detect taste
• Extrinsic eye muscles
- located on papillae on tongue, hard palate, throat
- help move eyeball
• Inside each taste bud are 40 taste cells
• Lacrimal apparatus - produces tears
• Each taste cell has taste hairs that extend into
• Consists of the lacrimal gland, lacrimal
taste pores
ducts, lacrimal canaliculi, and a
Function of Taste nasolacrimal duct

• Receptors on the hairs detect dissolved • Lacrimal glands secrete tears (Contain
substances mostly water, with some salts, mucus,
and lysozyme)
• Five basic types of taste exist:
15.) parts of the brain(sagitally)
Salty - Sodium ions

Sour - Acids

Sweet - Sugars, some other carbohydrates, and some

proteins

Bitter - Alkaloids (bases)

Umami - Elicited by the amino acid glutamate and

related compounds

Visual System

Consists of:

Eye

eyeball

optic nerve

Accessory Structures

eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and

extrinsic eye muscles

• Sensory Neurons
16.) Endocrine Glands and Hormones they Secrete
• Eyebrow
 A. Anterior Pituitary Gland
1. Growth Hormone (GH)
– stimulates cell metabolism in most moisture of the
body, causing cell to divide and increase in size.
- stimulates the growth of bones and muscles.
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
-stimulates the thyroid gland to produce its hormones.
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its hormone
called Cortisol.
4. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
- increase the production of melanin in melanocytes in
the skin, that cause the deepening pigmenting or
darkening of the skin.
5. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- stimulates development of the follicle in the ovaries of
the female. While in male it stimulates the production
of sperm cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
-stimulates ovulation in the female ovary and
production of the female sex hormones progesterone.
- stimulates the synthesis of the testosterone in the
testes to maintain sperm cell production
7. Lactogenic Hormone (LH)
- also known as prolactin; stimulates milk production in
the mammary gland and following delivery in pregnant
female.
- also maintains progesterone levels following ovulation
and during pregnancy in the woman.
B. Posterior Pituitary Gland
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
-maintains the body’s water balance by promoting
increased water reabsorption in the tubules of the
nephrons of kidneys, resulting in less water in the urine
2. Oxytoxin (OT)
- stimulates production of Ot for the uterine’s
contractions development in the late stages or child
birth.
- stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in the walls
of uterus.
c. Thyroid Gland
1. Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine (T4)
- both of them, the T4 and T3 regulates metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, and protein. For normal growth and
development as well as for nervous system maturation.
- contains 4 iodine atoms
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
- contains 3 iodine atoms.
- increases the rate of carbohydrates and lipids for
breakdown into energy molecules as well as increasing
the rate of proteinsynthesis.
3. Calcitonin
- it lowers the calcium and phosphate ion concentration
of the blood by inhibiting the release of calcium and
phosphate ions from the bones by increasing the
excretion of these ions by the kidneys.
D. Parathyroid Glands
1.Parathyroid Hormone or Parathormone
-inhibits the activity of osteoblast and causes osteoclast
to breakdown bone matrix tissue, thus releasing calcium
and phosphate ions into the blood.
E. Adrenal Glands
1. Adrenaline also known as epinephrine
- with the help of noradrenaline they get the body
prepared for stressful situation that require vigorous
physical activity.
2. Noradrenaline
- with the help of norepinephrine, when the person is in
danger and experiences stress, the hypothalamus or the
brain triggers the adrenal gland.
3. Aldosterone
- regulates sodium reabsorption and potassium
excretion by the kidneys.
4. Cortisol, also known as Hydrocortisone
- stimulates the liver to synthesize glucose from
circulating amino acids.
5. Adrogens
- stimulates the development of male sexual
characteristics.
F. Pancreas
1. Insulin
- promotes the glucose in the blood to be transformed
in the liver into glycogen
2. Glucagon
- stimulates the liver to convert the stored glycogen into
glucose, thus raising blood glucose level.
- it also causes breakdown of amino acids.
G. Testes and Ovaries
1. Testosterone
- responsible for the development of the male
reproductive structures, and at puberty, the
enlargement of the testes and penis.
2. Estrogen and Progesterone
- promote the development of the female reproductive
structures. The vagina, uterus and fallopian tube.
H. Thymus Gland
1. Thymosin
- causes the production of WBC called T Lymphocytes.
(against from foreign microorganisms & fight infection.)
I. Pineal Gland
1. Melatonin
- inhibits the secretion of the gonadotropin hormones
LH and LSH from the anterior pituitary gland, thus
inhibiting the functions of reproductive organs.
2. Serotonin
- act as neurotransmitter; stimulates smooth muscle
contraction and inhibits gastric secretions.
17.) ABO blood types and their compatibilities
18). The clotting mechanism
1. a ruptured blood vessels attracts thrombocytes to the
site of injury.
2. the damage tissue release thromboplastin
3. thromboplastin, with the assistance of calcium ions,
proteins, and phospholipids, causes the production of
prothrombin activator.
4. prothrombin activator with the assistance of calcium
ions causes prothrombin, a plasma protein, a plasma
protein to be converted into thrombin.
5. thrombin causes soluble fibrinogen, another plasma
protein, to be converted into insoluble fibrin.
6. fibrin forms the threads of the clot, which enmesh
the blood cells and platelets seeping from the wound.
7. tightening of the clot (clot retractions) or syneresis
occurs and hemorrhaging ceases.
8. after tissues are repaired, dissolution of the clot or
fibrinolysis occurs.
9. unwanted clotting, caused by masses of cholesterol
known as plaque, in an unbroken blood vessel is known
as thrombosis. The clot is called thrombus.
10. a piece of blood clot, transported by the
bloodstream, can get lodge in a vessel and block off
circulation. It is called embolus and the condition is
embolism.
19.) chambers and valves of the heart
 • 4 Chambers: between atria and ventricles

- left atrium (LA) - Tricuspid valve:

- right atrium (RA) - AV valve between RA and RV

- left ventricle (LV) - 3 cusps

- right ventricle (RV) - Bicuspid valve (mitral):

• Coronary sulcus: - AV valve between LA and LV

separates atria from ventricles - 2 cusps

Atria • Chordae tendineae:

• Upper portion - attached to AV valve flaps

• Holding chambers - support valves

• Small, thin walled • Semilunar valves:

• Contract minimally to push blood into ventricles - Pulmonary:

• Interatrial septum: base of pulmonary trunk

separates right and left atria - Aortic:

Ventricles base of aorta

• Lower portion Right Side of Heart

• Pumping chambers • Pulmonary circuit:

• Thick, strong walled - carries blood from heart to lungs

• Contract forcefully to propel blood out of heart - blood is O2 poor, CO2 rich

• Interventricular septum: • Right Atrium:

separates right and left ventricles - receives blood from 3 places: superior and

inferior vena cava and coronary sinus

- Superior vena cava:

drains blood above diaphragm (head, neck,

thorax, upper limbs)

- Inferior vena cava:

drains blood below diaphragm

(abdominopelvic cavity and lower limbs)

Valves - coronary sinus:

• What are they? drains blood from myocardium

structures that ensure 1 way blood flow • Right Ventricle:

- opens into pulmonary trunk

• Atrioventricular valves (AV): - Pulmonary trunk:

 splits into right and left pulmonary arteries ventricle

- Pulmonary arteries: • Right coronary artery:

carry blood away from heart to lungs - originates on right side of aorta

Left Side of Heart - supply blood to right ventricle

• Systemic circuit: 22.) Parts of the Digestive System and their Functions

- carries blood from heart to body

- blood is O2 rich, CO2 poor

• Left Atrium:

4 openings (pulmonary veins) that receive

blood from lungs

• Left Ventricle:

- opens into aorta

- thicker, contracts more forcefully, higher

blood pressure than right ventricle has to get to body.

• Aorta:

carries blood from LV to body

20.) Difference in structures and function of the

arteries, veins and capillaries

• Coronary arteries:

- supply blood to heart wall

- originate from base of aorta (above aortic

semilunar valve)

• Left coronary artery:

- has 3 branches

- supply blood to anterior heart wall and left