Electrical Circuit Components

Measurement Basics
Some Electrical
Circuit Components
and Circuits
Direct Current Circuits and
Measurements
Laws of Electricity
Ohm's Law
V=I*R
Measurements
Laws of Electricity
Kirchhoff's First Law

the algebraic sum of the currents around any
point in a circuit is zero
Measurements
Laws of Electricity
Kirchhoff's Second Law

the algebraic sum of the voltages around a
closed electrical loop is zero
Measurements
Laws of Electricity
Power Law
P = I * V = I2 * R = V2/R
Simple DC Circuits
Series Circuits
Resistors in Series; a
voltage divider
Simple DC Circuits
for Series Circuits
current the same at all points in a series circuit
thus, from Kirchhoff's first law
I = I1 = I2 = I3 = I4
Simple DC Circuits
for Series Circuits
and from Kirchhoff's second law
V = V1 + V 2 + V 3
Simple DC Circuits
for Series Circuits
and, therefore,
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3
Simple DC Circuits
Voltage Dividers
Voltage Dividers: (a)

selector type and (b)
continuously variable
type (potentiometer)
Simple DC Circuits
Voltage Dividers
RAC AC
VAC = VAB ------- = VAB ------
RAB AB
Simple DC Circuits
Parallel Circuits
from Kirchhoff's first law
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Simple DC Circuits
Parallel Circuits
and from Kirchhoff's second law, three
separate equations
V = I1 * R1
V = I2 * R2
V = I3 * R3
Simple DC Circuits
Parallel Circuits
and from Ohm's Law
V V V V
I = --- = --- + --- + ---
R R 1 R2 R 3
Simple DC Circuits
Parallel Circuits
thus, for a parallel circuit, resistances are
1 1 1 1
--- = --- + --- + ---
R R 1 R2 R 3
Simple DC Circuits
Parallel Circuits
and where conductance, G = 1/R
G = G1 + G2 + G3
Series-Parallel Circuit
EXAMPLE: What is the equivalent resistance
and current for the following circuit?
R6=5 R5=6
R2=10
R4=12
R3=6
R1= 5

R6=5 R5=6
R2=10
R4=12
R3=6
R1= 5 R7
resistors 3 and 4 are in parallel
1 1 1 1 1
--- = --- + --- = ----- + -------
R 7 R3 R4 6 12
= 0.25 -1
R7 = 4 
R6=5 R5=6
R2=10
R7=4
R1= 5
R6=5 R5=6
R2=10 R8
R7=4
R1= 5
resistor 5 and equivalent resistance 7 are in
series
R8 = R7 + R5 = (4 + 6)  = 10
R6=5
R2=10 R8=10
R1= 5
R6=5 R9
R2=10 R8=10
R1= 5
resistor 2 and equivalent resistance 8 in
parallel
1 1 1 1 1
--- = ----- + ----- = ------- + -------
R 9 R2 R8 10  10 
= 0.2 -1 ; R9 = 5 
R6=5
R9=5
V=7.5v
R1= 5
resistors 1 & 6 and equivalent resistance 9 in
series
R = R1 + R9 + R6 = (5 + 5 + 5) 
= 15 
I = V/R = 7.5V/15  = 0.50 amp

DC Current, Voltage, and
Resistance Measurements
Digital Voltmeters
Uses of a digital voltmeter
Alternating Current Circuits
f = 1/tp
where tp => period

Sinusoidal Currents
2
 = ---- = 2f
tp
where  => angular frequency

for single sine wave
i = Ip sin (t) = Ip sin(2ft)
where i = instantaneous current

Ip => peak current
for single sine wave
v = Vp sin (t) = Vp sin(2ft)
where v = instantaneous voltage

Vp => peak voltage
for two sine waves
i = Ip sin (t + ) = Ip sin(2ft + )
where i = instantaneous current

Ip => peak current
for two sine waves
v = Vp sin (t + ) = Vp sin(2ft + )
where v = instantaneous voltage

Vp => peak voltage
Capacitors and Capacitance:
Series RC Circuits
Behavior of a series RC circuit
Series RC Circuits
Vi = v C + v R
i = Iinit e-t/RC
Series RC Circuits
Rate of voltage change in an RC circuit
vR = Vi e-t/RC thus vC = Vi (1 - e-t/RC)
where RC => time constant, units of

seconds
EXAMPLE
The values for the components are
Vi = 20 v R = 15 X 103 C = 8.0 X 10-3 F
Calculate (a) the time constant for the
circuit, and (b) i, vC, and vR after four
time constants (t = 4RC) have elapsed.
EXAMPLE
Vi = 20 v R = 15 X 103 C = 8.0 X 10-3 F
Calculate (a) the time constant for the circuit,
and (b) i, vC, and vR after four time constants
(t = 4RC) have elapsed.
(a) time constant = RC
= (15 X 103 ) * (8.0 X 10-3 F)
= 1.2 X 102 seconds
EXAMPLE
Vi = 20 v R = 15 X 103 C = 8.0 X 10-3 F
(b) if t = 4RC, then t/RC = (4RC)/RC = 4
i = Iinit e-t/RC = (V/R) e-t/RC
= (20 v/ 15 X 103
= 2.4 X 10-5 amp
EXAMPLE
Vi = 20 v R = 15 X 103 C = 8.0 X 10-3 F
vC = Vi (1 - e-t/RC) = 20 v (1 - e-4)
= 20 v (1.000 - 0.01)
= 20 v (0.982) = 19.6 v
EXAMPLE

Vi = 20 v R = 15 X 103 C = 8.0 X 10-3 F
vR = Vi e-t/RC = 20 v e-4 = 20 v (0.01) = 0.36 v

Response of Series RC Circuits
to Sinusoidal Inputs
vS = VP sin(2ft)
i = IP sin(2ft)
where vS => input signal voltage

VP => peak voltage
IP => peak current
Reactance of a Capacitor => XC
XC = 1 / (2fC)
Impedance in a Series RC Circuit
Z = (R2 + XC2)1/2
 = - tan-1 (1 / (2fRC))
Filters Based on RC Circuits
High-Pass Filter and Low-Pass Filter
Semiconductors and
Semiconductor Devices
• Semiconductors
• Semiconductor Devices
– Diodes
– Transistors
– Field-Effect Transistor
Semiconductors
• Any of various solid crystalline substances,
such as germanium or silicon, having
electrical conductivity greater than
insulators but less than good conductors.
• Conductivity can be increased by doping
with select materials.
Semiconductors
• If dopant is an element to the right of the
base material, an n-type semiconductor is
produced.
• If dopant is an element to the left of the
base material, a p-type semiconductor is
produced.
Diodes
A diode is an electronic component that
allows current to flow in only one direction.
Diodes
A pn junction diode. (a)

Physical appearance of
one type formed by
diffusion of a p-type
impurity into an n-type
semiconductor, (b)
symbol for a diode, (c.)
current under forward
bias, (d) resistance to
current under reverse
bias.
Diodes
Current-voltage
characteristics of a silicon
semiconductor diode.
Transistors
A transistor is an active electronic component
with three leads. One lead is connected to a
power source, one is the output, and the
other is a gate that controls how much
power is applied to the output. Transistors
are typically used as amplifiers because a
small signal at the gate controls a large
output.
Transistors
There are several types of

transistors and two of the
more common categories,
bipolar and field-effect
transistor (FET).
Bipolar Transistor
The different types of transistors: npn and pnp
(n-channel and p-channel for FETs) refer to
the bias between the collector and emitter
(drain and source). Npn transistors are
operated with the collector biased more
positive than the emitter, and pnp transitors
are operated with the emitter more positive
than the collector.
Bipolar Transistor
Operation
The base behaves like a diode connected to
the emitter, therefore the base current
increases rapidly at a VBE of approximately
0.6 V. At this voltage the transistor is said
to be "turned on" and current flows from the
collector to the emitter.
Bipolar Transistor
The collector current is controlled by VBE as
given by the Ebers-Moll equation:
IC = IS [exp(VBE/VT) - 1]
where IS is the maximum current of the transistor
(called saturation current) and VT = kT/e. k is
Boltzmann's constant, T is absolute temperature,
and e is the charge of an electron. VT is
approximately 25 mV at room temperature.
Bipolar Transistor
Emitter
Emitter
n Base Base
p npn
p
n
Collector
Collector
Bipolar Transistor
Emitter
Emitter
p Base Base
n pnp
n
p
Collector
Collector
Transistors
Currents in a
common-emitter
circuit with a
transistor. Ordinarily,
 = 0.95 to 0.995 and
 = 20 to 200.
Field-Effect Transistor
transistors which have very low current drain,
allowing high input impedance
very sensitive to static electrical charge, easily
destroyed
Power Supplies and Regulators
• Transformers
• Rectifiers and Filters
• Voltage Regulators
Transformers
A transformer is a passive electronics
component and consists of a pair of wire
coils coupled together with an iron core.
The input coil is called the primary coil and
the output coil is called the secondary coil.
Transformers
Transformer Voltages
150
100
50
Volts
Primary
0
Seconday
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-50
-100
-150
Rectifiers and Filters
Rectifiers
– used to convert alternating current to direct
current
– diode or diodes
Filters
– capacitors
– reduce ripple in direct current
Half Wave Rectifier
Unrectified
15
10
Volts
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-5
-10
-15
Rectified
20
V o l ts
0
0 5 10
Full Wave Rectifier Unrectified
15
10
Volts
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-5
-10
-15
Rectified
20
Volts
10
0
0 2 4 6 8
Filters
Effect of Filter
12
10
8
Unfiltered
Volts
6 Fillered
Pure DC
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Power Supply
Unrectified
15
10
Unrectified
Volts
0
15 Rectified
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10
-5 E f f e c t o f F ilt e r
20
12
5
10
Volts
Volts
8
0
-10
10
Volts
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4
-5 2
-15 -10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-15
0 2 4 6 8
Transformer Rectifier Filter

Half-Wave Rectified
Rectified
20
V o lts
0
0 5 10
Full-Wave Rectified
bridge
Rectified
20
Volts
10
0
0 2 4 6 8
Full-Wave Rectified
Rectified
20
Volts
10
0
0 2 4 6 8
Full-Wave Rectified
bridge
Rectified
20
Volts
10
0
0 2 4 6 8
Voltage Regulators
integrated circuit which regulate the voltage to
some specific value
Readout Devices
Oscilloscopes/Cathode Ray Tubes
Recorders
Analog Meters
Alphanumeric Displays
• nixie tubes
• LEDs
• LCDs
Computers
Digital Display

Electrical Circuit Components

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Electrical Circuit Components

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Measurement Basics

Kirchhoff's First Law

Kirchhoff's Second Law

Voltage Dividers: (a)

EXAMPLE: What is the equivalent resistance

I = V/R = 7.5V/15  = 0.50 amp

where tp => period

where  => angular frequency

i = Ip sin (t) = Ip sin(2ft)

where i = instantaneous current

v = Vp sin (t) = Vp sin(2ft)

where v = instantaneous voltage

i = Ip sin (t + ) = Ip sin(2ft + )

where i = instantaneous current

v = Vp sin (t + ) = Vp sin(2ft + )

where v = instantaneous voltage

vR = Vi e-t/RC thus vC = Vi (1 - e-t/RC)

where RC => time constant, units of

The values for the components are

vR = Vi e-t/RC = 20 v e-4 = 20 v (0.01) = 0.36 v

where vS => input signal voltage

Impedance in a Series RC Circuit

A pn junction diode. (a)

There are several types of

Transformer Rectifier Filter

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