Applied Electronics - 1 (Allied)

Applied Electronics Allied-I
Muthayammal college of arts and science

Department of E&C Page 1
UNIT-I
1.SEMICONDUCTOR
 Semiconductors are materials that conduct electric current.
 And its conductivity is must greater than insulators (e.g., rubber, glass,
Teflon, mica, etc.) and much smaller than conductors (e.g., gold, silver,
copper, etc.).
 Most commonly used semiconductor materials are germanium (Ge),
silicon (Si) and other materials are GaAs, GaP, InP.
 In solid materials, electron energy levels form bands of allowed
energies, separated by forbidden bands
 Valence band = outermost (highest) band filled with electrons.
 Conduction band = next highest band to valence band.
 Gap = energy difference between valence and conduction bands.
 Semiconductors gap is small about 0.1 to 1eV.
Conduction band
Overlapping
Conduction band
Large band gap
Conduction band
Small band gap
Valence band Valence band
Valence band
INSULATOR SEMICONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR
Structure of conductivity
 Insulator is large band gap separated the filled valence band and empty
conduction band.
 Semiconductor is small band gap separated the filled valence band and
empty conduction band.
 Conductor is overlapped the filled valence band and empty conduction
band.
 Mostly semiconductor materials are used to manufacturing of
electronics components. They are,
Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor,
Diode, Transistor, etc,.

Types of semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor
o P type semiconductor
o N type semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor
o Intrinsic semiconductor is called pure semiconductor.

o There are number of holes equal to the number of electrons.
o Fermi level in between valence band and conduction band.
o Example of intrinsic semiconductor
 Pure Germanium
 Pure Silicon
Conduction band
Fermi level
Valence band
Energy band of intrinsic semiconductor pure germanium holes-electron pairs
o The pure silicon having four electrons, its bonding through the entire
electrons is each one another silicon atom.
Extrinsic semiconductor
o Extrinsic semiconductor is impure or doped semiconductor.

o Number of holes is more than N-type and number of electrons is more
than P-type.
o Fermi level is near valance band in P-type and near conduction band in
N-type.
o Example of Extrinsic semiconductor
 Boron
 Antimony
 Phosphorus
o The main classification of this semiconductor used to
Acceptor (or) N-type semiconductor,
Donors (or) P-type semiconductor.
N-type semiconductor
o N-type semiconductor is denotes electron to the conduction band.

o Majority carriers are electron and minority carriers are holes.
o Fermi level is near to the valence band.
o Pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons. So, fifth electron make
a free electrons.
o Examples : Arsenic, Antimony.
Fermi level
Donor level
Energy band of N-type extrinsic semiconductor N-type semiconductor
o Donor ion is called positive charge carrier in N-type semiconductor.

o For example Germanium has a four valance electron Antimony has a
five valance electron.
o Thus the four valance electron of germanium covalent from four
electrons of antimony again one electron is free.
Covalent bond connection in N-type semiconductor

P-type semiconductor
o P-type semiconductor is accepts electron from the conduction band.

o Majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are electrons.
o Fermi level is near to the conduction band.
o Trivalent atoms having three valence electrons. So, it makes a one hole.
o Example: Gallium, aluminium.
Acceptor level
Fermi level
Energy band of P-type extrinsic semiconductor P-type semiconductor
o Accepter ion is called negative charge carrier in P-type semiconductor.

o For example Germanium has a four valance electron Aluminium has a
three valance electron.
o Thus the four valance electron of germanium covalent from three
electrons of aluminium again one hole is free.
Covalent bond connection in P-type semiconductor

2.PN JUNCTION DIODE
o A PN junction diode is a semiconductor electronic device.

o In this diode formed by joining together n-type and p-type region.
o The diode has two terminals namely anode and cathode.
 Anode  P-type region
 Cathode  N-type region
A + - K
P N
Anode Cathode
Symbol Construction
Construction diagram
 In this junction create the mobile charge carrier from N-type and P-
type semiconductor.
 Diffusion is called free electrons are diffuse over the P-side to N-side.
 Depletion layer is called combine that donor and accepter form N-
type and P-type region. It creates the mobile charge carrier.
Forward bias

 When positive terminal of the battery connected to the anode and the
negative terminal connected to the cathode of PN junction.
 Applied forward voltage connected the Electrons and holes are passed
through the opposite direction.
 This Forward bias operate with
 Applied positive charge repels the holes in P-type region.
 Then holes move to the junction repels the electron in N-type region.
V-I characteristics of FB
The forward voltage (VF) increased, the forward

current (IF) is almost zero up to semiconductor
barrier (silicon = 0.3V) voltage.
Then increase the forward voltage suddenly
Increase the forward current.
Reverse bias
 When then negative terminal of the battery connected to the anode and
the positive terminal of the battery connected to the cathode of PN
junction.
 Applied reverse voltage
 Holes moved from P-type charge carrier to negative terminal of
the battery.
 Electrons moved from N-type charge carrier to positive terminal
of the battery.
 Then the mobile charge carrier is increased, width of the depletion layer
is increased.

V-I Characteristics of RB
 The minority carrier electrons in the P region and

the holes in the N region, wander over to the
junction and flow towards the majority carrier
side giving rise to a small reverse current, This
current is called reverse saturation current.
 Reverse current is small and remains is constant,
mostly study about this reverse breakdown voltage.
 Breakdown voltage is called when the reverse
voltage is increased to a sufficiently large value,
the diode reverse current is rapidly increases as a rapidly curve.
Application
 PN junction diode used to half wave and full wave rectifier circuits.
 Power supply connections.
 Low pass and high pass filters.
3.ZENER DIODE
 Zener diode is a semiconductor electronics device.

 It’s also called voltage reference diode, breakdown diode, voltage
regulator diode.
 Zener diode is heavily doped then normal PN junction diode.
 The new holes-electron pair is created increase the reverse current in
reverse bias PN diode.
Symbol of Zener diode
Anode Cathode
 The diode has two terminals namely anode and cathode.

 Anode  P-type region
 Cathode  N-type region

Forward bias
 When positive terminal of the battery connected to the anode and the
negative terminal connected to the cathode of Zener diode junction.
 Applied forward voltage connected the Electrons and holes are passed
through the opposite direction.
 This Forward bias operate with
 Applied positive charge repels the holes in P-type region.
 Then holes move to the junction repels the electron in N-type region.
Reverse bias
 When then negative terminal of the battery connected to the anode and
the positive terminal of the battery connected to the cathode of Zener
junction.
 Applied reverse voltage
 Holes moved from P-type charge carrier to negative terminal of
the battery.
 Electrons moved from N-type charge carrier to positive terminal
of the battery.
 Then the mobile charge carrier is increased, width of the depletion layer
is increased.

V-I characteristics of Zener diode
Avalanche break down
As the applied reverse bias increases, the field across the junction
increases correspondingly.
Thermally generated carriers while traversing the junction acquire the
large amount of kinetic energy from this field.
As a result the velocity of carrier is increased.

Difference between Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown
Occurs in heavily doped region Occurs in lightly doped region.
Ionization takes place by electric field Ionization takes place by collisions
Occurs even with less than 5V Occurs at higher voltages
After the breakdown voltage across After breakdown voltage across the
the Zener diode is constant PN diode is not constant
Breakdown voltage is directly Breakdown voltage is inverse
proportional to the temperature. proportional to the temperature
It having narrow depletion layer It having wide depletion layer

4. TRANSISTOR
 Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor electronic device in which
operate depends on the interaction of both majority and minority
carriers.
 It used to wide applications in computer, satellite and other
communication devices.
 Transistor is classified two types
Where,
PNP Transistor,
NPN Transistor.
 The npn bipolar transistor contains a thin p-region between two n-
regions.
 The pnp bipolar transistor contains a thin n-region sandwiched between
two p-regions.
 The basic transistor principle is that the voltage between two terminals
controls the current through the third terminal.
 Current in the transistor is due to the flow of both electrons and holes,
hence the name bipolar.
 The two junction are,
1). Emitter-base junction
2). Collector-base junction
 Bipolar transistor is a 3-terminal device.

o Emitter (E)
o Base (B)
o Collector (C)
Emitter
 The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood
as Emitter.
 This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is
to supply a number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.

 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.

 This is simply indicated with the letter E.
Base
 The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the
collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.
Collector
 The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.
The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.
 The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor.

 As the collector of a transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is
made large.
 Due to the specific functions of emitter and collector, they are not
interchangeable.
 Hence the terminals are always to be kept in mind while using a transistor.

Transistor Operation modes by biasing
 Active mode
Base-Emitter Junction forward biased.
Collector-Base Junction reverse biased
In forward active biasing the negative terminal of the battery is connected to N-side
and positive terminal to P-side.
 Saturation mode
Both junctions forward biased
In this mode, the transistor has very large value of current. The transistor is operated
in this mode, when its used to closed switch

 Cutoff mode
Both junctions reverse biased
In this mode transistor has a very large value of current. The transistor is operated in
this mode, when its used to open switch.
S.no Mode Emitter Base Collector Base

1 Active Forward Bias Reverse Bias
2 Saturation Forward Bias Forward Bias
3 Cut off Reverse Bias Reverse Bias
Operation of NPN Transistor
The emitter-base of the transistor is forward-biased and collector-

base junction is reversed bias.
The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the free

electron in the N-type emitter to flow toward the base region.
This emitter and collector current are opposite to flow of electrons.

Collector current of electrons are reached the base region.
If these free electrons are combine with the holes in the base of base
current.

Most of the electrons do not combine with the holes in the base thus electrons
are diffuse to the collector region.
The collector current is also called inject current because this current
is produced due to electrons injected from the emitter region.
Operation of PNP transistor
The operation of PNP transistor is similar to NPN transistor.
Its emitter-base junction is forward bias and collector-base junction

as reverse bias.
The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the holes in the
emitter region to flow toward the base region.
Emitter current is used to electrons combine holes pair in the base in

the base current.
Diffuse electron to collector region. Inject the electron from emitter

region.

CB CONFIGURATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the

output terminal and base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input
and output.
That means the emitter terminal and common base terminal are known as
input terminals.
Whereas, the collector terminal and common base terminal are known as
output terminals.
In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common

base configuration is also known as grounded base configuration.
Sometimes common base configuration is referred to as common base

amplifier, CB amplifier, or CB configuration.
The input signal is applied between the emitter and base terminals while the
corresponding output signal is taken across the collector and base terminals.
Thus the base terminal of a transistor is common for both input and output
terminals and hence it is named as common base configuration.
The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the
supply voltage between collector and base is denoted by VCB.
Two characteristics
 Input characteristics
 Output characteristics

Input characteristics
The input characteristics describe the relationship between input

current (IE) and the input voltage (VBE).
First, draw a vertical line and horizontal line. The vertical line
represents y-axis and horizontal line represents x-axis.
The input current or emitter current (IE) is taken along the y-axis
(vertical line) and the input voltage (VBE) is taken along the x-axis (horizontal
line).
To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage

VCB (collector-base voltage) is kept constant at zero volts and the input
voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
For each voltage level of the input voltage (V BE), the input current (IE)
is recorded on a paper or in any other form.
A curve is then drawn between input current IE and input voltage VBE at
constant output voltage VCB (0 volts).
This is repeated for higher fixed values of the output voltage (V CB).

The input resistance of the common base transistor is the ratio of

change the emitter-to-base voltage (ΔVEB), TO change the emitter current
(ΔIE).
𝚫𝐕𝐄𝐁
Ri =
∆𝐈𝐄
It may be noted that input characteristics in linear in the upper region, but non-linear
in the lower region.
Output characteristics
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current

(IC) and the output voltage (VCB).
First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-
axis and horizontal line represents x-axis.
The output current or collector current (IC) is taken along the y-axis (vertical
line) and the output voltage (VCB) is taken along the x-axis (horizontal line).
To determine the output characteristics, the input current or emitter current

IE is kept constant at zero mA and the output voltage VCB is increased from zero
volts to different voltage levels.
For each voltage level of the output voltage VCB, the output current (IC) is
recorded.

A curve is then drawn between output current IC and output voltage VCB at
constant input current IE (0 mA).
When the emitter current or input current IE is equal to 0 mA, the transistor
operates in the cut-off region
Output resistance (Ro) of CB transistor is ratio between change in collector-

to-base voltage (ΔVCB) TO change in collector current (ΔIC) .
𝚫𝐕𝐂𝐁
RO =
∆𝐈𝐂
It may be noted that the characteristics curves of common-base transistor
Current gain (α)
The current gain of a transistor in CB configuration is defined as the ratio of output

current or collector current (IC) to the input current or emitter current (IE).
CE CONFIGURATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the

output terminal and emitter is the common terminal for both input and output.
That means the base terminal and common emitter terminal are known as
input terminals whereas collector terminal and common emitter terminal are known
as output terminals.
In common emitter configuration, the emitter terminal is grounded so the

common emitter configuration is also known as grounded emitter configuration.
Sometimes common emitter configuration is also referred to as CE

configuration, common emitter amplifier, or CE amplifier.
The common emitter (CE) configuration is the most widely used transistor
configuration.
The common emitter (CE) amplifiers are used when large current gain is
needed.
The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals while the
output signal is taken between the collector and emitter terminals.

Thus, the emitter terminal of a transistor is common for both input and
output and hence it is named as common emitter configuration.
The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the
supply voltage between collector and emitter is denoted by VCE.
In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is

denoted by IB and output current or collector current is denoted by IC.
The common emitter amplifier has medium input and output impedance
levels. So the current gain and voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is
medium. However, the power gain is high.
To fully describe the behavior of a transistor with CE configuration, we need

two set of characteristics – input characteristics and output characteristics.
Two characteristics
Input characteristics,
Output characteristics.
The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or

base current (IB) and input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).
The input current or base current (IB) is taken along y-axis (vertical line) and
the input voltage (VBE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage V CE is kept

constant at zero volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to
different voltage levels.
For each voltage level of input voltage (V BE), the corresponding input current
(IB) is recorded.
A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at
constant output voltage VCE (0 volts).
After we kept the output voltage (VCE) constant at 10 volts, the input voltage VBE is
increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at
constant output voltage VCE (10 volts).
When output voltage (VCE) is at zero volts and emitter-base junction is

forward biased by input voltage (V BE), the emitter-base junction acts like a
normal p-n junction diode.
The cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistor
is 0.3 volts. In our case, it is a silicon transistor.

So from the above graph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small increase in
input voltage (VBE) will rapidly increases the input current (IB).
In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (IB) is very small as
compared to the input current (IE) in common base (CB) configuration.
The input current in CE configuration is measured in microamperes (μA)

whereas the input current in CB configuration is measured in milli amperes (mA).
The input characteristics may be used to determine the value of common-
emitter transistor
Input resistance (Ri) of CE transistor is ratio between change in base-to-
emitter voltage(ΔVBE) TO change in base current (ΔIB) .
𝚫𝐕𝐁𝐄
Ri =
∆𝐈𝐁
It may be noted that the input characteristics is not linear in the lower region
of the curve.
Output characteristics
The output characteristics describe the relationship between

output current (IC) and output voltage (VCE).
axis horizontal line represents x-axis.

To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current IB is

kept constant at 0 μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to
The output current or collector current (IC) is taken along y-axis (vertical
line) and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).
For each level of output voltage, the corresponding output current (IC) is
recorded.
Output resistance (Ro) of CE transistor is ratio between change in
base-to-collector voltage (ΔVCE) TO change in collector current (ΔIC) .
𝚫𝐕𝐂𝐄
RO =
∆𝐈𝐂
It may be noted that the input characteristic is not linear in the lower region
of the curve.
CC CONFIGURATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
In this configuration, the base terminal of the transistor serves as the input,
the emitter terminal is the output and the collector terminal is common for both
input and output.
Hence, it is named as common collector configuration. The input is applied

between the base and collector while the output is taken from the emitter and
collector.
In common collector configuration, the collector terminal is grounded so the
common collector configuration is also known as grounded collector configuration.
Sometimes common collector configuration is also referred to as emitter

follower, voltage follower, common collector amplifier, CC amplifier, or CC
configuration.
This configuration is mostly used as a voltage buffer.
The input supply voltage between base and collector is denoted by VBC while
the output voltage between emitter and collector is denoted by VEC.

In this configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and

output current or emitter current is denoted by IE.
The common collector amplifier has high input impedance and low output
impedance.
It has low voltage gain and high current gain.

The power gain of the common collector amplifier is medium.
Two characteristics
Input characteristics and
Output characteristics.
The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or

base current (IB) and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC).
axis and horizontal line represents x-axis
The input current or base current (IB) is taken along y-axis (vertical line) and
the input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC) is taken along x-axis (horizontal
line).
To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VEC is kept
constant at 3V and the input voltage VBC is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels.

For each level of input voltage VBC, the corresponding input current IB is
noted. A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBC at
constant output voltage VEC (3V).
Next, the output voltage VEC is increased from 3V to different voltage level,
says for example 5V and then kept constant at 5V. While increasing the output
voltage VEC, the input voltage VBC is kept constant at zero volts.
After we kept the output voltage VEC constant at 5V, the input voltage VBC is
increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
For each level of input voltage VBC, the corresponding input current IB is
noted. A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBC at
constant output voltage VEC (5V).
This process is repeated for higher fixed values of output voltage (VEC).
Input resistance (Ri) of CC transistor is ratio between change in base-to-
collector voltage(ΔVBC) TO change in collector current (ΔIC) .
𝚫𝐕𝐁𝐂
Ri =
∆𝐈𝐂
Output Characteristics
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current or

emitter current (IE) and output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC).
The output current or emitter current (IE) is taken along y-axis (vertical line)
and the output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC) is taken along x-axis
(horizontal line).

To determine the output characteristics, the input current IB is kept constant

at zero micro amperes and the output voltage VEC is increased from zero volts to
For each level of output voltage VEC, the corresponding output current IE is
noted.
A curve is then drawn between output current IE and output voltage VEC at
constant input current IB (0 μA).
In common collector configuration, if the input current or base current is zero

then the output current or emitter current is also zero.
As a result, no current flows through the transistor. So the transistor will be
in the cutoff region.
If the base current is slightly increased then the output current or emitter
current also increases. So the transistor falls into the active region.
If the base current is heavily increased then the current flowing through the
transistor also heavily increases. As a result, the transistor falls into the saturation
region.
Output resistance (Ro) of CC transistor is ratio between change in emitter-
to-collector voltage (ΔVEC) TO change in emitter current (ΔIE) .
𝚫𝐕𝐄𝐂
RO =
∆𝐈𝐄

Transistor Amplifier
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal.
The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base junction makes it remain in
forward biased condition.
This forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The
below figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.
The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to
result in an appreciable change in the output.
The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the collector
current, which when flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage
drop across it.
Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows
that the transistor works as an amplifier.
Performance of Amplifier
As the common emitter mode of connection is mostly adopted, let us first
understand a few important terms with reference to this mode of connection.
Input Resistance
As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will be low. The
input resistance is the opposition offered by the base-emitter junction to the signal
flow.
By definition, it is the ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE)
to the resulting change in emitter current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter
voltage.
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
Input resistance, Ri =
∆𝐼𝐸
Where,
Ri = input resistance,
VBE = base-emitter voltage,
And, IE = emitter current.

Output Resistance
The output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The collector current changes
very slightly with the change in collector-emitter voltage.
By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-base voltage (ΔVCB) to the resulting
change in collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current.
∆𝑉𝐶𝐵
Output resistance, Ro=
∆𝐼𝐶
Where Ro = Output resistance, VCb = Collector-base voltage, and IC = Collector-emitter
voltage.
Current Gain
The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output currents
are observed, is called as Current gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in
collector current (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB).
∆𝐼𝐶
Current gain, β=
∆𝐼𝐵
The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current
becomes β times in the collector current.
Voltage Gain
The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents
are observed, is called as Voltage gain.
By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔV CB) to the change
in input voltage (ΔVBE).
∆𝑉𝐶𝐵
Voltage gain, AV=
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
Power Gain
The gain in terms of power when the changes in input and output currents
are observed, is called as Power gain.
By definition, it is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal power.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Power gain =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Hence these are all the important terms which refer the performance of
amplifiers.

UNIT-II
RESISTORS
Resistors are the commonly used components in the electronic circuits.
A resistor is an electronic component that limits the electric current or flow

of electrons to certain level.
It consists of two terminals. The terminals of the resistors are used to connect
with other components through an electrical wire.
Symbol and Units

The symbol for a Resistor is as shown below. R represented by the resistor.
The units of resistance is Ohms,

which is indicated by Ω (omega).
Resistance
Resistance is the property of a resistor that opposes the flow of current. When
alternating current goes through a resistance, a voltage drop is produced that is in-
phase with the current.
 Indication − R
 Units − Ohms
 Symbol − Ω
Along with resistance, there are other important terms, called as reactance and
impedance.
The formula for resistance is
R = V/I
Where,
V is Voltage and I is Current.

SERIES RESISTOR CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a circuit, in which resistors are arranged in a chain,

Resistors are connected one by one.
A series resistor circuit is an electronic circuit in which all the resistors are
connected one after another in the same path so that the same current flows through
each and every resistor.
Equivalent resistance of resistors in series
The total resistance of such a circuit is obtained by simply adding up the

resistance values of the individual resistors.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 ……..etc
For example, if three resistors are connected in series. Then the total
resistance of the circuit is equal to:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
All the current flowing through the first resistor has no other path to go.
Hence, it must also pass through the second resistor, third resistor, fourth resistor,
and so on.
Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a series resistors network is the addition
of voltage drops at each individual resistance. We have three different resistors
which have three different values of voltage drops at each stage.
Total voltage that appears across the circuit −

V=V1+V2+V3
Where V1 is the voltage drop of 1st resistor, V2 is the voltage drop of 2ndresistor and
V3 is the voltage drop of 3rd resistor in the above resistor network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of resistors connected
in series is the same at all the points throughout the resistor network. Hence the
current is same 5A when measured at the input or at any point between the
resistors or even at the output.
Current through the network −

I = I1 = I2 = I3
Which means that current at all points is 5A.
Where I1 is the current through the 1st resistor, I2 is the current through the
2nd resistor and I3 is the current through the 3rd resistor in the above resistor
network.
Solved Proof
Total voltage Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 V=IR
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IV = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
Total resistance Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
In this formula proved, total voltage equal to the applied voltage.
Example:
A series resistor circuit is shown in the below figure. This circuit consists of five
resistors that are connected in series and a DC voltage source.

If the values of the five resistors are:
R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, R3 = 2 Ω, R4 = 2 Ω, R5 = 3 Ω and
DC battery = 15 V, then
The total resistance is
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 = 4 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 3 = 15 Ω.
Recall the ohms law formula, V = I R
By knowing any two variables in the above equation, we can easily find the
remaining unknown variable.
We know the total resistance value I.e. RT = 15 Ω and voltage value I.e. V = 15 V
Now we have to find the remaining unknown current value I.
The current flowing through each and every resistor would be 1 A.
PARALLEL RESISTOR CIRCUITS
A parallel resistor circuit is an electronic circuit in which all the resistors are
connected side by side in different paths so that the same current will not flows
through each resistor.
The parallel circuit shows multiple paths to the electric current to flow.
Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel:
The current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with some current flowing along
each parallel branch and re-combining when the branches meet again. Therefore,
the electric current through each resistor will be different. However, the voltage
across each and every resistor is same.

The total resistance of a resistor parallel circuit is obtained by adding up the

reciprocals (1/R) of the resistance values of the individual resistors and then taking
the reciprocal of the total.
For example, if three resistors are connected in parallel. Then the total
resistance of the circuit is
Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a Parallel resistors network is same as the
voltage drops at each individual resistance.
The Voltage that appears across the circuit −

V=V1=V2=V3
Where V1 is the voltage drop of 1st resistor, V2 is the voltage drop of 2ndresistor and
V3 is the voltage drop of 3rd resistor in the above resistor network. Hence the
voltage is same at all the points of a parallel resistor network.
Current
The total amount of current entering a Parallel resistive network is the sum
of all individual currents flowing in all the Parallel branches. The resistance value
of each branch determines the value of current that flows through it. The total
current through the network is
I=I1+I2+I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st resistor, I2 is the current through the
2nd resistor and I3 is the current through the 3rd resistor in the above resistor
network. Hence the sum of individual currents in different branches obtains the
total current in a parallel resistive network.
A Resistor is particularly used as a load in the output of many circuits. If at

all the resistive load is not used, a resistor is placed before a load. Resistor is
usually a basic component in any circuit.
Solved Proof
Total current I = I1 + I2 + I3 I = V/R
V / R = V / R 1 + V / R2 + V / R3
V (1 / R ) = V ( 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 )
1 / R = 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 +1/ R3
𝑹𝟑+𝑹𝟐+𝑹𝟏
Total resistance R =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
In this formula proved, total current equal to the separate current.
Example:
A parallel resistor circuit is shown in the below figure. This circuit consists of three
resistors that are connected in parallel and a DC voltage source.

If the values of the three resistors are: R1 = 8 Ω, R2 = 8 Ω, R3 = 4 Ω and DC

battery = 14 V, then
The total resistance is
The total current flowing through the circuit is
As the voltage across each and every resistor is same in parallel circuit, we can
use ohms law to find the individual branch current as follows.

The current through resistor (R1) is I1 = V / R1 = 14 / 8 = 1.75 A

Then, the total current is equal to the sum of individual branch currents
I.e. IT = I1 + I2 + I3 = 1.75 + 1.75 + 3.5 = 7 A
CAPACITORS
Capacitors are the most widely used electronic components after the
resistors. Capacitors temporarily store the electrical energy in the form of
static electric field.
Used to charge storage device.
Capacitors consist of two parallel electrical plates separated by a non-
conductive or insulating material called dielectric.
Dielectric materials do not allow the electricity to flow through them.
Symbols and units
Symbol of capacitor shown as below,

c
+ -
The units of capacitance is farad,

which is indicated by F.
Conductance
This is the ability of a material to conduct electricity. It is the reciprocal of
resistance.
 Indication − G
 Units − Mhos
 Symbol − ℧

Important things about capacitor
Capacitor is a storage device. So, maximum charge storage value is

represented by Q.
Q = CV
Here, Q is charge,
C = Capacitance,
V = Voltage.
SERIES CAPACITOR CIRCUITS

A series capacitor circuit is an electronic circuit in which all the capacitors
are connected one after another in the same path so that the same charge or current
flow to each capacitor.
The total capacitance of a series capacitor circuit is obtained by adding up the

reciprocals (1/C) of the capacitance values of the individual capacitors and then
taking the reciprocal of the total.
For example, if three capacitors are connected in series. Then the total capacitance
of the circuit is
All the current or charge flowing through the first capacitor has no other path to go.
Hence, it must also pass through the second capacitor, third capacitor, fourth
capacitor, and so on.

Voltage
The voltage across each capacitor depends upon the value of individual
capacitances. Which means,
The total voltage across the series capacitors circuit,

VT = VC1 + VC2 + VC3
Where Vc1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, Vc2 is the voltage across the
2nd capacitor and Vc3 is the voltage across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.
Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of Capacitors connected
in series is the same at all the points. Therefore the capacitors will store the same
amount of charge regardless of their capacitance value.
Current through the network,

I = I1 = I2 = I3
Where I1 is the current through the 1st capacitor, I2 is the current through the
2nd capacitor and I3 is the current through the 3rd capacitor in the above network.
As the current is same, the storage of charge is same because any plate of a
capacitor gets its charge from the adjacent capacitor and hence capacitors in series
will have the same charge.
QT = Q 1 = Q 2 = Q 3
Example:
A series capacitor circuit is shown in the below figure. The circuit consists of three
capacitors that are connected in series and a DC voltage source.

The capacitances of three capacitors are C1 = 2F, C2 = 4F, C3 = 6F and DC

voltage = 10V.
As shown in the figure, the positive terminal of the DC battery is connected

to the right side plate of the capacitor C3 and negative terminal of the DC battery is
connected to the left side plate of the capacitor C1.
When a voltage is applied to the circuit, the negative charges in the right side
plate of the capacitor C3 are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery. This
causes a shortage of negative charges in the right side plate of C3 . As a result, the
right side plate of the capacitor C3 is positively charged.
Similarly, the positive charges in the left side plate of the capacitor C1 are
attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. This causes a shortage of positive
charges in the left side plate of C1. As a result, the left side plate of the capacitor
C1 is negatively charged.
The negative charges in the left side plate of the capacitor C1 repel the
negative charges in the right side plate of capacitor C1. This causes the negative
charges to flow from the right side plate of the capacitor C1 to left side plate of the
capacitor C2. As a result, the right side plate of the capacitor C1 is positively
charged and the left side plate of the capacitor C2 is negatively charged.
The negative charges in the left side plate of the capacitor C2 repel the
negative charges in the right side plate of capacitor C2. This causes the negative
charges to flow from the right side plate of the capacitor C2 to left side plate of the
capacitor C3. As a result, the right side plate of the capacitor C2 is positively
charged and the left side plate of the capacitor C3 is negatively charged.
In order to find the charge on each capacitor, first we need to find the total
capacitance or equivalent capacitance.
The total capacitance of the equivalent capacitor is

PARALLEL CAPACITOR CIRCUITS
A parallel capacitor circuit is an electronic circuit in which all the capacitors

are connected side by side in different paths so that the same charge or current will
not flow through each capacitor.
When a voltage is applied to the parallel circuit, each capacitor will get the
different charge. The capacitor with high capacitance will get more charge whereas
the capacitor with less capacitance will get less charge.
Putting capacitors in parallel will increases the size of the capacitor's plates without
increasing the distance between them. So the total capacitance of the parallel
capacitor circuit is obtained by simply adding up the capacitance values of the
individual capacitors.
Voltage
The voltage measured at the end of the circuit is same as the voltage across
all the capacitors that are connected in a parallel circuit.
V T = V1 = V2 = V3
Where Vc1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, Vc2 is the voltage across the
2nd capacitor and Vc3 is the voltage across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.
Current
The total current flowing is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each
capacitor connected in the parallel network.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st capacitor, I2 is the current through the
2nd capacitor and I3 is the current through the 3rd capacitor in the above network.
Example:
A parallel capacitor circuit is shown in the below figure. The circuit consists of
three capacitors that are connected in parallel and a DC voltage source.
If the values of the three capacitors are C1 = 8F, C2 = 4F, C3 = 2F and DC

battery = 10 V, then
The total capacitance is
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 = 8 + 4 + 2 = 14F
In the circuit diagram, the lower plates of the three capacitors are directly
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the upper plates of the three
capacitors are directly connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Therefore,
the voltage across all the three capacitors is same which is equal to the DC battery
voltage (10 v).

INDUCTORS
An inductor is a passive two terminal electronic component that temporarily

stores the electrical energy in the form of a magnetic field.
It consists of coil of copper wires or electrical conductive wires.
When the electric current is passed through the coil, a magnetic field is
produced and stored in the coil of copper wires.
Symbols and units
Symbol of inductor shown as below,
The unit of inductance is Henry.

Which indicated by L.
Inductance
A current generated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field. This effect is called
inductance.
 Indication − L
 Units − Henry
 Symbol – H
Inductor is a passive two-terminal component that temporarily stores energy in

the form of a magnetic field. It is usually called as a coil. The main property of an
inductor is that it opposes any change in current.
A Resistor when connected in a circuit, that connection can be either series or

parallel. Let us now know what will happen to the total current, voltage and
resistance values if they are connected in series as well, when connected in parallel.

SERIES INDUCTOR CIRCUITS
Let us observe what happens, when few inductors are connected in Series. Let us
consider three resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.
+ -
V
The total inductance of a circuit having series inductors is equal to the sum of the
individual inductances. Total inductance value of the network given above is
LT=L1+L2+L3
Where L1 is the inductance of 1st resistor, L2 is the inductance of 2nd resistor and
L3 is the inductance of 3rd resistor in the above network.
Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a series inductors network is the
addition of voltage drops at each individual inductances.
Total voltage that appears across the circuit

V=V1+V2+V3
Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V2 is the voltage drop
across 2nd inductor and V3 is the voltage drop across 3rd inductor in the above
network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of inductors connected
in series is the same at all the points throughout the network.
The Current through the network

I=I1=I2=I3
Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through the
2nd inductor and I3 is the current through the 3rd inductor in the above network.
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Parallel. Let us
consider three resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.
The total inductance of a circuit having Parallel resistors is calculated

differently from the series inductor network method. Here, the reciprocal (1/R)
value of individual inductances is added with the inverse of algebraic sum to get
the total inductance value.
Total inductance value of the network is
Where L1 is the inductance of 1st inductor, L2 is the inductance of 2nd inductor and
L3 is the inductance of 3rd inductor in the above network.

From the method we have for calculating parallel inductance, we can derive a
simple equation for two-inductor parallel network. It is
Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a Parallel inductors network is same as the
voltage drops at each individual inductance.
The Voltage that appears across the circuit

V=V1=V2=V3
Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V2 is the voltage drop across
2nd inductor and V3 is the voltage drop across 3rd inductor in the above network.
Hence the voltage is same at all the points of a parallel inductor network.
Current
The total amount of current entering a Parallel inductive network is the sum
of all individual currents flowing in all the Parallel branches. The inductance value
of each branch determines the value of current that flows through it.
The total Current through the network is

I=I1+I2+I3
Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through the
2nd inductor and I3 is the current through the 3rd inductor in the above network.
Hence the sum of individual currents in different branches obtains the total current
in a parallel network.
Series and parallel of Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor
Combination Resistor Capacitor Inductor

𝟏 𝟏
Series RT = R1 + R2 CT = + LT = L1 + L2
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Parallel RT = + CT = C1 + C2 LT = +
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐

FACTORS GOVERNING THE RESISTOR
Length of resistor
The resistance of a resistor is directly proportional to the length of a resistor. The

long length resistors offer high resistance because the free electrons have to travel
large distance. Hence, a large number of free electrons collide with the atoms.
Therefore, large amount of energy or electric current will be wasted in the form of
heat.
The short length resistors offer low resistance because the free electrons have to
travel only a short distance. Hence, a small number of free electrons collides the
atoms. Therefore, only a small amount of electric current is wasted in the form of
heat.
Cross sectional area of resistor
The resistance of a resistor is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of

resistor. The resistors with large cross sectional area provide more space for the free
electrons to move freely. Hence, the collision of free electrons with the atoms is
less. Therefore, very small amount of electric current is wasted.
The resistors with small cross sectional area provide very small space for the free
electrons. Hence, the collision of free electrons with the atoms is more. Therefore,
large amount of electric current is wasted.
Resistance depends on an object’s size, shape, and material. the cylinder's resistance
is directly proportional to its length l l l. The longer the cylinder, the higher the
resistance.

FACTORS GOVERNING THE CAPACITOR
There are three basic factors of capacitor construction determining the amount of
capacitance created. These factors all dictate capacitance by affecting how much
electric field flux (relative difference of electrons between plates) will develop for
a given amount of electric field force (voltage between the two plates):
Plate Area
All other factors being equal, greater plate area gives greater capacitance; less
plate area gives less capacitance.
Explanation: Larger plate area results in more field flux (charge collected on the
plates) for a given field force (voltage across the plates).
Plate Spacing
All other factors being equal, further plate spacing gives less capacitance; closer
plate spacing gives greater capacitance.
Explanation: Closer spacing results in a greater field force (voltage across the
capacitor divided by the distance between the plates), which results in a greater
field flux (charge collected on the plates) for any given voltage applied across the
plates.
Dielectric Material
All other factors being equal, greater permittivity of the dielectric gives greater
capacitance; less permittivity of the dielectric gives less capacitance.
Explanation: Although it’s complicated to explain, some materials offer less
opposition to field flux for a given amount of field force.

Materials with a greater permittivity allow for more field flux (offer less
opposition), and thus a greater collected charge, for any given amount of field
force (applied voltage).
“Relative” permittivity means the permittivity of a material, relative to that of a

pure vacuum. The greater the number, the greater the permittivity of the material.
Glass, for instance, with a relative permittivity of 7, has seven times the
permittivity of a pure vacuum, and consequently will allow for the establishment
of an electric field flux seven times stronger than that of a vacuum, all other
factors being equal.
The following is a table listing the relative permittivity’s
Material Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)

Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.0006
Wood (Maple) 4.4
An approximation of capacitance for any pair of separated conductors can be

found with this formula:
A capacitor can be made variable rather than fixed in value by varying any of the
physical factors determining capacitance. One relatively easy factor to vary in
capacitor construction is that of plate area, or more properly, the amount of plate
overlap.

FACTOR GOVERNING THE INDUCTOR

There are four basic factors of inductor construction determining the
amount of inductance created. These factors all dictate inductance by affecting
how much magnetic field flux will develop for a given amount of magnetic field
force (current through the inductor’s wire coil):
Number of Wire Wraps, or “Turns” in the Coil

All other factors being equal, a greater number of turns of wire in the coil results
in greater inductance; fewer turns of wire in the coil results in less inductance.
Explanation: More turns of wire means that the coil will generate a greater
amount of magnetic field force (measured in amp-turns!), for a given amount of
coil current.
Coil Area
All other factors being equal, greater coil area (as measured looking lengthwise
through the coil, at the cross-section of the core) results in greater inductance;
less coil area results in less inductance.
Explanation: Greater coil area presents less opposition to the formation of
magnetic field flux, for a given amount of field force (amp-turns).
Coil Length
All other factors being equal, the longer the coil’s length, the less inductance; the
shorter the coil’s length, the greater the inductance.
Explanation: A longer path for the magnetic field flux to take results in more
opposition to the formation of that flux for any given amount of field force (amp-
turns).

Core Material
All other factors being equal, the greater the magnetic permeability of the core
which the coil is wrapped around, the greater the inductance; the less the
permeability of the core, the less the inductance.
Explanation: A core material with greater magnetic permeability results in
greater magnetic field flux for any given amount of field force (amp-turns).
An approximation of inductance for any coil of wire can be found with this
formula:

COLOR CODING OF RESISTOR
What is a color code?
Generally, code refers to a representation of information in another form by using

symbols, signals, and letters for the purposes of secrecy. Here, the signals or
symbols act as codes. In the similar way, in resistors we use different colors as
codes to specify the resistance (information) of the resistor. Here, the different
colors coated on the resistor act as codes.
The color codes are also used to specify the tolerance and reliability of the resistor.
We can also directly find the resistance value of a resistor by using ohmmeter.
The color codes are used not only in resistors but also in other electronic
components such as capacitors and inductors.
Specifying the values or ratings of electronic components such resistors,

capacitors, and inductors by using the color codes printed on them is called
electronic color code system. The electronic color code system was developed in the
early 1920s by the radio manufactures association, which is now part of Electronic
Industries Alliance (EIA).
The color-coding is done only in the fixed resistors but not in variable
resistors because the color coding technique shows only a fixed resistance value.
The variable resistors have varying resistance. Hence, it is not possible to use the
color coding technique in variable resistors.
Why color codes are used in resistors instead of directly printing the resistance
value?
Printing the numbers on large electronic components is very easy, but it is very
difficult to print the numbers or resistance values on tiny components. Hence,
instead of directly printing the numbers, we print the color codes or color bands.

However, by using the latest printing technology we can directly print the numbers
on resistors.
The color coding technique has some drawbacks. For blind people, it is impossible
to find the resistance of the resistor, because they cannot see the colors coated on
the resistor.
Another drawback is recognizing the difference between two colors in an

overheated resistor is very difficult. When the resistor is overheated, the colors on
the resistor changes slightly. Therefore, it becomes impossible to recognize the
difference between brown color and red color or brown color and orange color.
Representing the resistance of a resistor by using color bands
In a color coding technique, the resistors value is marked on the resistors body by
using colors. The colors painted on the resistors body are called color bands. All the
color bands painted on the resistor body are used to indicate the resistance value and
tolerance. Each color on the resistors body represents a different number.
The color bands of resistors are basically of three types: 4 band resistor, 5 band
resistor, and 6 band resistor. In order to find the resistance of a resistor, we need to
decode the colors painted on the resistors body. The decoding changes based upon
the number of color bands painted on the resistors body.
4 band color code resistor
A 4 band color code resistor has 3 color bands on left side and one color band on
right side. The 3 color bands on left side are very close to each other and the
4thcolor band on right side is separated from first 3 bands with some space.

The 3 color bands on the left side are grouped together to indicate the resistors
resistance value and the 4th color band on the right side indicates the tolerance of the
resistor.
Tolerance is the range of value up to which a resistor can withstand without getting
destroyed. This is an important factor. The following figure shows how the value of
a resistor is determined by color code.
The 1st color band on the resistor indicates the 1st significant value or 1st digit of the
resistors resistance and the 2nd color band indicates 2nd significant value
or 2nddigit of the resistors resistance. The 3rd color band is the decimal multiplier
and the 4th color band indicates the resistors tolerance.
The 1st and 2nd color bands together make up a 2 digit number and the 3rd color band
or multiplier is multiplied with this 2 digit number to obtain the resistance value of
the resistor.

If the 4th color band or tolerance band is left blank, it is considered as the 3 band
resistor and the tolerance for the 3 band resistor is assumed to be 20%.
Resistors that are manufactured for military use may also include an extra band
called 5th band which indicates resistor failure rate.
Example:
If the colors on a 4 band resistor are in this order: brown, green, red and violet (as
shown in figure). The values of color bands will be like this: Brown = 1, Green = 5,
Red = 102 or 100, Violet = 0.10%
In the color code table, brown has a value of 1 which is the 1st digit and green has a
value of 5 which is the second digit. The first and second color bands are grouped
together to make up a two digit number 15. The 3rd color band red has a value of
100. This value is multiplied with the two digit number I.e., 15 x 100 = 1500 ohms.
Violet specifies that the tolerance is 0.10%.
Therefore, the resistor color coded with brown-green-red-violet would have a

resistance of 1500 ohms with a tolerance of ± 0.10%.
A 5 band color code resistor has 4 color bands on left side and one color band on
right side. The 4 color bands on left side are very close to each other and the
5thcolor band on right side is separated from the first 4 bands with some space.
The 4 color bands on the left side are grouped together to represent the resistance
value of a resistor and the 5th color band on the right side indicates the tolerance of
the resistor.
 The 1st color band indicates the 1st significant value or 1st digit of the
resistors value.

 The 2nd color band indicates the 2nd significant value or 2nd digit of the
resistor value.
 The 3rd color band indicates the 3rd significant value or 3rd digit of the
resistors value.
 The 4th color band is the decimal multiplier.
 The 5th color band indicates the resistors tolerance.
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd color bands together make up a 3 digit number and the 4thcolor
band or multiplier is multiplied with this 3 digit number to obtain the resistance
value of the resistor.
Example:
If the colors on a 5 band resistor are in this order: brown, green, red, blue and violet
(as shown in figure). The values of color bands will be like this: Brown = 1, Green
= 5, Red = 2, blue = 106, Violet = 0.10%.
In the color code table, brown has a value of 1 which is the 1st digit, green has a
value of 5 which is the second digit and red has a value of 2 which is the 3 rd digit.

The first, second and third color bands together make up a three digit number 152.
The 4th color band blue has a value of 106. This value is multiplied with the three
digit number 152 I.e., 152 x 106 = 152MΩ. Violet specifies that the tolerance is
0.10%.
Therefore, the resistor color coded with brown-green-red-blue-violet would have a

resistance of 152MΩ with a tolerance of ± 0.10%.
A 6 band color code resistor consists of 6 color bands. The 4 color bands on the left
side are grouped together to represent the resistors resistance value. The 5th color
band on the right side represent the tolerance of the resistor and the 6th color band
represents the TCR (Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance).
 The 1st color band indicates the 1st significant value of the resistors value.
 The 2nd color band indicates the 2nd significant value of the resistors value.
 The 3rd color band indicates the 3rd significant value of the resistors value.
 The 4th color band is the decimal multiplier.
 The 5th color band indicates the resistors tolerance.
 The 6th color band indicates the TCR (Temperature Co-efficient of

Resistance).
The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd color bands together make up a 3 digit number and the fourth
color band is multiplied with this 3 digit number to get the resistance value of the
resistor.

Example:
If the colors on a 6 band resistor are in this order: green, brown, violet, black, gold
and orange. The values of color bands will be like this: Green = 5, Brown = 1,
Violet = 7, Black = 100, Gold = 5%, Orange = 15ppm.
In the color code table, green has a value of 5 which is the 1st digit, brown has a
value of 1 which is the second digit and violet has a value of 7 which is the 3 rd digit.
The first, second and third color bands together make up a three digit number 517.
The 4th color band black has a value of 100. This value is multiplied with the three
digit number 517 I.e., 517 x 100 = 517 ohms. Gold specifies that the tolerance is 5%
and orange specifies that the TCR is 15ppm.
Therefore, the resistor color coded with green-brown-violet-black-gold-orange

would have a resistance of 517 ohms with a tolerance of 5% and TCR (Temperature
Co-efficient of Resistance) of 15ppm.

Energy stored in a Capacitor
Capacitance is a property of the capacitor, which opposes the charge in

voltage by means of energy storage in the form of electrostatic energy.
Capacitor is two parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric material
Such a capacitor is shown figure

C
S + -
Bt
The dc voltage source is applied across the capacitor through the switch S.
If the switch “S” is closed, capacitor plates starts charging. As long as the
voltage on the plate is constant.
The voltage on the plate is increased charge on the plate is also increased and
vice versa.
Voltage on the plate is directly proportional to the charge on the plate.
Q∞V
Q = CV
C – is a proportionality constant is called as capacitor.
The capacitor store the energy when the charges in the voltage through the
capacitor.
Unity of capacitor is Farad, it is a big unit. We use much smaller unit µF, ŋF,
ρF.
The energy stored on a capacitor can be expressed in terms of the work done
by the battery. Voltage represents energy per unit charge, so the work to move a
charge element dq from the negative plate to the positive plate is equal to V dq,
where V is the voltage on the capacitor. The voltage V is proportional to the amount
of charge which is already on the capacitor.

If Q is the amount of charge stored when the whole battery voltage appears
across the capacitor, then the stored energy is obtained from the integral:
Energy stored in an Inductor
The strength of the magnetic flux is directly proportional to the current

passing through the inductor.
If the current (I) passing through the inductor increases, magnetic flux also
increases. Thus increase in flux represents the energy taken from the circuit or the
applied source.
The current passing the inductor decreases the magnetic flux also decreases.
This decrease in magnetic flux represents the energy returns to the circuit.
The energy stored in inductor takes place, when the current passing through
the inductor charges its value the energy stored by an inductor:
U = ½ LI2
L = Self inductance of the inductor
I = current passed through the inductor
This energy expression can be put in three equivalent forms by just permutations
based on the definition of capacitance C=Q/V.
the magnetic field. Considering a pure inductor L, the

instantaneous power which must be supplied to initiate the current in the
inductor is
so the energy input to build to a final current i is given by the integral

Using the example of a solenoid, an expression for the energy density can be
obtained.
ELECRONICS COMPONENT
Electronic components are the basic building blocks of an electronic circuit or

electronic system or electronic device. They control the flow of electrons in an
electronic system or electronic circuit.
Types of electronic components
The electronic components are generally classified into two types:
Passive components
Active components
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Those devices or components which do not required external source to their

operation is called Passive Components.
For Example: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc…
1. Passive components cannot control the flow of electrons or electric current

through a circuit, but they limit the flow of electrons or electric current.
2. Passive components cannot amplify or increase the power of an electrical

signal.
3. Passive components temporarily store the electrical energy in the form of

static electric field or magnetic field.
4. Passive components do not depend on the external source of energy or

voltage to perform a specific operation.
Different types of passive components
The different types of passive components include resistors, capacitors, and

inductors.

Resistors
Resistors are the commonly used components in the electronic circuits. A resistor is
an electronic component that limits the electric current or flow of electrons to
certain level. It consists of two terminals.
How much electric current does a resistor reduce or limits is depends on the
resistance value of a resistor. The resistors with more resistance value will reduce
large amount of electric current whereas the resistors with less resistance value will
reduce less amount of electric current.
The electric current reduced or restricted by the resistor is measured in ohms and it
is represented by a symbol Ω. The size of resistors is very small.
Capacitors
Capacitors are the most widely used electronic components after the resistors.
Capacitors temporarily store the electrical energy in the form of static electric field.
Capacitors consist of two parallel electrical conductors separated by a non-

conductive or insulating material called dielectric. Dielectric materials do not allow
the electricity to flow through them.
Inductors
An inductor is a passive two terminal electronic component that temporarily stores

the electrical energy in the form of a magnetic field. It consists of coil of copper
wires or electrical conductive wires. When the electric current is passed through the
coil, a magnetic field is produced and stored in the coil of copper wires.
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Those devices or components which required external source to their operation is

called Active Components.
For Example: Diode, Transistors, SCR etc…

1. An active component not only controls the flow of electrons or electric

current, but also amplifies or increases the power of electronic signal.
2. Active components depend on the external source of energy or voltage to

perform a specific operation.
3. When the active components consume enough voltage, they start operating.
Different types of active components
The different types of active components include diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits (IC).
Diode
A diode is a semiconductor component that allows most of the electric current or

flows of electrons in one direction (forward direction) while blocks most of the
electric current in opposite direction (reverse direction). It consists of two terminals
or electrodes: cathode and anode. The p-type material of a diode acts as anode and
the n-type material acts as cathode.
When the voltage is applied to the diode in such a way that positive terminal is
connected to the anode and negative terminal is connected to the cathode, the diode
allows the electric current.
When the voltage is applied to the diode in such a way that positive terminal is
connected to the cathode and the negative terminal is connected to the anode, the
diode blocks the electric current.
Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor component that amplifies or increases the

electronic signals. Three scientists named Walter Brattain, William Shockley, and J.
Bardeen invented the transistor in 1947 at the Bell Laboratories. Transistors are
made from semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium.

Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit is a small semiconductor chip on which millions of electronic

components such as capacitors, resistors, and transistors are fabricated. The cost of
Integrated circuit is low compared to the discrete components because in integrated
circuit all the components are fabricated on a single chip.
It can function as a microprocessor, amplifier, and counter. The invention of ICs

had changed the world of electronics.
Other components
BJT – Bipolar junction diode
FET – field effect Transistor
SCR – Silicon controlled Oscillator

OHMS LAW
Ohm's law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is
directly proportional to the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and
inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
There are three forms of Ohm’s Law:
I = V/R
V = IR
R = V/I
where as
I = Current
V = Voltage
R = Resistance
This relationship between current, voltage, and relationship was discovered by German
scientist Georg Simon Ohm.

Applications of Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law helps us in determining either voltage, current or impedance or resistance

of a linear electric circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also makes
power calculation simpler.
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws allow us to solve complex circuit problems by defining a

set of basic network laws and theorems for the voltages and currents around a
circuit
Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:

 • Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical
current flows.
 • Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
 • Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were
two or more circuit elements are connected or joined together giving a
connection point between two or more branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
 • Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a
source which are connected between two nodes.
 • Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit
element or node is encountered more than once.
 • Mesh – a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There
are no components inside a mesh.

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAWS
The current law states that the sum of the current flowing into a junction
equals to the sum of the current flowing out of a junction.
(or)
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a
node must be equal to zero,
Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the
two currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we
can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of
two or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components.
Also for current to flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist.
We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analyzing parallel circuits.
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAWS
The voltage law state that the sum of the voltage input equal the sum of the
voltage drop in any closed loop.
(or)
In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be
equal to zero.

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to
the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same direction either
clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We
can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analyzing series circuits.
When analyzing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoff’s Circuit
Laws a number of definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the
circuit being analyses such as: node, paths, branches, loops and meshes. These
terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important to understand them.
Example
Kirchhoff’s Law Example No1

Three resistor of values: 10 ohms, 20 ohms and 30 ohms, respectively are connected
in series across a 12 volt battery supply. Calculate:
a) the total resistance,

b) the circuit current,
c) the current through each resistor,

d) the voltage drop across each resistor,
e) verify that Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL holds true.
a) Total Resistance (RT)
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10Ω + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω
Then the total circuit resistance RT is equal to 60Ω

b) Circuit Current (I)
Thus the total circuit current I is equal to 0.2 amperes or 200mA
c) Current Through Each Resistor

The resistors are wired together in series, they are all part of the same loop and
therefore each experience the same amount of current. Thus:
IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = ISERIES = 0.2 amperes

3
VR1 = I x R1 = 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts

VR2 = I x R2 = 0.2 x 20 = 4 volts
VR3 = I x R3 = 0.2 x 30 = 6 volts
e) Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Thus Kirchhoff’s voltage law holds true as the individual voltage drops around the
closed loop add up to the total.
Series Circuits:
 • Voltage drops add to equal total voltage.

 • All components share the same (equal) current.
 • Resistances add to equal total resistance.
Parallel Circuits:
 • All components share the same (equal) voltage.

 • Branch currents add to equal total current.
 • Resistances diminish to equal total resistance.

Series circuit
A series circuit is a closed circuit in which the current follows one path, as
opposed to a parallel circuit where the circuit is divided into two or more paths.
In a series circuit, the current through each load is the same and the total
voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across each load.
Series circuit has only one path in which its current can flow. Opening or
breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop
operating.
For example, if even one of the light bulbs in an older-style string

of Christmas tree lights burns out or is removed, the entire string becomes
inoperable until the bulb is replaced
Current
In a series circuit, the current is the same for all of the elements.
I = I1 = I2 = I3
Voltage
In a series circuit, the voltage is the sum of the voltage drops of the
individual components
V=V1+V2+V3
Resistance units
The total resistance of resistance units in series is equal to the sum of their
individual resistances:
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3
Parallel circuit
A parallel circuit is a closed circuit in which the current divides into two or
more paths before recombining to complete the circuit.
Each load connected in a separate path receives the full circuit voltage, and
the total circuit current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents

If two or more components are connected in parallel, they have the same
difference of potential (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across
the components are the same in magnitude, and they also have identical polarities.
The same voltage is applied to all circuit components connected in parallel.
The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in
accordance with Kirchhoff’s current law.
Voltage
In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same for all elements.
V=V1 = V2 = V3
Current
The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out
the voltage gives
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Resistance units
To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the
resistances of each component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total
resistance will always be less than the value of the smallest resistance:
Series-Parallel Circuit
In this circuit, we have two loops for the current to flow through: one
from 1 to 2 to 5 to 6 and back to 1 again, and another from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to
6 and back to 1 again.
Notice how both current paths pass through R1 (from point 1 to point 2).
In this configuration, we’d say that R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other,
while R1 is in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3.

Open and closed circuits
 a) Open circuit means the wires are cut off so there will be no current flow,
but there is voltage.
 b) Closed circuit means the wires are connected so there will be flow of
current, but there is no voltage
 c) Short circuit also refers closed circuit
 Switches can affect the direction the current will flow.

 The current will try to take the path of least resistance.
If a current can take a path through a circuit that eliminates flow through a resistor,
then the current will not flow through to that part of the circuit (or resistor) at all.

UNIT - III
1. RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device which converts an ac signal to dc signal. Ac

is the alternating current and dc is the direct current. This conversion process is
termed as the rectification.
An ac signal has alternating positive and negative parts like as a sine wave.
But a dc signal has only the positive part.
This circuit have lots of use. Mainly they are used as a component of dc
power supply and the power transmission.
Rectification can be achieved by using a single diode or group of

diodes. We can connect the diodes in different configurations for obtaining different
types of rectifiers.
Rectifiers are classified into a variety of configurations depends on
factors like type of supply, bridge configuration, control nature, components used,
etc these rectifiers are classified.
Rectifier
Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier
Center trapped full wave rectifier Full wave bridge rectifier

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
 The half wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier.

 We use only a single diode to construct the half wave rectifier.
 The output wave is unidirectional.
 A half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which allows only half cycle
(either positive half cycle or negative half cycle) of the input AC
signal while the another half cycle is blocked.
Circuit diagram of half wave rectifier
Construction of half wave rectifier
o The transistor having two sections one is primary section and another one is
secondary section.
o The primary section of transformer connected into the Input AC voltage.
o The Secondary section of transformer connected into the series connection
of diode and resistor.
o Current flow through the diode and load resistor
o The voltage measure that across the resistor.
o Output DC current is get across the load resistor.

Operation of half wave rectifier

Case (i)
 Input, during the positive half of the AC input.
 Diode becomes forward biased.
 Current starts flowing through it.
 Outputs get positive half cycle only.
Case (ii)
 Input, during the negative half of the AC input.

 Diode becomes reverse biased.
 Current stops flowing through it.
 No output get negative half cycle.
Output waveforms of full wave rectifier
Output waveform across the load is shown in figure. Because of high

ripple content in the output, this type of rectifier is seldom used with pure resistive
load.
If understand the diagram get the output is positive half cycle.
Output factors
Ripples factor
Ripples factor = rms value of AC component of the output voltage / DC component

of the output voltage
Where, rms = root mean square
or
The ripple factor is also simply defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the DC
voltage
Ripple factor = Ratio of ripple voltage / DC voltage
The ripple factor should be kept as minimum as possible to construct a good

rectifier.

The ripple factor is given as
Finally, we get
γ = 1.21
DC current
The DC current is given by,
Where,
Imax = maximum DC load current
Output DC voltage (VDC)
The output DC voltage (VDC) is the voltage appeared at the load resistor (RL). This
voltage is obtained by multiplying the output DC current with load resistance RL.
It can be mathematically written as,
VDC = IDC RL
The output DC voltage is given by,
Where, VSmax = Maximum secondary voltage
Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
Peak inverse voltage is the maximum reverse bias voltage up to which a

diode can withstand.
The maximum voltage dropped at the diode is nothing but an input voltage.
Therefore, peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode = VSmax

Rectifier efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input

AC power.
The rectifier efficiency of a half wave rectifier is 40.6%
Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS
The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a half wave rectifier is
Root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage V RMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a half wave rectifier is
Form factor
Form factor is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the DC value

It can be mathematically written as
F.F = RMS value / DC value
The form factor of a half wave rectifier is
F.F = 1.57
Advantages of half wave rectifier
 We use very few components to construct the half wave rectifier. So the cost
is very low.
 Easy to construct
Disadvantages of half wave rectifier
 Power loss
The half wave rectifier either allows the positive half cycle or negative half cycle.
So the remaining half cycle is wasted.
 Pulsating direct current
The direct current produced by the half wave rectifier is not a pure direct current;
 Produces low output voltage.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The full wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier. We use only a
single diode to construct the full wave rectifier. The output wave is bidirectional.
We can easily overcome this drawback by using another type of rectifier
known as a full wave rectifier.
The full wave rectifier has some basic advantages over the half wave
rectifier. The average DC output voltage produced by the full wave rectifier is
higher than the half wave rectifier.
Furthermore, the DC output signal of the full wave rectifier has fewer ripples
than the half wave rectifier. As a result, we get a smoother output DC voltage.
Full wave rectifier definition
A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts both half cycles of
the AC signal into pulsating DC signal.
The full wave rectifier is further classified into two types:
 Center tapped full wave rectifier
 Full wave bridge rectifier.
Before going to the working of a center tapped full wave rectifier, let’s first
take a look at the center tapped transformer.
Because the center tapped transformer plays a key role in the center tapped
full wave rectifier.
4. CENTER TAPPED FULL WAVE TRANSFORMER
Center trapped
When an additional wire is connected across the exact middle of the

secondary winding of a transformer, it is known as a center tapped transformer.

The wire is adjusted in such a way that it falls in the exact middle point of
the secondary winding. So the wire is exactly at zero volts of the AC signal. This
wire is known as the center tap.
The center tapped transformer works almost similar to a normal transformer.
Like a normal transformer, the center tapped transformer also increases or reduces
the AC voltage.
However, a center tapped transformer has another important feature. That is
the secondary winding of the center tapped transformer divides the input AC current
or AC signal (VP) into two parts.
The upper part of the secondary winding produces a positive voltage V1 and
the lower part of the secondary winding produces a negative voltage V2.
When we combine these two voltages at output load, we get a complete AC
signal.
I.e. VTotal = V1 + V2
The voltages V1 and V2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
That is the voltages (V1 and V2 ) produced by the upper part and lower part of the
secondary winding are 180 degrees out of phase with each other.
However, by using a full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer, we
can produce the voltages that are in phase with each other.
In simple words, by using a full wave rectifier with center tapped
transformer, we can produce a current that flows only in single direction.
What is center tapped full wave rectifier
A center tapped full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which uses a center
tapped transformer and two diodes to convert the complete AC signal into DC
signal.
The center tapped full wave rectifier is made up of an AC source, a center
tapped transformer, two diodes, and a load resistor.

Circuit diagram of full wave rectifier
Construction on the full wave rectifier
The AC source is connected to the primary winding of the center tapped

transformer. A center tap (additional wire) connected at the exact middle of the the
secondary winding divides the input voltage into two parts.
The upper part of the secondary winding is connected to the diode D1 and the
lower part of the secondary winding is connected to the diode D2.
Both diode D1 and diode D2 are connected to a common load RL with the
help of a center tap transformer.
The center tap is generally considered as the ground point or the zero voltage
reference point.
How center tapped full wave rectifier works
The center tapped full wave rectifier uses a center tapped transformer to
convert the input AC voltage into output DC voltage.
When input AC voltage is applied, the secondary winding of the center
tapped transformer divides this input AC voltage into two parts: positive and
negative.
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become
positive, terminal B become negative and center tap is grounded (zero volts).
The positive terminal A is connected to the p-side of the diode D1 and the
negative terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode D1.
So the diode D1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle and allows
electric current through it.

Operation of full wane rectifier
Case (i)
On the other hand, the negative terminal B is connected to the p-side of the
diode D2 and the positive terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode D2.
So the diode D2 is reverse biased during the positive half cycle and does not
allow electric current through it.
The diode D1 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced
at the load RL will return to the secondary winding through a center tap.
During the positive half cycle, current flows only in the upper part of the
circuit while the lower part of the circuit carry no current to the load because the
diode D2 is reverse biased.
Thus, during the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, only diode
D1 allows electric current while diode D2 does not allow electric current.
Case (ii)
On the other hand, the positive terminal B is connected to the p-side of the
diode D2 and the negative terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode D2.
So the diode D2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle and allows
electric current through it.
The diode D2 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced at the
load RL will return to the secondary winding through a center tap.
During the negative half cycle, current flows only in the lower part of
the circuit while the upper part of the circuit carry no current to the load because the
diode D1 is reverse biased.
Thus, during the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, only diode
D2 allows electric current while diode D1 does not allow electric current.

Thus, the diode D1 allows electric current during the positive half cycle and
diode D2 allows electric current during the negative half cycle of the input AC
signal.
Both positive and negative half cycle result
As a result, both half cycles (positive and negative) of the input AC signal are
allowed. So the output DC voltage is almost equal to the input AC voltage.
A small voltage is wasted at the diode D1 and diode D2 to make them

conduct. However, this voltage is very small as compared to the voltage appeared at
the output. So this voltage is neglected.
The diodes D1 and D2 are commonly connected to the load RL. So the load
current is the sum of individual diode currents.
We know that a diode allows electric current in only one direction. From the
above diagram, we can see that both the diodes D1 and D2 are allowing current in
the same direction.

We know that a current that flows in only single direction is called a direct
current.
So the resultant current at the output (load) is a direct current (DC).
However, the direct current appeared at the output is not a pure direct current but a
pulsating direct current.
The value of the pulsating direct current changes with respect to time. This is
due to the ripples in the output signal. These ripples can be reduced by using filters
such as capacitor and inductor.
The average output DC voltage across the load resistor is double that of the
single half wave rectifier circuit.
Output waveforms of full wave rectifier
The output waveforms of the full wave rectifier is shown in the below
figure.
The first waveform represents an input AC signal. The second waveform and
third waveform represents the DC signals or DC current produced by diode D1 and
diode D2.
The last waveform represents the total output DC current produced by diodes
D1and D2. From the above waveforms, we can conclude that the output current
produced at the load resistor is not a pure DC but a pulsating DC.
Characteristics of full wave rectifier
Ripple factor
The ripple factor is used to measure the amount of ripples present in the
output DC signal. A high ripple factor indicates a high pulsating DC signal while a
low ripple factor indicates a low pulsating DC signal.
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the pure DC voltage

The ripple factor is given by
Finally, we get
γ = 0.48
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the AC input

power.
η = output PDC / input PAC
The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
Peak inverse voltage or peak reverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can
withstand in the reverse bias condition. If the applied voltage is greater than the
peak inverse voltage, the diode will be permanently destroyed.
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) = 2Vsmax
DC output current
At the output load resistor RL, both the diode D1 and diode D2 currents flow in the
same direction. So the output current is the sum of D1 and D2 currents.
The current produced by D1 is Imax / π and the current produced by D2 is Imax / π.
So the output current IDC = 2Imax / π

Where,
Imax = maximum DC load current
DC output voltage
The DC output voltage appeared at the load resistor RL is given as
VDC = 2Vmax /π
Where,
Vmax = maximum secondary voltage

Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS
The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a full wave rectifier is
Root mean square (RMS) value of the output load voltage VRMS
The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a full wave rectifier is
Form factor
Form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the DC output current
F.F = RMS value of current / DC output current
The form factor of a full wave rectifier is
F.F = 1.11
Advantages of full wave rectifier
 Lactic current during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC
signal
 High rectifier efficiency
 Low power loss
 Low ripples
Disadvantages of full wave rectifier
 High cost
 The center tapped transformers are expensive and occupy a large space.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A bridge rectifier is a type of full wave rectifier which uses four or

more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert the Alternating
Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).
If stepping down or stepping up of voltage is not required, then even the
transformer can be eliminated in the bridge rectifier.
Circuit diagram of bridge rectifier
The rectifier efficiency of a bridge rectifier is almost equal to the center

tapped full wave rectifier. The only advantage of bridge rectifier over center tapped
full wave rectifier is the reduction in cost.
In bridge rectifier, instead of using the center-tapped transformer, four diodes
are used.
Construction of Bridge rectifier
The construction diagram of a bridge rectifier is shown in the below figure.

The bridge rectifier is made up of four diodes namely D1, D2, D3, D4 and load
resistor RL.
The four diodes are connected in a closed loop (Bridge) configuration to
efficiently convert the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).
The main advantage of this bridge circuit configuration is that we do not
require an expensive center tapped transformer, thereby reducing its cost and size.
The input AC signal is applied across two terminals A and B and the output
DC signal is obtained across the load resistor RL which is connected between the
terminals C and D.

The four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4 are arranged in series with only two diodes
allowing electric current during each half cycle.
For example, diodes D1 and D3 are considered as one pair which allows
electric current during the positive half cycle whereas diodes D2 and D4 are
considered as another pair which allows electric current during the negative half
cycle of the input AC signal.
Operation of bridge rectifier
Case (i)
When input AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, during the
positive half cycle diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and allows electric current
while the diodes D2 and D4are reverse biased and blocks electric current.
During the positive half cycle, the terminal A becomes positive while the
terminal B becomes negative. This causes the diodes D1 and D3 forward biased and
at the same time, it causes the diodes D2 and D4 reverse biased.
The current flow direction during the positive half cycle is shown in the
figure A (I.e. A to D to C to B).

Case (ii)
On the other hand, during the negative half cycle diodes D2 and D4 are
forward biased and allows electric current while diodes D1 and D3are reverse biased
and blocks electric current.
During the negative half cycle, the terminal B becomes positive while the
terminal A becomes negative. This causes the diodes D2 and D4 forward biased and
at the same time, it causes the diodes D1 and D3 reverse biased.
The current flow direction during negative half cycle is shown in the figure B
(I.e. B to D to C to A).
From the above two figures (A and B), we can observe that the direction of
current flow across load resistor RL is same during the positive half cycle and
negative half cycle.
Therefore, the polarity of the output DC signal is same for both positive and
negative half cycles.
The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative.
In our case, it is completely positive.
If the direction of diodes is reversed then we get a complete negative DC
voltage.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and
negative half cycles of the input AC signal.

The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier is shown in the below figure.
Characteristics of bridge rectifier
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is called
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
or
The maximum voltage that the non-conducting diode can withstand is called Peak
Inverse Voltage (PIV).
During the positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are in the conducting state
while the diodes D2 and D4 are in the non-conducting state. On the other hand,
during the negative half cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are in the conducting state
while the diodes D1 and D3 are in the non-conducting state.
The Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) for a bridge rectifier is given by
PIV = VSmax
Ripple factor
The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by using a factor known as

ripple factor. The output DC signal with very fewer ripples is considered as the

smooth DC signal while the output DC signal with high ripples is considered as the
high pulsating DC signal.
Ripple factor is mathematically defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the pure DC
voltage.
The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by
The ripple factor of the bridge rectifier is 0.48 which is same as the center tapped
full wave rectifier.
The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts Alternating
Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).
High rectifier efficiency indicates a most reliable rectifier while the low rectifier
efficiency indicates a poor rectifier.
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input
power.
The maximum rectifier efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2% which is same as the
center tapped full wave rectifier.
Advantages of bridge rectifier
Low ripples in the output DC signal

High rectifier efficiency
Low power loss
Disadvantages of bridge rectifier
Bridge rectifier circuit looks very complex

More power loss as compared to the Center tapped full wave rectifier.

CAPACITOR FILTER
Filter
The filter is an electronic device that allows dc components and blocks the ac
components of the rectifier output.
The filter is made up of a combination of components such
as capacitors, resistors, and inductors. The capacitor allows the ac component and
blocks the dc component. The inductor allows the dc component and blocks the ac
component.
Why use capacitor filter?
The rectifier converts the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current
(DC). But the obtained Direct Current (DC) at the output is not a pure Direct
Current (DC).
The Direct Current (DC) is not constant. It fluctuates with respect to time.
Sometimes the device may also be damaged. So the Direct Current (DC) is not
useful in most of the applications.
Therefore, we need a pure Direct Current (DC) This can be achieved by
using a device called filter.
The Direct Current (DC) contains both AC and DC components. DC
components are useful but AC components are not useful. So we need to reduce or
completely remove the AC components. By using the filter, we can reduce the AC
components at the output
The filter is an electronic device that allows dc components and blocks the ac
components of the rectifier output.
component.
Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter

In the below circuit diagram, the capacitor C is connected in shunt with load
resistor (RL).
When AC voltage is applied, during the positive half cycle, the diode D is
forward biased and allows electric current through it.
As we already know that, the capacitor provides high resistive path to dc

components (low-frequency signal) and low resistive path to ac components (high-
frequency signal).
Electric current always prefers to flow through a low resistance path. So
when the electric current reaches the filter, the dc components experience a high
resistance from the capacitor and ac components experience a low resistance from
the capacitor.
The dc components does not like to flow through the capacitor (high
resistance path). So they find an alternative path (low resistance path) and flows to
the load resistor (RL) through that path.
On the other hand, the ac components experience a low resistance from the
capacitor. So the ac components easily passes through the capacitor. Only a small
part of the ac components passes through the load resistor (RL) producing a small
ripple voltage at the output.
The passage of ac components through the capacitor is nothing but charging
of the capacitor.
In simple words, the ac components is nothing but an excess current that
flows through the capacitor and charges it. This prevents any sudden change in
the voltage at the output.
During the conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value
of the supply voltage. When the voltage between the plates of the capacitor is equal
to the supply voltage, the capacitor is said to be fully charged.
When the capacitor is fully charged, it holds the charge until the input AC
supply to the rectifier reaches the negative half cycle.
When the negative half cycle is reached, the diode D gets reverse biased and
stops allowing electric current through it.

During this non-conduction period, the input voltage is less than that of the
capacitor voltage. So the capacitor discharges all the stored charges through the load
resistor RL. This prevents the output load voltage from falling to zero.
The capacitor discharges until the input supply voltage is less than the
capacitor voltage. When the input supply voltage is greater than the capacitor
voltage, the capacitor again starts charging.
When the positive half cycle is reached again, the diode D is forward biased
and allows electric current. This makes capacitor to charge again.
The capacitor filter with a large discharge time constant will produce a very
smooth DC voltage.
Thus, a smooth and steady DC voltage is obtained by using the filter.
FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR FILTOR
In the circuit diagram, the capacitor C is placed across the load resistor RL.
The working of the full wave rectifier with filter is almost similar to that of
the half wave rectifier with filter.
The only difference is that in the half wave rectifier only one half cycle
(either positive or negative) of the input AC current will charge the capacitor but the
remaining half cycle will not charge the capacitor.
But in full wave rectifier, both positive and negative half cycles of the input
AC current will charge the capacitor.
The main duty of the capacitor filter is to short the ripples to the ground and
blocks the pure DC (DC components), so that it flows through the alternate path and
reaches output load resistor RL.
When input AC voltage is applied, during the positive half cycle, the diode
D1 is forward biased and allows electric current whereas the diode D2 is reverse
biased and blocks electric current. On the other hand, during the negative half cycle
the diode D2 is forward biased (allows electric current) and the diode D1 is reverse
biased (blocks electric current).

During the positive half cycle, the diode (D1) current reaches the filter and
charges the capacitor. However, the charging of the capacitor happens only when
the applied AC voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage.
Initially, the capacitor is uncharged. That means no voltage exists between
the plates of the capacitor. So when the voltage is turned on, the charging of the
capacitor happens immediately.
During this conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value
of the input supply voltage. The capacitor stores a maximum charge exactly at the
quarter positive half cycle in the waveform. At this point, the supply voltage is
equal to the capacitor voltage.
When the AC voltage starts decreasing and becomes less than the capacitor
voltage, then the capacitor starts slowly discharging.
The discharging of the capacitor is very slow as compared to the charging of
the capacitor. So the capacitor does not get enough time to completely discharged.
Before the complete discharge of the capacitor happens, the charging again takes
place. So only half or more than half of the capacitor charge get discharged.
When the input AC supply voltage reaches the negative half cycle, the diode
D1 is reverse biased (blocks electric current) whereas the diode D2 is forward biased
(allows electric current).
During the negative half cycle, the diode (D2) current reaches the filter and
charges the capacitor. However, the charging of the capacitor happens only when
the applied AC voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage.
The capacitor is not completely uncharged, so the charging of the capacitor
does not happen immediately. When the supply voltage becomes greater than the
capacitor voltage, the capacitor again starts charging.
In both positive and negative half cycles, the current flows in the same
direction across the load resistor RL. So we get either complete positive half cycles
or negative half cycles. In our case, they are complete positive half cycles.

Voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may
include negative feedback.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Above the block diagram has been understand regulated power supply blocks
are transformer, rectifier, filter and regulated.
Input applied AC power supply and that output is measure across the load
resistor.
TRANSFORMER•
Transformer convert Ac electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power.
• Transformers work only with AC & this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.
Types of transformer
• Step-up Transformer
• Step-down Transformer
• Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
• The input coil is called the primary & the output coil is called the secondary.
• There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked
by the alternating magnetic field created in the soft iron core of the transformer
• The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.

• Transformers waste very little power , so the power out is almost equal to the
power in. So, as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
RECTIFIER
• In mains supplied electronic systems the AC input voltage must be
converted into a DC voltage with the right value & degree of stabilization.
• Rectifier does this work.
• In other words a rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having
zero average value into one that has a nonzero average.
• Two types of rectifiers :

a. Half wave rectifier.
b. Full wave rectifier.
SMOOTHING/FILTER
• We need a way to smooth out the pulsations& get a much cleaner dc power
source for the load circuit.
• This is done by a filter circuit.
• In power supply, a filter must remove or reduce the ac variations while still
making the desired dc available to the load circuitry.
• Any given filter involve capacitors, inductors,&/resistors in some
combination
REGULATOR
• Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage
• Voltage regulator IC’s are available with fixed (typically 5,12 &15V) or
variable output voltages.
• They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass.
• Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies.
• Many regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current
(overload protection) & overheating (thermal protection).

IC FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATORS USING 78XX
A fixed voltage regulator can be a positive voltage regulator or a negative

voltage regulator.
A positive voltage regulator provides with constant positive output voltage.
All those IC’s in the 78XX series are fixed positive voltage regulators.
All voltage sources cannot able to give fixed output due to fluctuations in the
circuit. For getting constant and steady output, the voltage regulators are
implemented.
The integrated circuits which are used for the regulation of voltage are
termed as voltage regulator ICs. Here, we can discuss the IC 7805.
The voltage regulator IC 7805 is actually a member of the 78xx series of
voltage regulator ICs. It is a fixed linear voltage regulator.
The xx present in 78xx represents the value of the fixed output voltage that
the particular IC provides.
For 7805 IC, it is +5V DC regulated power supply.
PIN COFIGURATION
1-INPUT
The function of this pin is to give the input voltage.
2-GROUND
We connect the ground to this pin.
3-OUTPUT
This pin is used to take the regulated output.
Table of IC
IC number Output voltage

7805 5 volt
7808 8 volt
7812 12 volt
7815 15 volt
xx

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CONSTRUCTION
Input given to the circuit is AC power supply (230V / 50Hz). AC input are
connected to the primary section of 2P2S step up transformer.
Secondary section of step up transformer connected to the bridge diode

rectification circuit.
Smoothing section is called filter the circuit. It’s used to reduce the noise.
Next we are connected to the regulated voltage power supply, using 78XX
series. Both input and output are connecting with capacitor.
DC regulated output is taken from IC 78XX.
OPERATION
At the output side Capacitor C3 removes any kind of ripples in DC

supply and Capacitor C2 removes high freq ripples if any at the positive and
negative side of DC output. Capacitor C1 are used to filtering.
The common Ground supply derived directly from the center tap of
transformer (0) and acts as Ground (GND) terminal for +V and -V DC supply
output.
Single IC is used so we get single voltage output.

Applications of Voltage Regulator 7805 IC

 Current regulator
 Regulated dual supply
 Building circuits for Phone charger, UPS power supply circuits, portable CD
player etc
 Fixed output regulator
 Adjustable output regulator etc.
Advantage
 Simplicity of design
 Lower part count
 Space saving (Unless a heat sink is used)
 Low noise
 Fast transient response
 Low cast
Disadvantage
 Low efficiency if input – output difference is large

 Low efficiency = Significant heat dissipation
 May require a heat sink
 Capable exclusively of step-down operation

IC REGULATED DUAL POWER SUPPLY USING 78XX & 79XX
A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit; it converts unregulated

AC (Alternating Current) into a constant DC.
With the help of a rectifier it converts AC supply into DC. Its function is to
supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit or device that must be
operated within certain power supply limits.
The output from the regulated power supply may be alternating or

unidirectional, but is nearly always DC
Voltage Regulator 78XX is responsible to regulate the positive side of DC

voltage and 79XX is responsible to regulate the negative side of DC Voltage.
Pin configuration of these two voltage regulators is illustrated and the

connections are made as mentioned in the pin out.
79XX IC used to regulate the negative input voltage where as

the 78XX IC used for positive input dc voltage regulate.
The minimum input voltage should be greater than 3 volt than required
output, if you use regulator IC. But if not ICc used in circuit then the same voltage
transformer use as output required.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CONSTRUCTION
Input given to the circuit is AC power supply (230V / 50Hz). AC input are
connected to the primary section of 2P3S step up transformer.
Secondary section of step up transformer connected to the bridge diode
rectification circuit.
Smoothing section is called filter the circuit. It’s used to reduce the noise.
Next we are connected to the regulated voltage power supply, using 78XX ,
79XX series. Both input and output are connect with capacitor.
DC regulated output is taken from IC 78XX and 79XX.
OPERATION
At the output side Capacitors C3, C4 removes any kind of ripples in DC

supply and Capacitor C1, C2 removes high freq ripples if any at the positive and
negative side of DC output.
The common Ground supply derived directly from the center tap of
transformer (0) and acts as Ground (GND) terminal for +V and -V DC supply
output.
ADVANTAGE
o Constant Power
o Multiplies Supply Frequency
o Increases Power Output
o Constant Power
o User-friendly

SWITCHED-MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)
Definition - What does Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS)mean?

A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that converts
power using switching devices that are turned on and off at high frequencies, and
storage components such as inductors or capacitors to supply power when the
switching device is in its non-conduction state.
Switching power supplies have high efficiency and are widely used in a variety of
electronic equipment, including computers and other sensitive equipment requiring
stable and efficient power supply.
A switched-mode power supply is also known as a switch-mode power supply or
switching-mode power supply.
Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

Switched-mode power supplies are classified according to the type of input and
output voltages. The four major categories are:
 AC to DC
 DC to DC
 DC to AC
 AC to AC
A basic isolated AC to DC switched-mode power supply consists of:
 Input rectifier and filter

 Inverter consisting of switching devices such as MOSFETs
 Transformer
 Output rectifier and filter
 Feedback and control circuit
The input DC supply from a rectifier or battery is fed to the inverter where it is
turned on and off at high frequencies of between 20 KHz and 200 KHz by the
switching MOSFET or power transistors.
The high-frequency voltage pulses from the inverter are fed to the transformer
primary winding, and the secondary AC output is rectified and smoothed to produce
the required DC voltages.
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and instructs the control circuit to
adjust the duty cycle to maintain the output at the desired level.

There are different circuit configurations known as topologies, each having

unique characteristics, advantages and modes of operation, which determines how
the input power is transferred to the output.
Most of the commonly used topologies such as flyback, push-pull, half bridge
and full bridge, consist of a transformer to provide isolation, voltage scaling, and
multiple output voltages. The non-isolated configurations do not have a transformer
and the power conversion is provided by the inductive energy transfer.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SMPS
1. Rectifier:
It is used to convert an AC input to DC.
2. Inverter stage:
The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the
rectifier stage
3. Output transformer:
If the output required is to be isolated from input, the inverted AC is used to
draw the primary windings of a high frequency transformer. This converts the
voltage up or down to the required output level on it’s secondary winding.
4. Output rectifier:
If the dc output is required, the ac output from the transformer is rectified.
5. Regulation:
Feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with the
reference voltage.

Advantages of switched-mode power supplies:
 Higher efficiency of 68% to 90%

 Regulated and reliable outputs regardless of variations in input supply
voltage
 Small size and lighter
 Flexible technology
 High power density
Disadvantages:
 Generates electromagnetic interference

 Complex circuit design
 Expensive compared to linear supplies
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
Definition - What does Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)mean?

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) provides nearly instantaneous power
when the main utility power source fails, allowing either time for power to return or
for the user to shut down the system or equipment normally by closing running
computer system applications and using the operating system to shut down the
system.
The user has between five and 15 minutes to shut down a system normally or
bring an auxiliary power source online to restore the power supply.
In addition, most UPS systems also work to address power source electrical
surges, sag voltage, voltage spikes, frequency instability, noise interference or
harmonic distortion from the ideal sinusoidal wave form.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

A UPS is not limited by equipment type and ensures uninterruptible power to
computers, data centers or other electrically powered equipment during an
unexpected power failure.
UPS units vary depending on the protected equipment size, which can range
from a single computer to entire data centers, buildings or cities.
When sensing normal power fluctuations or interruptions, a UPS may
automatically activate backup systems to ensure that data is not lost.
Many technologies are employed to increase the effectiveness of modern UPS
systems, including the following:

 Offline/Standby: Restores power when normal power fails by using a

DC/AC inverter output that is usually no longer than 25 milliseconds.
 Line-Interactive: Ensures power for five to 30 minutes and up to several
hours with expansion, by using a multi-tap, variable-voltage autotransformer,
which immediately adds or subtracts the a transformer’s output voltage.
 Double-Conversion Online: This is similar to line-interactive, except that a
rectifier directly drives a DC/AC inverter, even when it is powered by a
normal AC current. This is typically a high-cost option.
UPSs may monitor their status (battery charge and readiness to perform) and report
deficiencies or issues to the protected computer via a serial port, Ethernet or USB
connection.
Three blocks are available:
1. Inverter
2. Filter
3. Load
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF UPS
Inverter:
The inverter is an electronic circuit that changes the DC to AC. It does

not generate electric power; the power is supplied from the battery.
The input voltage of the inverter is the constant DC power source, and
their output may be square, sine or pulse sine wave depends on the circuit and
design of the inverter.
Filter:
The filter is an electronic device that allows dc components and

blocks the ac components of the rectifier output.

component.
Load:
Load regulation is the capability to maintain a constant voltage (or current)

level on the output channel of a power supply despite changes in the
supply's load (such as a change in resistance value connected across the supply
output).
APPLICATION OF UPS
 Industrial processing applications,

 Medical facilities,
 Emergency equipment,
 Telecommunications

UNIT – IV
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
The alternating Current is an electric current which changes in both magnetic

and direction with time.
The alternating current (or) voltage may broadly classified into the following
two types.
1) Sinusoidal waveform
2) Non-Sinusoidal waveform
Sinusoidal wave form
The alternating current (or) voltage, whose value varies in a manner, which
is similar to a sine (or) cosine function, is known as sinusoidal wave form.
Its shown in a figure
0 t 0 t
Sine wave Cosine wave
Most useful waveforms in the field of electronics.
Such waveform radiating form radio, television and telephone aerials

throughout the world everyday.
The power supplied to the industrial, commercial and residential purpose.
Non-Sinusoidal waveform
The Square, Triangular and sawtooth waveform are called as non-

sinusoidal.

These are shown in figure,
 Square waveform used in computer circuit.

 Triangular waveform used in industrial control system.
 Sawtooth waveform used in oscilloscope and TV receiver.
Symmetrical waveform
Symmetrical waveform positive and negative half cycle are equal both in
magnitude and direction.

Unsymmetrical waveform
Unsymmetrical waveform positive and negative half cycles are unequal.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF AN AC
Cycle
One complete set of positive and negative values of an AC is called cycle.
0
t
cycle
Time period
Time taken by an alternating current to complete the one cycle is called time
period.
It is denoted by a letter “T”. It is the reciprocal
of the number of cycle per second.

Frequency
The number of cycle per second is produced alternating current is called

frequency.
It is designated by the F.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
F=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1 1
F= (or) F =
𝑇 𝑇
Unit of frequency is Hertz.
Large units are: KHz, MHz, GHz
Peak value (or) Amplitude
The maximum values of positive or negative half cycle of an AC is called

peak value or amplitude.
It is denoted by the letter Im (or) Imax , Ip (or) Ipeak
Peak to peak value
The sum of the positive and negative peak values of an AC is called peak to
peak value.
It is designated by the symbol Ip-p (or) Ipeak-peak & it is shown in the above
figure.
The peak to peak value of sinusoidal AC is equal to the 2 times of peak

value.
This figure is Peak, Peak to Peak, Average value and RMS value also

Average value
Definition: The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating

voltage and currents over one complete cycle is called Average Value.
The average value is also called as dc value, of an alternating current is

expressed by that steady (dc) current which transfers across any circuit, the same
charge as transferred by that of an alternating current during the same time.
Symmetrical AC waveform, average value over a complete cycle is zero.
Average value is obtained by adding or integrating instantaneous values of

current over one half cycle only.
Average value of an alternating current,

1 𝜋
Idc = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0
1 𝜋
= ∫ 𝐼
𝜋 0 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋
=
𝜋
∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋
= [- cos𝜃]
𝜋 0
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= [(- cos𝜋) − (− cos0)]
𝜋
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= [(- (-1)) − (− 1)]
𝜋
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= [1 + 1]
𝜋
2 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝜋
Idc = 0.637 Imax

The average value of an symmetrical; alternating current is equal to the product of the
value 0.637 and its maximum value
Iav = 0.637 Imax

R.M.S Value
Definition: The R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of
instantaneous value. Its expressed by steady current which while flowing through a
given circuit for given time,
Produces the same heat as produced by an alternating current when flowing

through the same circuit for the same time.
The RMS value is designated by the symbol I (or) Irms
The RMS value may be determinate by taking the mean of the square of the
instantaneous values of the current over one complete cycle.
The RMS value of alternating current,

1 2𝜋
= √
2𝜋
∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
Therefore, i = Imax sin𝜃

1 2𝜋 2
=√ ∫0 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
𝐼2 2𝜋
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
𝐼2 1−cos2 𝜃 2𝜋
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( )
2𝜋 2 0
𝐼2 − sin2 𝜃 2𝜋
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( )
2𝜋 2 0
𝐼2
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (− sin2 𝜃)2𝜋
0
4𝜋
𝐼2
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (− sin2 2𝜋 + sin2 0)
4𝜋
𝐼2
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (2𝜋)
4𝜋
𝐼2
= √ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
√2
I (or) Irms = 0.707 Imax
The RMS value of the alternating current is 0.707 Imax.

Instantaneous value
The instantaneous value is the value of an alternating quantity (it may be ac

current or ac power) at a particular instant of time in the cycle.
There are uncountable numbers of instantaneous value in a cycle.
Like arrow represent i1, i2, i3, etc..,
of instantaneous value
0 t
Frequency and period measurement
The period is the time it takes a wave to complete one cycle. We measure
the period in seconds, and we symbolize it with the capital letter T and we measure
it in cycles per second, which is the unit hertz.
A wave's frequency is the number of cycles that are completed in a certain

amount of time. The symbol for frequency is the lowercase f, and we measure it in
cycles per second, which is the same as the unit hertz.
1
Frequency =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
The greater the period is for a wave, the less wave cycles can fit within a
second, and so the lower the frequency gets.
Digital Multimeter
Digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical

values—principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a
standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries.
 Display: Where measurement readouts can be viewed.

 Buttons: For selecting various functions; the options vary by model.
 Dial (or rotary switch): For selecting primary measurement values (volts,
amps, ohms).
 Input jacks: Where test leads are inserted.

Use of digital multimeter
Measuring DC volts,
Measuring AC volts,
Measuring DC amplitude,
Measuring AC amplitude,
Measuring resistance,
Measuring Diodes,
Measuring buzzer,
Measuring Transistor,
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to

obtain waveforms when the different input signals are given.
Uses of CRO
In laboratory, the CRO can be used as
 It can display different types of waveforms

 It can measure short time interval
 In voltmeter, it can measure potential difference
It is used to measure AC and DC current and voltage
To study the wave forms of AC voltage
Find the frequency of AC current or Voltage.

Unit - V
Barkhausen criterion
Barkhausen criterion are a set of two mathematical conditions which a

linear electronic circuit must follow to act as an electronic oscillator.
It also satisfies the following condition: The magnitude of the product of
open loop gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor is unity.
It states that if A is the gain of the amplifying element in the circuit and β(jω)
is the transfer function of the feedback path, so βA is the loop gain around
the feedback loop of the circuit, the circuit will sustain steady-state oscillations only
at frequencies for which:
1. The magnitude of product of open loop gain of the amplifier and
magnitude of feedback factor should be unity.
2. Total phase shift around the loop should be zero ( 0 ).
Barkhausen's criterion is a necessary condition for oscillation but not

a sufficient condition: some circuits satisfy the criterion but do not oscillate.
Similarly, the Nyquist stability criterion also indicates instability but is
silent about oscillation.
Apparently there is not a compact formulation of an oscillation criterion
that is both necessary and sufficient.
β. AV = 0
Mathematically,
Positive feedback  Closed loop gain
Negative feedback  Open loop gain
Gain
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Ratio between output to input is called gain gain =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Oscillator
Oscillator is a device which produces an output single without any input

signal of any desired frequency.
Let us now try to understand the classification of oscillator. Oscillaters are

classified two types.
They are,
1). Sinusoidal oscillator (or) Harmonic oscillator.
2). Non-Sinusoidal oscillator (or) Relaxation oscillator.
Sinusoidal oscillator
Oscillator which producing sine waveform is called sinusoidal oscillator.
Example,
 Tuned circuit oscillator,

 RC oscillator,
 Crystal oscillator,
 Negative resistance oscillator.
Tuned circuit oscillator
Tuned circuit oscillator uses inductor and capacitor. Is also called LC

oscillator.
It produces radio frequency or high frequency signal.
Types:-
 Hartley 0scillator,
 Colpitts oscillator,
 Clapp oscillator.
RC oscillator
It produces audio frequency signals. It uses resistor and capacitor.
Types:-
 Phase shift oscillator,
 Wien bridge oscillator.

Crystal oscillator
It uses quartz crystal generate highly stabilized output signal upto 10MHz
frequency.
Types:-
 Pierce crystal oscillator
Negative resistance oscillator
It uses the negative resistance characteristics of the device such as tunnel

diode.
Types:-
 Tuned diode oscillator
Non-sinusoidal oscillator
It generates other than sine wave. It generates triangular. Sawtooth and

square wave forms.
It consists of one or two bi-polar function transistor as also called as

relaxation oscillator.
Non-sinusoidal oscillator divided into three types,
 Multi vibrators,
 Blocking oscillator,
 Sawtooth (or) Sweep generators.
Multi vibrators
Depending on the coupling network multi vibrator is divided into:-
Types:-
 Astable Multivibrator,
 Monostable Multivibrator,
 Bi-Stable Multivibrator.

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
The Hartley Oscillator design uses two inductive coils in series with a
parallel capacitor to form its resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal oscillations
Circuit diagram
Construction
Its frequency of oscillation is decided by its tank circuit which has a

capacitor connected in parallel with the two serially connected inductors,
Here the RC is the collector resistor while the emitter resistor RE forms the
stabilizing network.
Further the resistors R1 and R2 form the voltage divider bias network for the
transistor in common-emitter CE configuration.
Next, the capacitors Ci and Co are the input and output decoupling capacitors
while the emitter capacitor CE is the bypass capacitor used to bypass the amplified
AC signals.
All these components are identical to those present in the case of a common-
emitter amplifier which is biased using a voltage divider network.
However, Figure 1 also shows one more set of components viz., the
inductors L1 and L2 and the capacitor C which form the tank circuit (shown in red
enclosure).

Operation
When the supply is switched–on, a voltage V1 is developed across L1 and

V2 across L2.V1 is the oscillator output. There is a phase difference of 1800 between
the voltage of L1 and L2.
The voltage across L2 (V2) is given as the feedback signal.
Since the amplifier is in CE configuration, it produces a phase difference of
0
180 .Therfore amplifier and the feedback network together produces a phase
difference of 3600.
i.e, a positive feedback is achieved and circuit work as an oscillator.
Once energy is supplied to the tank circuit, cycle begins.
The capacitor stores energy in its electric field whenever there is a potential
difference across its plates.
As the current begins to flow out of the capacitor and into the inductor, a
magnetic field builds up around the coil.
Capacitor loses its energy and current will continue to flow in the inductor
caused by the effect of the energy in the magnetic field.
This current will start to send current back into the capacitor, in reverse
direction.
The cycle then repeats, over and over, at a period (frequency) that is
determined by the values of the inductor, the capacitor.
The frequency of oscillation is given by
This is our output wave form.

Advantages
 Instead of two separate coils L1 and L2, a single coil of bare wire can be used
and the coil grounded at any desired point along it.
 By using a variable capacitor or by making core movable (varying the
inductance), frequency of oscillations can be varied.
 Very few components are needed, including either two fixed inductors or a
tapped coil.
 The amplitude of the output remains constant over the working frequency range.
Disadvantages
 It cannot be used as a low frequency oscillator since the value of inductors

becomes large and the size of the inductors becomes large.
 The harmonic content in the output of this oscillator is very high and hence it is
not suitable for the applications which require a pure sine wave.
Applications
 The Hartley oscillator is to produce a sine wave with the desired frequency
 Hartley oscillators are mainly used as radio receivers. Also note that due to its
wide range of frequencies, it is the most popular oscillator
 The Hartley oscillator is Suitable for oscillations in RF (Radio-Frequency) range,
up to 30MH
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
The Colpitts Oscillator design uses two centre-tapped capacitors in series

with a parallel inductor to form its resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal
oscillations
Circuit diagram

Construction
In the circuit diagram resistors R1 and R2 gives a voltage divider biasing to

the transistor. Resistor R4 limits the collector current of the transistor.
Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor while Cout is the output decoupling
capacitor. Re is the emitter resistor and its meant for thermal stability.
Ce is the emitter by-pass capacitor. Job of the emitter by-pass capacitor is to
by-pass the amplified AC signals from dropping across Re.
The the emitter by-pass capacitor is not there, the amplified AC signal will
drop across Re and it will alter the DC biasing conditions of the transistor and the
result will be reduced gain.
Capacitors C1, C2 and inductor L1 forms the tank circuit.
Feedback to the base of transistor is taken from the junction of Capacitor C2
and inductor L1 in the tank circuit.
Operation
Â When power supply is switched ON, capacitors Â C1 and C2 starts
charging. When they are fully charged they starts discharging through the inductor
L1.
When the capacitors are fully discharged, the electrostatic energy stored in
the capacitors gets transferred to the inductor as magnetic flux.
The the inductor starts discharging and capacitors gets charged again.
This transfer of energy back and forth between capacitors and inductor is the
basis of oscillation.
Voltage across C2 is phase opposite to that of the voltage across the C1 and
it is the voltage across C2 that is fed back to the transistor.
The feedback signal at the base base of transistor appears in the amplified
form across the collector and emitter of the transistor.
The energy lost in the tank circuit is compensated by the transistor and the
oscillations are sustained.
The tank circuit produces 180Â° phase shift and the transistor itself produces
another 180Â° phase shift.
That means the input and output are in phase and it is a necessary condition
of positive feedback for maintaining sustained oscillations.
The frequency of oscillations of the Colpitts oscillator can be determined
using the equation below.

Where L is the inductance of the inductor in the tank circuit and C is the
effective capacitance of the capacitors in the tank circuit.
If C1 and C2 are the individual capacitance, then the effective capacitance

of the serial combination C= (C1C2)/(C1+C2).
By using ganged variable capacitors in place of C1 and C2, the Colpitts
oscillator can be made variable.
Advantages of Colpitts oscillator.
Main advantage of Colpitts oscillator over Hartley oscillator is the improved

performance in the high frequency region.
This is because the capacitors provide a low reactance path for the high
frequency signals and thus the output signals in the high frequency domain will be
more sinusoidal.
Due to the excellent performance in the high frequency region, the Colpitts
oscillator can be even used in microwave applications.
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

RC Oscillators use a combination of an amplifier and an RC network to
produce oscillations due to the phase shift between the stages,
An RC Oscillator circuit the input is shifted 180o through the amplifier stage
and 180oagain through a second inverting stage giving us “180 o + 180o = 360o” of
phase shift which is effectively the same as 0o thereby giving us the required
positive feedback. In other words, the phase shift of the feedback loop should be
“0”.
Circuit diagram

Construction
In the circuit diagram resistor R1 and the resistor R (close to the base of Q1
in the diagram) gives a voltage divider bias to the transistor Q1.
Resistor Rc limits the collector current while Re is meant for thermal

stability.
Ce is the emitter by-pass capacitor and Cout is the output DC decoupling

capacitor.
By using more than three RC phase shift stages (like 4 x 45Â°)Â the
frequency stability of the oscillator can be further improved.
Operation
Â The frequency of the transistor RC phase shift oscillator oscillator can be

expressed by the equation:
Where F is the frequency, R is the resistance, C is the capacitance and N is

the number of RC phase shift stages.
The RC pahse shift oscillator can be made variable by making the Â resistors
or capacitors variable.
The common approach is to leave the resistors untouched the three capacitors
are replaced by a Â triple gang variable capacitor.
Advantages of RC Phase Shift Oscillator
The advantages of this phase shift oscillator include the following.
 The oscillator circuit designing is easy with basic components like resistors as
well as capacitors.
 This circuit is not expensive and gives excellent frequency stability.
 These are mainly suitable for low-frequencies
 This circuit is simpler compared with a Wein bridge oscillator because it doesn’t
require the stabilization planning & negative feedback.
 The circuit output is sinusoidal that is somewhat distortion free.
 The frequency range of this circuit will range from a few Hz to hundreds of kHz

Disadvantages of RC-Phase Shift Oscillator
The disadvantages of this phase shift oscillator include the following.
 The output of this circuit is small because of the smaller feedback

 It requires 12 volts battery for developing a suitably huge feedback voltage.
 It is hard for this circuit to create oscillations because of the small feedback
 The frequency stability of this circuit is not good to compare with Wien bridge
oscillator.
RC Phase Shift Oscillator Applications

The applications of this type of phase shift oscillator include the following
 This phase shift oscillator is used to generate the signals over an extensive range
of frequency. They used in musical instruments, GPS units, & voice synthesis.
 The applications of this phase shift oscillator include voice synthesis, musical
instruments, and GPS units.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
One of the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability,
or in other words its ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying
load conditions.
Crystal oscillators operate on the principle of inverse piezoelectric effect in which
an alternating voltage applied across the crystal surfaces causes it to vibrate at its
natural frequency. It is these vibrations which eventually get converted into
oscillations. These oscillators are usually made of Quartz crystal, eventhough other
substances like Rochelle salt and Tourmaline exhibit the piezoelectric effect
because, quartz is inexpensive, naturally-available and mechanically-strong when
compared to others.
In crystal oscillators, the crystal is suitably cut and mounted between two metallic
plates as shown by Figure 1a whose electrical equivalent is shown by Figure 1b. In
reality, the crystal behaves like a series RLC circuit, formed by the components
1. A low-valued resistor RS
2. A large-valued inductor LS
3. A small-valued capacitor CS
which will be in parallel with the capacitance of its electrodes Cp.

Due to the presence of Cp, the crystal will resonate at two different frequencies viz.,
1. Series Resonant Frequency, fs which occurs when the series capacitance

CSresonates with the series inductance LS. At this stage, the crystal
impedance will be the least and hence the amount of feedback will be the
largest. Mathematical expression for the same is given as
2. Parallel Resonant frequency, fp which is exhibited when the reactance of the

LSCSleg equals the reactance of the parallel capacitor Cp i.e. LS and
CS resonate with Cp. At this instant, the crystal impedance will be the highest
and thus the feedback will be the least. Mathematically it can be given as
The behaviour of the capacitor will be capacitive both below fS and above fp.
However for the frequencies which lie in-between fS and above fp, the crystal’s
behavior will be inductive.
Further when the frequency becomes equal to parallel resonant frequency fp,
then the interaction between LS and Cp would form a parallel tuned LC tank circuit.
Hence, a crystal can be viewed as a combination of series and parallel tuned

resonance circuits due to which one needs to tune the circuit for any one among
these two.
Crystal oscillators can be designed by connecting the crystal into the circuit
such that it offers low impedance when operated in series-resonant mode (Figure
2a) and high impedance when operated in anti-resonant or parallel resonant mode
(Figure 2b).

In the circuits shown, the resistors R1 and R2 form the voltage divider network while
the emitter resistor RE stabilizes the circuit.
Further, CE (Figure 2a) acts as an AC bypass capacitor while the coupling

capacitor CC (Figure 2a) is used to block DC signal propagation between the
collector and the base terminals.
Next, the capacitors C1 and C2form the capacitive voltage divider network in
the case of Figure 2b.
In addition, there is also a Radio Frequency Coil (RFC) in the circuits (both
in Figure 2a and 2b) which offers dual advantage as it provides even the DC bias as
well as frees the circuit-output from being affected by the AC signal on the power
lines.
On supplying the power to the oscillator, the amplitude of the oscillations in
the circuit increases until a point is reached wherein the nonlinearities in the
amplifier reduce the loop gain to unity.
Next, on reaching the steady-state, the crystal in the feedback loop highly
influences the frequency of the operating circuit.
Further, here, the frequency will self-adjust so as to facilitate the crystal to

present a reactance to the circuit such that the Barkhausen phase requirement is
fulfilled.
There are some important advantages of crystal oscillator are given below,
o The crystal oscillators have very high frequency stability.

o The crystal oscillator is possible to obtain very high precise and stable
frequency of oscillators.
o It has High frequency of operation.
o It has very low frequency drift due to change in temperature and other
parameters.
o The Q is very high.
o It has Automatic amplitude control.
There are some important disadvantages of crystal oscillator are given below,
o These are suitable for high frequency application.

o Crystals of low fundamental frequencies are not easily available.
There are some important application of crystal oscillator are given below,
o The crystal oscillators are used in the frequency synthesizers.

o It is used in special types of receivers.
o It is used in radio and TV transmitters.
o It is used as a crystal clock in microprocessors.

Astable Multivibrator
An Astable Multivibrator or a Free Running Multivibrator is the

multivibrator which has no stable states. Its output oscillates continuously
between its two unstable states without the aid of external triggering. The time
period of each states are determined by Resistor Capacitor ( RC ) time constant.
Circuit diagram
Construction
In the above diagram we can find two transistors which is wired as a switch.
Please do read the article Transistor as A Switch.
When a transistor is ON, its collector and emitter act as a short circuit. But
when it is OFF they acts as open circuit.
So in the above circuit when a transistor is in OFF state its collector will
have the voltage Vcc and when it is ON its collector will be grounded.
When one transistor is ON the other will be OFF. The OFF time of transistor
is determined by RC time constant.
When the circuit is switched on, one of the transistor will be more
conducting than the other due imbalance in the circuit or difference in the
parameters of the transistor.
Gradually the more conducting transistor will be driven to Saturation and
the less conducting transistor will be driven to Cutoff.

Working
 When the circuit is switched on one transistor will driven to saturation (ON)
and other will driven to cutoff (OFF). Consider Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF.
 During this time Capacitor C2 is charging to Vcc through resistor R.
 Q2 is OFF due to the -ive voltage from the discharging capacitor C1 which is
charged during the previous cycle. So the OFF time of Q2 is determined by
R1C1 time constant.
 The negative voltage from the capacitor C2 turns off the transistor Q1 and
the capacitor C1 starts charging from Vcc through resistor R and base emitter
of transistor Q2. Thus the transistor Q2 remains in ON state.
 As in the previous state, when the capacitor C2 discharges completely it
starts charging towards opposite direction through R2.
 When the voltage across the capacitor C2 is sufficient to turn ON transistor
Q1, Q1 will turn ON and capacitor C1 starts discharging.
 This process continuous and produces rectangular waves at the collector of
each transistors.
 Note : Charging time is very less compared to discharging time.
Monostable Multivibrator
Multivibrator is a non linear oscillator or function generator which can

generate square, rectangular and pulse waves.
Circuit diagram

Monostable Multivibrator or One-Shot Multivibrator has only one stable

state. By default monostable multivibrator will be in its stable state, but when
triggered it will switch to unstable state (quasi-stable state) for a time period
determined by the RC time constant in the circuit.
Construction
In the above circuit diagram we can find two transistors which are wired as
switches. Please read the article Transistor as a Switch to know more about it.
When a transistor is ON, it works in saturation region and its collector –
emitter acts as a short circuit. When a transistor is OFF, it works in cut off region
and its collector – emitter acts as an open circuit.
So in the above circuit, when a transistor is in OFF state, its collector will
have voltage equal to supply voltage Vcc and when the a transistor is in ON state,
its collector will be grounded.
Function of resistor R is to limit collector current of both transistors Q1 and
Q1. Resistors R1 & R2 will provide base current for transistors Q2 & Q1
respectively during ON condition.
Capacitor C3 and Resistor R3 is designed as a differentiator circuit to
provide sharp trigger pulses to the base of the transistor Q1.
he diode D allows only positive pulses to the base. Capacitor C2 is optional,
which is called as Speed Up capacitor.
It is used for speedy bypassing of signal transitions (LOW to HIGH and
HIGH to LOW) at the collector of Q2 to the base of Q1.
When the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be OFF and Q2 will be
ON, which is its stable state. Transistor Q2 is ON since the base of the transistor is
connected to Vcc via R1.
Transistor Q1 will be OFF because base of the transistor is at 0v since
transistor Q2 is ON.
Working
 When the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be OFF and Q2 will be
ON.
 Capacitor C1 gets charged during this state.

 When a positive trigger is applied to the base of transistor Q1 it turns

ON, which turns OFF the transistor Q2 due the the negative voltage from
the capacitor C1.
 Capacitor C1 starts discharging during this state.
 Transistor Q1 remains in ON state due the positive voltage from the collector
of transistor Q2 which is in OFF state.
 Transistor Q2 remains in OFF state until the capacitor C1 discharges
compleatly.
 When the capacitor C1 discharged completly, transistor Q2 turns ON, which
turns transistor Q1 OFF.
Applications
 Monostable multivibrators are used in a number of applications and can be

found wherever a square wave or timed interval is necessary for the success
of a system.
 For example, monostable multivibrators were once used in analog systems to

control an output signal’s frequency, synchronize the line and frame rate of
television broadcasts, and even moderate the tunes of different octaves with
electronic organs.
 Additionally, before the integrated circuit’s invention, monostable

multivibrators were connected together in a series to divide frequencies.
Advantages
 Monostable multivibrators generate output signals at timed intervals in the

form of square waves.
 They are half the size of astable multivibrators and can, therefore, be used in
more diverse situations. Monostable multivibrators can be connected to one
another to provide additional functionality.
 They are relatively simple in design and are inexpensive when compared
with other types of oscillators.
Disadvantage
 One main disadvantage of Monostable Multivibrators is that the time

between the application of the next trigger pulse T has to be greater than the
RC time constant of the circuit.

Bistable Multivibrators
Bistable Multivibrators are the multivibrators which depend upon the

external triggers so as to switch between their two permissible stable states.
These circuits are also referred to as Trigger Circuits or Eccles Jordon

Circuits or Scale-of-2 Toggle Circuits or Binary or more popularly as Flip-Flops,
forming the basic building blocks of sequential digital systems.
These circuits can be designed in different ways, say for example, they can
compose of transistors or Op-Amps or 555 timer ICs along with passive
components, the resistors.
Figure 1 shows such a circuit designed using two NPN bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs) Q1 and Q2 and four resistors RC1, RC2, R1 and R2.
initially, let us consider that the SPDT switch is position 1 which inturn
grounds the base of the transistor Q1.
As a result, Q1 will be OFF (cutoff region) while its collector will be held at
VCC, due to which the output at O1 will go high.
This inturn forward biases the BE junction of transistor Q2, switching it ON

(into saturation mode of operation). Due to this, the collector current flows through
the collector resistor RC2, shorting the collector terminal of Q2 to ground.

Thus, for this case, the output at O2 terminal goes low.
This state of the circuit remains unchanged for an indefinite period of time,
unless triggered externally. In this case, the act of changing the switch position from
1 to 2 acts like an external trigger for the circuit.
When done so, the base of transistor Q2 will be grounded, switching it OFF
(cutoff region). This also causes the VCC to appear at the collector terminal of Q2,
which inturn results in a high output at O2 terminal.
Further, at this state, Q1 will switch ON (gets into saturation mode of

operation) as it has its base connected to the collector terminal of Q2 via R2.
Due to this, the collector terminal of Q1will be shorted to ground, causing the
output at the terminal O1 to go low.
This state of the circuit is again maintained until triggered once again.
From the explanation presented, the following two points can be concluded on the
nature of the bistable circuits.
1. Bistable circuits are not self-triggered as they rely on the user-provided

trigger inputs so as to change their state.
2. In these circuits, the output wave-forms obtained at the terminal O1 and
O2 are complementary to each other, always.
In addition, it is to be noted that triggering in the case of Bistable circuit is more

conveniently experienced by electronic-means rather than mechanically.
This kind of triggering can be either asymmetric or symmetric in nature. In the

case of asymmetric triggering, the trigger for each of the transistor is obtained from
separate sources and is independent of each other.
Next, the symmetrical triggering can be any one of the following types:
symmetrical base triggering or symmetrical collector triggering or symmetrical
hybrid triggering.
These bistable circuits are used as memory storage devices, timing circuits,
frequency dividers, electronic toggle switch, counting circuits, shift registers, clock
pulse generators, relay controllers and even in the field of radar and
communications.

Amplifier
An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device that

can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current).
It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to
increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a
proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output.
An Amplifier circuit is one which strengthens the signal.

Let us now try to understand the classification of amplifiers. Amplifiers are
classified according to many considerations.
Based on number of stages
Depending upon the number of stages of Amplification, there are Single-stage
amplifiers and Multi-stage amplifiers.
 Single-stage Amplifiers − This has only one transistor circuit, which is a
singlestage amplification.
 Multi-stage Amplifiers − This has multiple transistor circuit, which
provides multi-stage amplification.
Based on its output
Depending upon the parameter that is amplified at the output, there are voltage and
power amplifiers.
 Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the voltage level
of the input signal, is called as Voltage amplifier.
 Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the power level of
the input signal, is called as Power amplifier.
Based on the input signals
Depending upon the magnitude of the input signal applied, they can be categorized
as Small signal and large signal amplifiers.
 Small signal Amplifiers − When the input signal is so weak so as to
produce small fluctuations in the collector current compared to its quiescent
value, the amplifier is known as Small signal amplifier.

 Large signal amplifiers − When the fluctuations in collector current are

large i.e. beyond the linear portion of the characteristics, the amplifier is
known as large signal amplifier.
Based on the frequency range
Depending upon the frequency range of the signals being used, there are audio and
radio amplifiers.
 Audio Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie
in the audio frequency range i.e. from 20Hz to 20 KHz frequency range, is
called as audio amplifier.
 Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie
in a very high frequency range, is called as Power amplifier.
Based on Biasing Conditions
Depending upon their mode of operation, there are class A, class B and class C
amplifiers.
 Class A amplifier − The biasing conditions in class A power amplifier are
such that the collector current flows for the entire AC signal applied.
 Class B amplifier − The biasing conditions in class B power amplifier are
such that the collector current flows for half-cycle of input AC signal
applied.
 Class C amplifier − The biasing conditions in class C power amplifier are
such that the collector current flows for less than half cycle of input AC
signal applied.
 Class AB amplifier − The class AB power amplifier is one which is created
by combining both class A and class B in order to have all the advantages of
both the classes and to minimize the problems they have.
Based on the Coupling method
Depending upon the method of coupling one stage to the other, there are RC
coupled, Transformer coupled and direct coupled amplifier.
 RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to
the next stage using resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can be called
as a RC coupled amplifier.

 Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is

coupled to the next stage, with the help of a transformer, can be called as a
Transformer coupled amplifier.
 Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled
to the next stage directly, can be called as a direct coupled amplifier.
Based on the Transistor Configuration
Depending upon the type of transistor configuration, there are CE CB and CC
amplifiers.
 CE amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CE configured
transistor combination is called as CE amplifier.
 CB amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CB configured
transistor combination is called as CB amplifier.
 CC amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CC configured
transistor combination is called as CC amplifier.
SINGLE-STAGE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
When only one transistor with associated circuitry is used for amplifying a
weak signal, the circuit is known as single-stage amplifier.
Analyzing the working of a Single-stage amplifier circuit, makes us easy to
understand the formation and working of Multi-stage amplifier circuits. A Single
stage transistor amplifier has one transistor, bias circuit and other auxiliary
components. The following circuit diagram shows how a single stage transistor
amplifier looks like.
Circuit diagram

Construction
When a weak input signal is given to the base of the transistor as shown in
the figure, a small amount of base current flows.
Due to the transistor action, a larger current flows in the collector of the
transistor. (As the collector current is β times of the base current which means IC =
βIB).
Now, as the collector current increases, the voltage drop across the resistor
RC also increases, which is collected as the output.
Hence a small input at the base gets amplified as the signal of larger
magnitude and strength at the collector output. Hence this transistor acts as an
amplifier.
Biasing Circuit
The resistors R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization circuit, which helps
in establishing a proper operating point.
Input Capacitor Cin
This capacitor couples the input signal to the base of the transistor. The input
capacitor Cin allows AC signal, but isolates the signal source from R2. If this
capacitor is not present, the input signal gets directly applied, which changes the
bias at R2.
Coupling Capacitor CC
This capacitor is present at the end of one stage and connects it to the other stage.
As it couples two stages it is called as coupling capacitor. This capacitor blocks
DC of one stage to enter the other but allows AC to pass. Hence it is also called
as blocking capacitor.
Due to the presence of coupling capacitor CC, the output across the resistor
RLis free from the collector’s DC voltage. If this is not present, the bias conditions
of the next stage will be drastically changed due to the shunting effect of RC, as it
would come in parallel to R2 of the next stage.
Emitter by-pass capacitor CE
This capacitor is employed in parallel to the emitter resistor R E. The amplified AC
signal is by passed through this. If this is not present, that signal will pass through
RE which produces a voltage drop across RE that will feedback the input signal
reducing the output voltage.

The Load resistor RL

The resistance RL connected at the output is known as Load resistor. When a
number of stages are used, then RL represents the input resistance of the next stage.
Various Circuit currents
Let us go through various circuit currents in the complete amplifier circuit. These
are already mentioned in the above figure.
Base Current
When no signal is applied in the base circuit, DC base current IB flows due to
biasing circuit. When AC signal is applied, AC base current ib also flows.
Therefore, with the application of signal, total base current iB is given by
iB=IB+ib
Collector Current
When no signal is applied, a DC collector current IC flows due to biasing circuit.
When AC signal is applied, AC collector current ic also flows. Therefore, the total
collector current iC is given by
iC=IC+ic
Where
IC=βIB = zero signal collecor current
ic=βib collecor current due to signal
Emitter Current
When no signal is applied, a DC emitter current IE flows. With the application of
signal, total emitter current iE is given by
iE=IE+ie
It should be remembered that

IE=IB+IC

RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This
is the mostly used coupling technique in amplifiers. The figure below shows the
circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.
Circuit duagram
Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier
circuit are as follows. The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected
in CE configuration and a common power supply VCC is used.
The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re form the biasing
and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance
path to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present
at the initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor.
The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and
prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating
point.
Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier
When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets
amplified and appears at the collector load RL which is then passed through the
coupling capacitor CC to the next stage.

This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again
appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage
action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than
the product of the gains of individual stages.
This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage,
the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect
of the input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only
the gain of the last stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input.
Because the phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured
amplifier circuit.
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier
Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between
voltage gain and function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled
amplifier is as shown in the following graph.
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or
decreases for the frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz.
whereas the voltage gain for the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is
constant.
We know that,

It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low
frequencies, the reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cinand the
coupling capacitor CC are so high that only small part of the input signal is
allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor CE is also very high during
low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance effectively. With all
these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)
Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at
high frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As
a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the
voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it
increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β)
reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.
At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)
The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of
frequencies, as shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the
capacitor CC decreases which tends to increase the gain. But this lower capacitance
reactive increases the loading effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction
in gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.
Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.
 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide
frequency range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and
capacitors which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.
 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.

 They become noisy with age.

 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier
The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.
 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final
stages.
TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER

We have observed that the main drawback of RC coupled amplifier is that
the effective load resistance gets reduced.
This is because, the input impedance of an amplifier is low, while its output
impedance is high.
When they are coupled to make a multistage amplifier, the high output
impedance of one stage comes in parallel with the low input impedance of next
stage.
Hence, effective load resistance is decreased. This problem can be overcome
by a transformer coupled amplifier.
In a transformer-coupled amplifier, the stages of amplifier are coupled using
a transformer. Let us go into the constructional and operational details of a
transformer coupled amplifier.
Construction of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
The amplifier circuit in which, the previous stage is connected to the next stage
using a coupling transformer, is called as Transformer coupled amplifier.
The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1st stage to the input of
2nd stage. The collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer.
The secondary winding is connected between the potential divider and the base of
2nd stage, which provides the input to the 2nd stage. Instead of coupling capacitor
like in RC coupled amplifier, a transformer is used for coupling any two stages, in
the transformer coupled amplifier circuit.

The figure below shows the circuit diagram of transformer coupled amplifier.
The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re together form
the biasing and stabilization network.
The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance.
The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier couples
AC signal to the base of the transistor.
The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and
prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating
point.
Operation of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
When an AC signal is applied to the input of the base of the first transistor
then it gets amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to which the
primary of the transformer is connected.
The transformer which is used as a coupling device in this circuit has the
property of impedance changing, which means the low resistance of a stage (or
load) can be reflected as a high load resistance to the previous stage.
Hence the voltage at the primary is transferred according to the turns ratio of
the secondary winding of the transformer.

This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching between the

stages of amplifier. The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power
amplification.
Frequency Response of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier.
The gain of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of frequencies. The
output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by the reactance of
primary.
At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in

decreased gain. At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings
acts as a bypass condenser to reduce the output voltage and hence gain.
So, the amplification of audio signals will not be proportionate and some
distortion will also get introduced, which is called as Frequency distortion.
Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
The following are the advantages of a transformer coupled amplifier −
 An excellent impedance matching is provided.

 Gain achieved is higher.
 There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
 Efficient in operation.
Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
The following are the disadvantages of a transformer coupled amplifier −
 Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency. Hence a poor
frequency response.
 Frequency distortion is higher.

 Transformers tend to produce hum noise.

 Transformers are bulky and costly.
Applications
The following are the applications of a transformer coupled amplifier −
 Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.

 Used for Power amplification.
 Used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed.
DIRECT COUPLED AMPLIFIER

As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is done
directly and hence called as Direct coupled amplifier.
Circuit diagram
Construction
The figure below indicates the three stage direct coupled transistor amplifier.
The output of first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of second stage
transistor T2.

The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor, while the transistor
in the next stage will be a PNP transistor and so on.
This is because, the variations in one transistor tend to cancel the variations
in the other. The rise in the collector current and the variation in β of one transistor
gets cancelled by the decrease in the other.
Operation
The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified
due to the transistor action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor
Rc of transistor T1.
This output is applied to the base of transistor T2which further amplifies the
signal. In this way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier circuit.
Advantages
The advantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
 The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
 The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling
devices.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
 It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.

 The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Applications
The applications of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
 Low frequency amplifications.

 Low current amplifications.

Comparisons
Let us try to compare the characteristics of different types of coupling methods
discussed till now.
Transformer
S.No Particular RC Coupling Direct Coupling
Coupling
Frequency Excellent in audio

1 Poor Best
response frequency range
2 Cost Less More Least
Space and
3 Less More Least
Weight
Impedance
4 Not good Excellent Good
matching
For amplifying
For voltage For Power
5 Use extremely low
amplification amplification
frequencies
Filter
A filter is a circuit whose gain varies with frequency. Often a filter aims to allow
some frequencies to pass while blocking others.
• Radio/TV: a “tuning” filter blocks all frequencies except the wanted channel
• Loudspeaker: “crossover” filters send the right frequencies to different drive units
• Sampling: an “anti-aliasing filter” eliminates all frequencies above half the

sampling rate
◦ Phones: Sample rate = 8 kHz : filter eliminates frequencies above 3.4 kHz.
• Computer cables: filter eliminates interference

Types of filter
 High pass filter
 Low pass filter
 Band pass filter
 Band reject filter
HIGH PASS FILTER
A high pass filter is a filter which passes high-frequency signals and blocks,
or impedes, low-frequency signals.
In other words, high-frequency signals go through much easier and low-

frequency signals have a much harder getting through, which is why it's a high pass
filter.
The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design.
What is a High Pass Filter?
The definition of high pass filter is a filter which passes only those signals
whose frequencies are higher than cutoff frequencies thereby attenuating signals of
lower frequencies. The value of cutoff frequency depends on the design of the filter.
Circuit diagram
Construction
The basic High Pass Filter is built by a series connection of capacitor and resistor.
While the input signal is applied to the capacitor, the output is drawn across the
resistor.

In this circuit arrangement, the capacitor has high reactance at lower frequencies so
it acts as an open circuit to the low-frequency input signals until cutoff frequency
‘fc’ is reached.
Filter attenuates all the signals below the cutoff frequency level. At
frequencies above cut off frequency level reactance of the capacitor becomes low
and it acts as a short circuit to these frequencies thereby allowing them to pass
directly to the output
High Pass Filter Characteristics
When we talk about cutoff frequency we refer to the point in the frequency
response of the filter where the gain is equal to 50% the peak gain of the signal
.i.e. 3dB of the peak gain. In High Pass Filter gain increases with an increase in
frequencies.
High Pass Filter Frequency Curve
This cutoff frequency fc depends on R and C values of the circuit. Here Time
constant τ = RC, the cutoff frequency is inverse proportional to the time constant.
Applications of High Pass Filter
The high pass filter applications mainly include the following.
 These filters are used in speakers for amplification.

 High pass filter is used to remove unwanted sounds near to the lower end of the
audible range.

 To prevent the amplification of DC current that could harm the amplifier, high
pass filters are used for AC-coupling.
 High Pass filter in Image Processing: High pass filters are used in image
processing for sharpening the details. By applying these filters over an image we
can exaggerate every tiny part of details in an image. But overdoing can damage
the image as these filters amplify the noise in the image.
LOW PASS FILTER
A low pass filter is a filter which passes low-frequency signals and blocks, or
impedes, high-frequency signals.
In other words, low-frequency signals go through much easier and with less
resistance and high-frequency signals have a much harder getting through, which is
why it's a low pass filter
Low Pass RC Filter

A Low pass RC filter, again, is a filter circuit composed of a resistor and
capacitor which passes through low-frequency signals, while blocking high
frequency signals.
To create a low pass RC filter, the resistor is placed in series to the input
signal and the capacitor is placed in parallel to the input signal, such as shown in the
circuit below:
Circuit diagram

Working
As mentioned previously in the Capacitive Reactance, the reactance of a
capacitor varies inversely with frequency, while the value of the resistor remains
constant as the frequency changes.
At low frequencies the capacitive reactance, ( XC ) of the capacitor will be
very large compared to the resistive value of the resistor, R.
This means that the voltage potential, VC across the capacitor will be much
larger than the voltage drop, VR developed across the resistor.
At high frequencies the reverse is true with VC being small and VR being
large due to the change in the capacitive reactance value.
Characteristics
Low pass filters pass low frequencies with high gain until it reaches a point
in the frequency response curve where it no longer can pass out frequencies with as
much gain.
As the frequency gets higher, the signals get attenuated. The point at which
the low pass filter can longer produce full gain and has dropped the gain by 3dB is
referred to as the cutoff frequency
Low Pass Filter Frequency Curve
We also know that the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in an AC circuit is given

as:
Application
Low pass filters are used to filter noise from a circuit. 'Noise' is a
high frequency signal.
When passed through a low pass filter most of the noise is removed
and a clear sound is produced.
BAND-PASS FILTER
Passive Band-Pass Filters can be made by connecting together a low pass

filter with a high pass filter
Filter circuits can be designed to accomplish this task by combining the
properties of low-pass and high-pass into a single filter.
The result is called a band-pass filter. Creating a band-pass filter from a
low-pass and high-pass filter can be illustrated using block diagrams:
System level block diagram of a band-pass filter.
Design a Band-pass Filter Using Capacitors

What emerges from the series combination of these two filter circuits is a
circuit that will only allow passage of those frequencies that are neither too high
nor too low.
Using real components, here is what a typical schematic might look like.
The response of the band-pass filter is shown in.
Circuit diagram
Working
The first bandpass filter circuit is for a passive bandpass filter composed of
just resistors and capacitors.

The second bandpass filter circuit is for an active bandpass filter composed
of an op amp that gives an amplified inverting output. This means that the output
signal is 180 degrees out of phase from the input voltage signal.
The third bandpass filter circuit is for an active bandpass filter composed of
an op amp that gives an amplified noninverting output. This means that the output
signal is exactly in phase with the input voltage signal.
So, on to the first bandpass filter circuit, shown above, that shows a passive
bandpass filter composed of 2 resistors and 2 capacitors.
A passive bandpass filter is a bandpass filter that does not require power and
does not give amplification of the input signal.
On the contrast, an active bandpass filter is a bandpass filter that requires
power and amplifies the input signal.
The passive bandpass filter, shown above, is first composed of a high-pass
filter shown by resistor R1 and capacitor R2.
The high-pass filter forms the low cutoff frequency.
What the high-pass filter does is it passes all frequencies above the low
cutoff frequency point.
Characteristics
band Pass Filter Frequency Curve
All the frequencies in between these 2 cutoff frequency points form the pass-
band of the band-pass filter circuit.
The passband are the frequencies that are passed to the output without much
attenuation.
All other frequencies outside the cutoff frequencies are greatly attenuated.
The further the frequency is from the passband, the more it is attenuated.

Application
 Bandpass filters are used in all kinds of instrumentation, as well, in

Seismology, Sonar, even medical applications...for example
Electrocardiograms, EEGs and such.
 They are also widely used in optics, such as with lasers, LIDARS, etc.
Color filtering is actually a bandpass function.
 There are mechanical equivalents of bandpass filters, as well. In fact a

quartz crystal is both a mechanical and an electrical device.
 Even your telephone service uses bandpass filters; the audio side is
roughly 250Hz-5kHz.
If you get DSL, technicians install bandpass filters to split the digital and
audio signals.
BAND REJECT FILTER
A band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that passes

most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates those in a specific range to very low
levels.
t is the opposite of a band-pass filter. A notch filter is a band-stop filter with

a narrow stopband (high Q factor).
Band reject filter is also called as band stop filter and notch filter .

Circuit diagram
Working
The notch frequency is the frequency that is most greatly attenuated by the
circuit. So, if for example, a user enters a notch frequency of 4KHz, 4KHz is greatly
attenuated by the circuit.
The reason the circuit is called twin T notch filter is that if you look at the
circuit diagram, two 'T's are formed that are identical in shape, which is why they
are called twins.
Each of the Ts forms a filter. The top T filter forms a low pass filter. The low
pass filter is composed of 2 resistors and 1 capacitor. The bottom T filter forms a
high pass filter. The high pass filter is composed of 2 capacitors and 1 resistor.
Notice that the filters are in parallel. They are able to form a notch filter, or
bandstop filter, because of the fact that they are in parallel.
The low pass filter allows frequencies below the cutoff point to pass through
and the high pass filter allows frequencies above its cutoff point to pass through.
All the frequencies that can't pass through (or passes through with great
attenuation) are in between these points. The point of maximum attenuation occurs
at the notch frequency.
Band reject Filter Frequency Curve
Also worth pointing out is that the maximum value of the output voltage
below the notch frequency is less than the maximum value of the output voltage
above the notch frequency.
The reason for this is that the series resistances (2R1) in the low pass filter
provide greater circuit losses than the series capacitors (C1) in the high pass filter.

Application
The filter is used mainly in public address systems and speaker systems
for ensuring good quality audio.
1. The devices are a crucial part of telephone technology, as they are used as
line noise reducers in case of signal transmission.
2. In DSL and other internet services, it is important to reduce unnecessary
interference as much as possible. The bandstop filters are utilized for this
purpose.
3. Radio signals are used for a variety of purposes and are a common
communication device. The filters are needed to decrease the static on the radio
devices, for enabling clear communications.
4. Guitar amplifiers are devices similar to PA speaker systems. They are used
as an output sound source from musical instruments. The band reject filters are
used in such amplifiers to reduce a specific humming sound that may occur
after the instruments are plugged.
5. Other than radios, PA’s and amplifiers, the filters are incorporated in many
other electronic communication devices to decrease a specific interference
range called ‘noise’ in the form of harmonics. In this manner, there are lesser
chances for errors to occur in the output. Unwanted harmonics need to be
weeded out for clear communications.
6. In the medical field, machines like the electrocardiogram (ECG) machine
incorporates the use of reject filters for hassle free operations.
7. The reject filters are an important part of image and signal processing units.
8. Optical communication technologies use optic fibres in order to process light
transmissions. In such technologies, distortions in the light pathway may occur.
To avoid this, band stop filters are excellent ways of achieving clear light
transmission.


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Applied Electronics Allied-I

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INSULATOR SEMICONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR

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o Intrinsic semiconductor is called pure semiconductor.

Energy band of intrinsic semiconductor pure germanium holes-electron pairs

o Extrinsic semiconductor is impure or doped semiconductor.

o N-type semiconductor is denotes electron to the conduction band.

Energy band of N-type extrinsic semiconductor N-type semiconductor

o Donor ion is called positive charge carrier in N-type semiconductor.

Covalent bond connection in N-type semiconductor

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o P-type semiconductor is accepts electron from the conduction band.

Energy band of P-type extrinsic semiconductor P-type semiconductor

o Accepter ion is called negative charge carrier in P-type semiconductor.

Covalent bond connection in P-type semiconductor

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2.PN JUNCTION DIODE

o A PN junction diode is a semiconductor electronic device.

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The forward voltage (VF) increased, the forward

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 The minority carrier electrons in the P region and

 Zener diode is a semiconductor electronics device.

 The diode has two terminals namely anode and cathode.

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V-I characteristics of Zener diode

Avalanche break down

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Difference between Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown

Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

Occurs in heavily doped region Occurs in lightly doped region.

Ionization takes place by electric field Ionization takes place by collisions

Occurs even with less than 5V Occurs at higher voltages

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1). Emitter-base junction

2). Collector-base junction

 Bipolar transistor is a 3-terminal device.

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 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.

 The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor.

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Transistor Operation modes by biasing

Base-Emitter Junction forward biased.

Collector-Base Junction reverse biased

Both junctions forward biased

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Both junctions reverse biased

S.no Mode Emitter Base Collector Base

Operation of NPN Transistor

The emitter-base of the transistor is forward-biased and collector-

The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the free

This emitter and collector current are opposite to flow of electrons.

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Operation of PNP transistor

The operation of PNP transistor is similar to NPN transistor.

Its emitter-base junction is forward bias and collector-base junction

Emitter current is used to electrons combine holes pair in the base in

Diffuse electron to collector region. Inject the electron from emitter

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CB CONFIGURATION AND CHARACTERISTICS

In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the

In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common