PLANT ECOLOGY AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

PRACTICALS:

1. Analysis of herbaceous vegetation - by using quadrate and line transect

method to find out frequency, density, abundance and interpret the
vegetations in terms of Raunkaier’s frequency formula.

2. Morphological and anatomical adaptations of hydrophytes and xerophytes

(each 2).

Hydrophytes:

Hydrilla, Nymphaea

Xerophytes: Nerium, Casuarina

3. Maintain a Record note book.

 Ex.No.1: Ecological sampling methods – Quadrat Analysis

Aim:

To determine the frequency, abundance and density of the plant species in the
community by quadrant method.

Principle:

Plant communities can be studied by different methods such as floristic (by

simply studying various genera and species) and physiognomic (based on Raunkiaer
life form classifications) and phyto-social methods. In these, the data on the
vegetation is collected is terms of types of species present and individual number of
each type in an area. As the areas are very large it is not possible to count every plant,
thus the area is divided into smaller units knows as sampling units. Sampling unit
where definite area is selected is known as quadrat. Quadrat is thus a sampling unit of
definite area that is usually a square but it can also be a rectangle (or) circle. Size and
number of quadrats are determined based on the objective and features of area under
consideration. Quantitative characters are those that can be measured, e.g. density,
abundance, frequency, cover area and basal area of species present in a given area.
These values can be expressed as absolute or as relative values.

Requirements:

Nails, Meter, Scale, Strings, etc.,

Procedure:

Lay down the quadrants of the size 1 x 1m in the study area. 5-10 quadrats are
randomly placed in the study area. Then, record the numbers of species present in
each quadrat and then count the number of individuals within each species. Record the
observation as shown in table.

From the observation frequency, abundance and density can be calculated

using the respective formulae. The data is represented in a graph.
a) Frequency (%)

This term refers to the degree of dispersion of individual species in an area and
usually expressed in terms of percentage occurrence. It was studied by sampling the
study area of several places at random and recorded the name of the species that
occurred in each sampling unit. It is calculated by the equation.

Total number of quadrats in which the species occur

Frequency (%) = x 100
_____________________________________________________________________

Total number of quadrats studied

b) Density :

Density is an expression of numerical strength of a species where the total number

of each species in all the quadrats is divided by the total number of quadrat studied.

Total number of individuals of a species in all the quadrats

Density = ___________________________________________________________________________

Total number of quadrats studied

c) Abundance:

Abundance of species is determined by

Total number of individuals of a species in all the quadrats

Abundance = ____________________________________________________________________________

Total number of quadrats in which the species occur

Raunkiaer devised a system for categorizing plants by life-form as a way of

ecologically meaningful comparison of species and vegetation in regions having
different floras. Frequency is a very important quantitative parameters. Raunkiaer
(1934) made an elaborative study on the frequency of species in about 8000 quandrats
and based on his data, he divided species into 5 classes viz., A, B, C, D, E.
 Raunkiaer’s frequency class and frequency range in a table.

Raunkiaer’s frequency class Frequency range

A 1-20%

B 21-40%

C 41-60%

D 61-80%

E 81-100%

Further, Raunkiaer suggested Law of Frequency and Normal Frequency Diagram

based on the data from his studies in all the natural ecosystem. According to law of
frequency, species poorly distributed (or) dispersed in an area are likely to be
presented more compared to those that have better or more dispersion in an area. In
other words, A > B > C > = < D < E (i.e) ‘A’ is greater than ‘B’, ‘which is greater
than ‘C’, and ‘C’ may be greater or equal or less than ‘D’, which in turn is lesser than
‘E’.

Result / Inference:

A<B>C>D<E

‘A’ is lesser than ‘B’, ‘C’ is lesser than ‘B’, ‘C’ is greater than ‘D’, ‘D’ is turn in
lesser than ‘E’.

This result does not follow the Raunkiaer’s rule.

(Or) The result of this present study is resembled to some extend of Raunkiaer’s life-
form frequency class.

The plant species available at high frequency are……….., ………., ………….

The plant species poorly distributed in this ecosystem are ……,………,………...

The present ecological study shows that the given vegetation is heterogeneous in
nature.
 Quadrant laid Total No
Total No
down Total No of
S.N Name of of Frequenc Abun- Frequency
of Quadrant Density
o the Species Quadrant y dance class
individual in which
1 2 3 4 5 Studied
species

2.

3.

4.

5.

7.

8.

9.

10.
 Ex. No. 2 Ecological sampling methods – Line Transect

Aim:

To determine the frequency, abundance and density of the plant species in the
community by Line Transect method.

Principle:

 Plant communities can be studied by different methods such as floristic (by

simply studying various genera and species) and physiognomic (based on
Raunkiaer life form classifications) and phyto social methods.
 In these, the data on the vegetation is collected is terms of types of species
present and individual number of each type in an area.
 As the areas are very large it is not possible to count every plant, thus the area is
divided into smaller units knows as sampling units.
 Transect is the term used in cases where sampling unit is a strip of definite area.
Transect may be a line or belt depending on the study area.
 In a line transect, sampling is usually done across a line. In belt transect, an area
(belt) of suitable size is selected where sampling is done.
 Belt transect are particularly used in forests and can be further divided into
segments for convenience.
 Size and number are determined based on the objective and features of area
under consideration. Quantitative characters are those that can be measured, e.g.
density, abundance, frequency, cover area and basal area of species present in a
given area. These values can be expressed as absolute or as relative values.

Requirements:

Nails, Meter, Scale, Strings, etc.,

Procedure:

A transect line can be made using a nylon rope marked and numbered at 1m
intervals, all the along its length. Lay down quadrats of 1m size in a continuous line.
5-10 quadrats are randomly placed in the study area. The species touching the line
may be recorded along the whole length of the line (continuous sampling). Then,
record the numbers of species present in each quadrat and then count the number of
individuals within each species. Record the observation as shown in table.

From the observation frequency, abundance and density can be calculated

using the respective formulae. The data is represented in a graph.

a) Frequency (%)

This term refers to the degree of dispersion of individual species in an area and
usually expressed in terms of percentage occurrence. It was studied by sampling the
study area of several places at random and recorded the name of the species that
occurred in each sampling unit. It is calculated by the equation.

Total number of quadrats in which the species occur

Frequency (%) = x 100
_____________________________________________________________________

Total number of quadrats studied

c) Density :

Density is an expression of numerical strength of a species where the total number

of each species in all the quadrats is divided by the total number of quadrat studied.

Total number of individuals of a species in all the quadrats

Density = ___________________________________________________________________________

Total number of quadrats studied

d) Abundance:

Abundance of species is determined by

Total number of individuals of a species in all the quadrats

Abundance = ____________________________________________________________________________

Total number of quadrats in which the species occur

Raunkiaer devised a system for categorizing plants by life-form as a way of

ecologically meaningful comparison of species and vegetation in regions having
different floras. Frequency is very important quantitative parameters. Raunkiaer
(1934) made an elaborative study on the frequency of species in about 8000 quandrats
and based on his data, he divided species into 5 classes viz., A, B, C, D, E.

Raunkiaer’s frequency class and frequency range in a table.

Raunkiaer’s frequency class Frequency range

A 1-20%

B 21-40%

C 41-60%

D 61-80%

E 81-100%

Further, Raunkiaer suggested Law of Frequency and Normal Frequency Diagram

based on the data from his studies in all the natural ecosystem. According to law of
frequency, species poorly distributed (or) dispersed in an area are likely to be
presented more compared to those that have better or more dispersion in an area. In
other words, A > B > C > = < D < E (i.e) ‘A’ is greater than ‘B’, ‘which is greater
than ‘C’, and ‘C’ may be greater or equal or less than ‘D’, which in turn is lesser than
‘E’.

Result / Inference:

A<B>C>D<E

‘A’ is lesser than ‘B’, ‘C’ is lesser than ‘B’, ‘C’ is greater than ‘D’, ‘D’ is turn in
lesser than ‘E’.

This result does not follow the Raunkiaer’s rule.

(Or) The result of this present study is resembled to some extend of Raunkiaer’s life-
form frequency class.

The plant species available at high frequency are……….., ………., ………….

The plant species poorly distributed in this ecosystem are ……,………,………...

The present ecological study shows that the given vegetation is heterogeneous in
nature.
 Line transect laid Total No
Total No
down Total No of
S.N Name of of Frequenc Abun- Frequency
of Quadrant Density
o the Species Quadrant y dance class
individual in which
1 2 3 4 5 Studied
species

2.

3.

4.

5.

7.

8.

9.

10.
 ANOTOMICAL ADAPTATION OF

Hydrophytes
Anatomical adaptations

        Cuticle is either completely absent or if present it is thin and poorly

developed
        Single layer of epidermis is present
        Cortex is well developed with aerenchyma
        Vascular tissues are poorly developed. In emergent forms vascular elements
are well developed.
        Mechanical tissues are generally absent except in some emergent forms. Pith
cells are sclerenchymatous.
 XEROPHYTES

CASUARINA-STEM

 Presence of cuticularised epidermis and sunken stomata in the furrows.

 Presence of epidermal hairs in the furrows to reduce stomatal water loss.

 Presence of hypodermal sclerenchyma tissue in the cortical region

indicating the assimilatory properties of stem.

 Presence of collateral, open type vascular bundles arranged in a ring at

the central region of the stem.

 This is a feature of typical dicotyledonous stem

 NERIUM-LEAF:
 Cuticle is very thick. It prevents water loss.
 Epidermis is made up of two or three layers of cells.
 Epidermal hairs are seen on the surface of leaves.
 Hypodermis is made of several layers of Sclerenchyma cells. It gives protection from
heat Eg. Pinus needle.
 Stomata are found in large numbers at the lower surface stomata are sunken type and
are mostly covered with branched or unbranched trichomes. It helps to reduce
transpiration level.
 Mesophyll cells are very small. They are intercellular space are very small. They are
well developed and differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
 Vascular bundles are well developed and differentiated into xylem and phloem besides
the main vascular bundles additional vascular trace also occurs in some cases.