Prepared & Assembled by: Ms.

Mai Hesham AbdelShakour

Conjunctions
There are different types of conjunctions; each creates a different structure.
Coordinating conjunctions (F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.)
These are simple connectives that are usually used in informal writings. They are preceded by a
comma.
For, and, but, not, or, yet and so Example:
I won’t be bossed around, for I wasn’t born a slave
He didn’t come yesterday, yet he was able to go to the mall.

Correlative conjunctions
They are conjunctions that come in pairs. They can be used in both formal and informal writings.
Not only …but also Either…or both…and
Neither…nor
Example:
Not only did she insult me in front of everyone, but she also slapped me hard.
I will neither tell you nor your sister about what happened.

Conjunctive Adverbs:

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Prepared & Assembled by: Ms. Mai Hesham AbdelShakour

They are adverbs that act like conjunctions. They create formal compound structures. When they
come in the middle of a sentence they are preceded by a semi-colon and followed by a comma.
To add or say To show contrast Time To show result To state a known
more connectives fact

Again (I.F.) Anyway (I.F.) Meanwhile Accordingly Undoubtedly

Also (I.F.) However Next Consequently Certainly
Besides (I.F.) Nevertheless Then Hence
Furthermore Instead Now Henceforth
Finally Otherwise Thereafter Therefore
Moreover further Contrarily Thus
On the contrary Incidentally
On the one Subsequently
hand…on the
other hand
Conversely

To show a To show To strengthen a To return to

specific case comparison point your point after
conceding

Namely Likewise indeed Still

Similarly,
Specifically Nevertheless
For instance,

Examples:
Leon's apartment complex does not allow dogs over thirty pounds; otherwise, he would have
bought the gangly Great Dane puppy playing in the pet store window.
I have no idea what the teacher said today; accordingly, I won’t be able to do the HW.

Subordinating conjunctions:

They create complex structures and are usually used in semi-formal and formal writings. When a
clause has a subordinating conjunction, it’s called an adverbial clause. Depending on which type
of S.C. you added you get a different adverbial clause.

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Prepared & Assembled by: Ms. Mai Hesham AbdelShakour

Reason Contrast Conditional Time clauses Place clauses

clauses clauses clauses

As Although As Even if After Where

Because As though If As Wherever
In order to Even though In case As soon as Everywhere
So that Just as Provided As long as
unless
Now that Though Before
Since Whereas Once
While Still
Till
Until
When
Whenever
While

• When a S.C. starts the sentence, then the adverbial clause is followed by a comma. Ex:
Once I finish my IGCSEs, I will set fire to all my books. (time clause)
• When a S.C. is in the middle of the sentence then the adverbial clause is NOT preceded by
a comma. Ex: Reading books enriches your mind whereas watching movies is more likely
to make you dumber. (contrast clause) Relative Pronouns:
They are conjunctions that can be used in both formal and informal writings.
Who What Why When That Which Whose Where

Relative pronouns always follow the nouns they modify.

Who is used to refer to people
• I found the boy who stole your car.
Why is used to refer to a reason
• I want to know the reason why you hate him.
When is used to refer to time
• Remember the time when we went ice skating?
What is used to refer to a topic
• I need to know what happened.

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Prepared & Assembled by: Ms. Mai Hesham AbdelShakour

That is used to refer to an object (informal and defining)

• That was the best movie that I’ve ever seen.
Which is used to refer to an object (formal and non-defining)
• This is the bag, which I told you about.
Whose is used to refer to ownership
• This is the girl whose mom died last winter.
Where is used to refer to a place
• This is the place where I was born.
There are two types of relative clauses: defining and non-defining.
Defining clauses: are clauses that define the subject; without it, the sentence wouldn’t make sense.
Defining clauses are not preceded by a comma.
Ex: The boy who sits behind you in class is here.
Non-defining clauses: are clauses that don’t define the subject; without it the sentence would still
make sense. Defining clauses are written between commas.
Ex: Natalie, who sits beside me in class, is really sweet.

Sentence Structures
There are 4 types of sentence structures: Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex.
To each its own structure and effect.
Simple Structure:

Consists of one independent clause. Example:

Youssef is eating pizza.
S1 V1 O1

A simple structure may have a compound subject or a compound object. For example:
Youssef and Mark are eating pizza.
Compound subject V1 O1

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Youssef is eating pizza and fries

S1 V1 Compound object

Note:
• Short simple sentences are usually used to create suspense; show pauses or to give the
writer a child’s voice. Always think, why is the writer choosing to write simply?
• When should you use simple sentences? Simple sentences are a good choice when you’re
writing a diary. You can throw in a few in an informal letter, but keep them limited as they
don’t earn you points.
Compound Structure:
Consists of two independent clauses:
Version A:
Independent clause + comma + coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)+ Independent clause
Youssef is eating pizza ,and John is playing football.
S1 V1 O1 C.C S2 V2 O2
.

OR
Version B:
Independent clause + semi-colon + conjunctive adverb+ comma + Independent clause Youssef
likes pizza; however, John hates them.
S1 V1 O1 C.A S2 V2 O2
.

Version C:
Independent clause + semi-colon + Independent clause
Youssef is eating pizza ; John is playing football
S1 V1 O1 S2 V2 O2

Note:
• Version A: is popular in informal letters and diaries.
• Version B & C: are popular in formal and semi-formal writings.
• Compound structures are usually used to explain/describe or show a string of thoughts.
• Compound structures usually slow the pace of the story a bit Complex structure:
Consists of: Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent clause + comma + independent clause
While Youssef eats pizza , John plays football.

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S.C. S1 V1 O1 S2 V2 O2

Or
Independent clause + relative clause
Youssef, who loves pizza, is playing football.
Note:
• Complex structures are popular in formal writings
• Complex structures are used to reflect characters’ string of thought; intelligence,
description, a long on going action.
• If the subordinating conjunction is in the middle of the sentence, then you remove the
comma. Example: o John plays football while Youssef eats pizza.
Compound-Complex:
Consists of a dependent clause + independent clause + C.C. (FANBOYS) + independent clause
While Youssef eats pizza, John plays football, and the girls watch TV
S.C. S1 V1 O1 S2 V2 O2 C.C S3 V3 O3
.

Note:
• This is popular in formal writings
• It slows down the pace of the text; usually shows that more than one event is happening at
the same time.

Exercises
A. On the line, identify each sentence as either S, Cd, Cx or CC:
1. _Simple__Sara will attend a new school soon.
2. _Simple__Mary and Sara have been friends for a very long time.
3. __Complex_Although is going to Blue Hill, Mary will stay behind.
4. _Compound__She will leave soon, and she still has to pack.
5. _Simple__This last summer with Sara is a time of great change for the girls’ friendship.
6. _Compound__Sara thinks of Mary as her best friend in the whole world; however, Mary
doesn’t feel the same
7. Compound Complex___While sometimes things change, and they can’t change back
again; this friendship may stay the same.

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B. Combine the following sentences using what’s in the parenthesis

1. Marla came to school late. Marla is always on time. (Who)
Marla,who came to school late is always on time.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Ben is cooking. Ahmed is reading. Carly is talking on the phone. (While….and)
While Ben is cooking , Ahmed is reading and Carly is talking on the phone.
_____________________________________________________________________
3. I have 7 hours’ worth of training today. I will find a way to finish my work. (Even though)
I will find a way to finish my work, eventhough i have 7 hours worth of training
today.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. These books are valuable. These books are one of a kind. (and)
These booksb are valuable, and these books are one of a kind.
_____________________________________________________________________
5. I never want to go to school. I get bullied a lot. (because)
Because I get bullied a lot, I never want to go to school.
_____________________________________________________________________
C. True or False
1. This is a compound sentence:
Ahmed and Dina are going to the new mall around the block. __F_
2. This is a simple sentence:
Mark and Marina want to eat both cake and pizza._T__
3. This is a complex sentence:
The boy who likes tea is late. _T__
4. This is a complex sentence:
Ahmed is working on his assignment; Johnathan is playing on his Xbox._F__
5. This is a compound-Complex Sentence:
Even though Ahmed enjoys his English sessions, Johnathan always tries to distract him
while Jane sits and watches them._T__
D. Combine the following sentences using relative pronouns and add commas if
necessary:
1. Sherlock Holmes is the cleverest detective out there. Sherlock is not an easy person to
befriend.

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Prepared & Assembled by: Ms. Mai Hesham AbdelShakour

_Sherlock Holmes, who is the cleverest detective out there, is not easy person to befriend.
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. My grandparents live in Colorado. They are school teachers.
My grandparents, who are school taechers, live in Colorado
_____________________________________________________________________
3. St. Peter’s Hospital was shut down. St. Peter’s Hospital is in America.
St. Peter’s Hospital, which is in America was shut downn.
_____________________________________________________________________ 4.
Joseph’s account was hacked. He called the police.
Joseph, who’s account was hacked, called the police.
_____________________________________________________________________ E.
Complete the following with the appropriate relative pronoun:
a. Christopher Columbus was the sailor ___Who__________ discovered America.
b. This food has an ingredient ______Which__________ is very sweet.
c. The lady ____Who’s____________ son plays football with me is the head-teacher of my
school.
d. The house _____Where___________ I was born is now for sale.
e. Antonio Banderas, ___Who____________ is married to Melanie Griffith, was born in
Málaga.
f. D.H. Lawrence, _Who______________ was an English author, wrote many interesting
novels.
g. London, _____Where___________ is on the river Thames, is the capital of the United
Kingdom.

h. The Prado Museum, ____Which____________ is in Madrid, is one of the best art galleries
in the world.
F. Add commas to the sentences if necessary:
1. Silvester, who always sleeps is the most boring cat alive.
2. Mrs. Dina hates lazy students, who don’t get their HW.
3. Mrs. Dina hates Ahmed, who never gets his HW.
4. This is the place, where I was born.

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Prepared & Assembled by: Ms. Mai Hesham AbdelShakour

5. White Wing Hospital, where I was born has a very friendly staff G. Combine the
sentences using non-defining relative pronouns.
1. Valencia is a great place. Valencia is due east of Madrid.
..Valencia is a great place, where is due east of
madrid. ..............................................................................................................................
.... .
2. Jimbo is living in Thailand now. Jimbo got divorced last year.
Jimbo, who is living in Thailand now, got divorce last
year. ...................................................................................................................................
..
3. Clare is a good teacher. I don't like Clare very much.

I don’t like Clare,who is a good

teacher. ..............................................................................................................................
..... .
4. My greasy neighbour stinks of after-shave. My greasy neighbour is a bus driver.
My greasy, who’s neighbour stinks of after shave, is a
bus ....................................................................................................................................
.
5. Almeria is very dry. The beaches of Almeria are wonderful.
The beaches of Almeria, which is wonderful, is very
dry ....................................................................................................................................
.
6. The school was built in 1907. The school has about 800 students.
.The school, which was built in 1907, has about 800 students
.........................................................................................................................................
7. The government handled the diplomatic crisis badly. The government is facing
corruption charges.
..The goverment, which is facing the deplomatic crisis badly, is facing corruption
charges...............................................................................................................................
.......
8. The Plaza Rodonda square is near the cathedral. They hold a market in The Plaza
Rodonda square every Sunday. (use WHERE)
.......................................................................................................................................
9. Samantha is coming to the party. Samantha's mother is mayoress of this town.

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..Samantha, who’s coming to the party, her mother is the mayors of the
town....................................................................................................................................
...

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