i

The Jews in Late

Antiquity
ii

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iii

The Jews in Late

Antiquity

Rodrigo Laham Cohen

iv

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

© 2018, Arc Humanities Press, Leeds

Permission to use brief excerpts from this work in scholarly and educational
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Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

&KDSWHUb 7KH3UREOHPRI6RXUFHV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

&KDSWHUb ,WDO\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

&KDSWHUb 1RUWK$IULFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

&KDSWHUb *DXO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

&KDSWHUb 6SDLQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

&KDSWHUb (J\SW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

&KDSWHUb 7KH/DQGRI,VUDHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

&KDSWHUb %DE\ORQLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Afterword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

%LEOLRJUDSK\. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
vi
1

Introduction

Surely it is time to break with the lachrymose theory of pre-

Revolutionary woe, and to adopt a view more in accord with
historic truth%DURQ

0RUH WKDQ HLJKW\ \HDUV KDYH SDVVHG VLQFH 6DOR %DURQૼV

૿*KHWWR DQG (PDQFLSDWLRQ଀ ZKRVH ZRUGV KDG VXFK D
PDMRU LPSDFW RQ -HZLVK KLVWRULRJUDSK\ *UDGXDOO\ -HZLVK
and non-Jewish scholars began to highlight not only a his-
tory of segregation, persecution, and massacres, but also
interaction and coexistence. However, some researchers
inverted the terms and built a rosy picture of Jewish life
during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Thus,
-HZLVK FRPPXQLWLHV IURP ,WDO\ *DXO WKH %DONDQV 1RUWK
$IULFD3DOHVWLQH%DE\ORQLDDQGHYHQ6SDLQZHUHVHHQDV
untroubled groups in the period. Seizures of synagogues,
expulsions, and forced conversions were analyzed as
exceptions. It was suggested that only after the First
&UXVDGH LQ  &( GLG WKH VLWXDWLRQ RI -HZLVK SHRSOH
change in Europe. In the same vein, it was affirmed that
-HZLVK VHWWOHPHQWV LQ WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO DQG %DE\ORQLD
suffered no major religious problems.
However, each Jewish community must be analyzed
in its specific context. This may seem like an obvious
statement to make, but it is important to keep that in
2

2૦૦,1752'8&7,21

mind. There are several Jewish histories in late antiquity,

not just one. Even if we accepted that there was a common
Judaism, we have to consider that the Jews of Visigothic
7ROHGR 3DSDO 5RPH DQG %DE\ORQLDQ 3XPEHGLWD ZHUH
surrounded by different societies and realities. We can dis-
cuss the level of isolation each Jewish group experienced,
but to sustain the idea of a complete separation is to
ignore the sources.
In this sense we present the history of the Jews in late
antiquity by focussing on regions. We do not neglect the
possibility of making generalizations. In fact, common
SDWWHUQVZLOOEHLGHQWLILHG%XWLWLVYHU\LPSRUWDQWWREH
clear about regional and temporal differences between
each distinct case study.
:KHQ %DURQ ZURWH WKH DUWLFOH TXRWHG DERYH ODWH
antiquity had not yet been recognized as a specific his-
WRULFDO SHULRG $V HYHU\ KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO DQG DUWLILFLDO
construct, it is not easy to explain in few words the key
features of the period. However, we can say that the idea
of Spätantike1 was coined to illuminate continuities after
WKHGHEDWHG૿IDOO଀RIWKH:HVWHUQ5RPDQ(PSLUHLQ&(
Of course, there are still ongoing controversies around the
period’s characteristics and its precise time frame but this
is not the place to examine those topics. Suffice to say, it
is important to clarify that this study is mainly focussed on
the period between the third and seventh centuries CE.
The book is organized into eight chapters. The first
presents the problem of sources and other methodo-
ORJLFDO LVVXHV 7KHQ ZH DQDO\]H GLIIHUHQW UHJLRQVb ,WDO\
1RUWK$IULFDH[FHSW(J\SW*DXO6SDLQ(J\SWWKH/DQG
RI ,VUDHO DQG %DE\ORQLD 'XH WR VSDFH FRQVWUDLQWV YHU\
LPSRUWDQW -HZLVK VHWWOHPHQWV LQ WKH %DONDQV૷LQFOXGLQJ
*UHHFH૷$ VLD0LQRUDQG6\ULDZLOOQRWEHFRQVLGHUHG
Due to the characteristics of this short book, only
a brief study of each case has been presented. Thus,
3

,1752'8&7,21૦૦3

investigations and historiographical controversies are

condensed. For that reason, we strongly recommend
reading the cited bibliography for a better comprehen-
sion of each region. The Jews in Late Antiquity should be
considered as a first step toward the understanding of a
little-known period in Jewish history.

Notes
1
૥$OWKRXJK3HWHU%URZQSRSXODUL]HGWKHFDWHJRU\LQKLVVHP-
inal book The World of Late Antiquity ($ORLV5LHJOZDVWKH
ILUVWKLVWRULDQWKDWXVHGWKHH[SUHVVLRQ૷LQ*HUPDQ૷LQ

૥7KH PRVW FRPPRQ FULWHULRQ IRU ODWH DQWLTXLW\ LV WR WDNH
WKHb&ULVLVRIWKH7KLUG&HQWXU\FD૶LQWKH5RPDQ(PSLUH
as a starting point and the rise of Islam as the final event (ca.
VHYHQWKFHQWXU\
4

Chapter 1

The Problem of Sources

The reconstruction of Jewish life in the past should com-

prise the analysis of written and archaeological sources.
Certainly, Jewish texts are essential to understanding intra-
communal dynamics. However, Jewish voices have not
always survived. As we will see, this is the case with Jewish
communities in Europe and Africa during late antiquity. In
contrast, there was a prolific production of Jewish writings
LQ 3DOHVWLQH DQG %DE\ORQLD 5DEELQLFDO -XGDLVP૷D QHZ
Judaism—created the Mishnah, the Tosefta, the Jerusalem
Talmud (Yerushalmi DQG WKH Babylonian Talmud (Bavli
DPRQJ RWKHUWH[WV1HYHUWKHOHVVUDEELQLFDO ZULWLQJVDUH
not only difficult to analyze but also problematic to date
as they include oral traditions. In addition, the Talmud’s
ahistorical, performative, and legal nature complicates
our understanding of Jewish history.
We can improve our knowledge of Jews by turning to a
different type of evidence. First of all, there are texts refer-
ULQJWR-HZVZULWWHQE\RWKHUJURXSV3DJDQ1 and Christian
texts—used carefully—can illuminate interaction among
communities in the period, and even aspects of Jewish
customs. Second, Jewish epigraphy—mainly epitaphs—
offers brief but first-hand information about Jewish geog-
raphy, languages, ideas, and traditions, among other
features. Finally, Jewish archaeological remains—chiefly
5

7+(352%/(02)6285&(6૦૦5

synagogues and cemeteries—help us to hypothesize about

architectural patterns, liturgy, communal life, and other
religious and non-religious aspects. Other artifacts, such
as seals, bowls, or talismans are also useful.

Silences in the West

Flavius Josephus died ca. 100 CE. There is a hiatus of
DOPRVW b \HDUV DIWHU KLV GHDWK XQWLO ZH ILQG DQRWKHU
text written by Jews in Europe. Sefer Josippon is difficult
to date, but it was written in southern Italy, probably
between the ninth and tenth centuries.3 Additionally,
Shabbethai Donnolo wrote on medicine, astrology, and
religion—also in southern Italy—in the mid-tenth century.4
:KLOH -RVHSKXV૷ERUQ LQ WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO૷ZURWH LQ
*UHHN'RQQROR૷ERUQLQ,WDO\૷ZURWHLQ+HEUHZ-HZVZHUH
different: late antiquity had changed them.
There are only three European late ancient texts, the
Jewish authorship and dating of which are controver-
VLDObWKHCollatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum, the
Epistola Anne ad Senecam, and the Liber Antiquitatum
Biblicarum. All are anonymous and they have no clear
dating or geographical references. The Collatio is a com-
SDULVRQ RI -HZLVK DQG 5RPDQ /DZ ,W LV XVXDOO\ GDWHG
to the fourth century but there are debates around its
Jewish or Christian origin.5 The Epistola is a treatise
against idolatry and considered to have been written
between the fourth and fifth century. The religion of its
author has also been debated. The Liber—also known
as Pseudo- Philo GXH WR LWV VLPLODULW\ WR 3KLORૼV WH[WV૷LV
KDUGHUWRGDWHEHFDXVHLWLVDODWH/DWLQWUDQVODWLRQIURP
D *UHHN WH[W RULJLQDOO\ ZULWWHQ LQ +HEUHZ DURXQG WKH
first century CE. Even if we accept the Jewish author-
ship of these three texts, they do not give us valuable
information about Jewish life. Did late ancient European
6

6૦૦&+$37(5b

Jews write historical texts that are now lost? As Yosef

Hayim Yerushalmi ( KDV VKRZQ WKHUH LV QRW D
VLPSOHDQVZHUWRWKLVTXHVWLRQ%HLWDVLWPD\WKHRQO\
Jewish European texts written in late antiquity that have
survived are epitaphs and synagogal inscriptions.

Rabbinic Literature as a Problem

The times in which rabbinic literature was not considered
D KLVWRULFDO VRXUFH DUH ORQJ JRQH 1RZDGD\V PRVW
researchers employ both the Talmudim and other rabbin-
LFDOWH[WVLQRUGHUWRUHFRQVWUXFW-HZLVKKLVWRU\LQWKH/DQG
of Israel and Mesopotamia.
1HYHUWKHOHVV WKHUH DUH VWLOO SUREOHPV 7KH ILUVW LV
GDWLQJ%RWKTalmudim (the Yerushalmi and the BavliDUH
composed of the Mishnah and a commentary, the Gemara.
Most scholars (Strack and Stemberger FRQVLGHUWKDW
the Mishnah was written in the first part of the third cen-
tury CE. It is accepted, also, that the Yerushalmi was edited
between the fourth and fifth centuries CE and the Bavli
between the sixth and seventh CE (Strack and Stemberger
; Halivni +RZHYHUERWKcorpora are presented
as compilations of laws, opinions, and tales formulated by
different rabbinical generations, beginning in the second
FHQWXU\%&(7KXVWKHUHDUHVHQWHQFHVDWWULEXWHGWRILYH
pairs of sages called zugotVHFRQG%&(૶ILUVW&(RWKHUV
to the tannaimILUVW&(૶WKLUG&(DQGWKHPDMRULW\WRWKH
amoraim WKLUG &(૶VL[WK &( However, the role of the
final editors of the Talmundin is strongly debated. Did
they alter previous traditions? Did they create opinions
and attribute them to older generations? Indeed, certain
scholars have argued that there was a special group of
rabbis that worked after the amoraim and influenced the
final edition of the BavlibWKHstammaim (Halivni :H
will return to this topic in &KDSWHUb.
7

7+(352%/(02)6285&(6૦૦7

A second problem is the absence of other texts

connected directly with rabbinic literature. In that light,
there are relatively few opportunities to contrast rabbin-
ical affirmations with other non-rabbinical (Jewish or non-
-HZLVK VRXUFHV9 Consequently, we depend strongly on
internal evidence to corroborate talmudic information.
Finally, the Talmudim were not written as historical texts.
They contain striking inconsistences and anachronisms. It
is not easy to confirm whether rabbis lacked historic know-
ledge or if they decided to avoid the historical genre. In
this sense, Yerushalmi (  FRQVLGHUHG ૿,VUDHO LV
told only that it must be a kingdom of priests and a holy
people; nowhere is it suggested that it become a nation
RIbKLVWRULDQV଀
Fortunately, there are alternatives that help us to flesh
RXWWKHSLFWXUH/HWૼVWDNHDORRNDWWKHPQH[W

Filling in the Gap

As indicated earlier, it is crucial to analyze non-Jewish
evidence in order to reconstruct the history of Jewish
settlements. For late antiquity, there is a strong depend-
ence on Christian texts, but sometimes pagan texts also
help. Certainly, each kind of Christian or pagan source
provides us with different information. We find more infor-
mation about historical Jews in chronicles and letters, and
we are presented mainly with hermeneutical Jews in theo-
logical tractates.10
In fact, the so-called Christian adversus Iudaeos
DJDLQVWWKH-HZVOLWHUDWXUHZDVXELTXLWRXVLQODWHDQWLTXLW\
(Fredriksen and Irshai  7KH YDVW PDMRULW\ RI WKH
Fathers of the Church frequently attacked Jews in their
writings. Accusations such as spiritual blindness, perfidy,
wickedness, hardheartedness, and deicide, among others,
were continuously repeated. Jews were said to have
8

8૦૦&+$37(5b

DEDQGRQHG *RG DQG EHHQ DEDQGRQHG E\ +LPb *HQWLOHV

replaced Jews in the divine plan.
Why did the Church Fathers write against Jews during
late antiquity? It is a significant historiographical debate.
On the one hand, it was stated that adversus Iudaeos
literature was the result of a real conflict between Jews
and Christians, mainly between orthodoxies. Thus, in a
context where the Jewish religion was still passively or
actively attracting Christians, bishops, discursively, and
sometimes physically, attacked Jews in order to restrict
the interaction. This was the main thesis of Marcel Simon
( ZKR VWDWHG WKDW DW WKH KHDUW RI DQWL-XGDLVP OD\
the pro-Judaism of the common people. On the other
hand, Rosemary Ruether ( U HIRUPXODWLQJ SUHYLRXV
analysis,11 suggested that anti-Judaism was inextricably
linked to Christian theology. According to Ruether, the
Fathers of the Church had to use anti-Jewish tropes to
H[SODLQ*RGૼVSODQ,QDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKLVSRVLWLRQWKHUH
can be anti-Judaism without historical Jews.
These perspectives are not mutually exclusive. Each
anti-Jewish text has to be analyzed to understand whether
it was written due to a real problem among the actual
communities or not. This is very important because we are
trying to find not only rhetorical or hermeneutical Jews,
but also historical Jews. Even though it is important to be
acquainted with the image of the Jews in Christian texts,
we have to be able to discriminate between clichés and
useful data. Although non-Jewish texts are fundamental
in regions where no texts written by Jews survived, they
DUHDOVRLPSRUWDQWLQ3DOHVWLQHDQG%DE\ORQLD1RWRQO\GR
they offer images of the Jews, they also provide informa-
tion to compare with rabbinical sources.
However, the risk of using non-Jewish sources must
be emphasized. They, self-evidently, offer an external
and partial point of view, mostly with polemical aims.
9

7+(352%/(02)6285&(6૦૦9

)XUWKHUPRUH &KULVWLDQV VRPHWLPHV XVHG WKH WHUP ૿-HZ଀

to attack other Christians—seen as heretics—who had no
relation to Jews. In addition, Christian texts usually do not
show any internal aspects of Jewish communities.
Epigraphy—text written on hard material—is also
a useful tool. Currently, there is no serious historian
who rejects the possibilities that inscriptions offer
to any research. Of course, epigraphy should not be
overestimated, but it does provide some clues about
settlements, languages, names, economic activities, com-
PXQDORIILFHVHWF8QIRUWXQDWHO\PRVW-HZLVKLQVFULSWLRQV
in late antiquity are concise. There are also serious
problems with identifying and dating the material (Van
der Horst 
The geographical distribution of the epigraphic evi-
dence does not always have an explanation. For example,
WKHUH DUH PRUH WKDQ  UHFRUGHG LQVFULSWLRQV LQ WKH
Jewish catacombs of Rome, but no more than twenty in
Alexandria (Van der Horst   7KH -HZLVK FRP-
munity of Rome was large, but according to written
sources the Alexandrian one was bigger. In this sense, the
absence of epigraphy does not mean an absence of Jews.
Furthermore, identifying an inscription as Jewish is not as
straightforward as it may sound (Van der Horst ૶
1RW HYHU\ LQVFULSWLRQ LQFOXGHV D 6HPLWLF QDPH ZRUGV LQ
Hebrew, a menorah VHYHQDUPHG FDQGHODEUXP or
Judaic religious references. In fact, Jews tended to use non-
Jewish names and the language of the region. Sometimes
an inscription is recognized as Jewish merely because
LW ZDV IRXQG DW D -HZLVK EXULDO SODFH %XW LI DQ LVRODWHG
inscription is uncovered and there are no clear identity
markers, it is impossible to determine the Jewishness of
the person buried.
In addition, only in a few regions are there inscriptions
that cover long periods of time. The Jewish-Italian
10

10૦૦&+$37(5b

epigraphic record is a good example. In fact, inscriptions

from Rome are dated between the second and fifth cen-
turies CE. After that no Jewish late ancient inscription
LV IRXQG LQ WKH FLW\ %XW ZH NQRZ૷WKDQNV WR &KULVWLDQ
sources—that Jews remained in the city. Thus, if we want
to conduct extensive research, it is necessary to analyze
inscriptions from other Italian cities such as Venosa or
Taranto, where there are inscriptions dated between the
fifth and ninth centuries CE. It is then possible to compare
and hypothesize the evolution of Italian Jewish communi-
ties. However, it is not clear whether there was a long-
term change or if each region had its own development.
7KHVLWXDWLRQLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOLVGLIIHUHQW7KHHSL-
graphic record is more complete and allows internal changes
to be tracked. In contrast, there are no Jewish inscriptions in
Mesopotamia, except for texts written on seals and incan-
tation bowls. The extensive rabbinical written production is
not complemented by a rich epigraphic record.
Regarding archaeology, identifying archaeological
remains as Jewish can be challenging. Obviously, an inscrip-
tion in situ helps to recognize a building as Jewish. Art also
facilitates the identification of synagogues, houses, or
cemeteries. Sometimes depictions of a menorah, an etrog
(a yellow citron fruit used during the festival of Sukkot
a lulav (a closed frond of the date palm tree, also used in
SukkotDshofarDULWXDObPXVLFDOLQVWUXPHQWPDGHIURP
UDPૼVKRUQRUDQRWKHUDQLPDOVDQFWLRQHGIRUWKHSXUSRVH
or a Torah Ark, are found on walls or pavements. Certain
architectural features—an aedicula to place the Torah—
also give hints that help to identify the Jewish character
of the place.
However, Jews shared architectural and artistic features
with non-Jewish groups. Even though there were spe-
cific Jewish icons such as the menorah, synagogues also
employed iconography that is generally considered to be
1

7+(352%/(02)6285&(6૦૦11

pagan. Thus, zodiacs—even images of Helios—were found

LQ3DOHVWLQLDQV\QDJRJXHVDQGFHUWDLQSDJDQILJXUHVZHUH
discovered in the Jewish Roman catacombs. Indeed, art-
istic motifs like animals and flowers were similar in pagan,
Christian, and Jewish buildings. In fact, there is a consensus
that all religious groups used the same workshops (Rutgers
1995૶DQGWKHUHLVDQRQJRLQJGHEDWHDURXQGWKH
concept of Jewish art in late antiquity (Elsner 
In the same vein, there was not a unique building shape
IRUV\QDJRJXHVbIUHTXHQWO\V\QDJRJXHVZHUHDUFKLWHFWXU-
ally similar to other buildings in the same city. The Bavli,
in b (=Bavli, Babylonian Talmud Shabbat E VHHPV WR
appreciate this similarity when considering the situation of
a Jew who thought he was in front of a synagogue but was
actually at a pagan temple.
Archaeological remains of synagogues are few and far
between in the Diaspora (Hachlili  /HYLQH  EXW
SOHQWLIXO LQ 3DOHVWLQH ,Q IDFW RQO\ WZR DQFLHQW V\QDJRJXHV
have been found in Western Europe (see &KDSWHUbRQHLQ
1RUWK$IULFDVHH&KDSWHUbILYHLQWKH%DONDQV13, two in Asia
Minor14, and two in Syria15, while more than sixty have been
H[FDYDWHGLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOPDLQO\LQ*DOLOHH0LOVRQ,
૶+DFKOLOL૶$VZHZLOOVHHFDWDFRPEV
cemeteries, and houses have also been unearthed.

Notes
1
૥$OWKRXJK ૿SDJDQ଀ LV D ELDVHG DQG LQDFFXUDWH FRQFHSW ZH
ZLOOb XVH LW WR UHIHU WR QRQ-HZV ZKR DUH DOVR QHLWKHU &KULVWLDQV
QRUb0XVOLPV

૥-RVHSKXVZDVERUQLQ3DOHVWLQHEXWKHPRYHGWR5RPHDIWHU
WKHIDOORI-HUXVDOHPLQ&(2Q-RVHSKXVDQGKLVKLVWRULFDOZRUN
see Rodgers .
3
૥2QWKHGDWLQJDQGVLJQLILFDQFHRIJossipon, see DöQLW].
4
૥2Q'RQQRORVHH0DQFXVR૶
5
૥2QWKHCollatio, see Frakes , who affirms that the text
was written by a Christian.
12

12૦૦&+$37(5b

૥5DPHOOLVWDWHVWKDWWKHGRFXPHQWZDVSURGXFHGE\D
Christian author.

૥6HH0XUSK\1993. The only aspect of this historic document
that can provide information about Jews is the fact that it was
WUDQVODWHGLQWR/DWLQGXULQJODWHDQWLTXLW\+RZHYHUDQHZLQVLJKW
on the Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum can be found in Heil ,
where the author suggests the possibility that the text had been
RULJLQDOO\ZULWWHQLQ/DWLQLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDQRQUDEELQLF:HVWHUQ
European Jewish culture.

૥)RUDVWLOOYDOXDEOHDQGFRPSOHWHLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKHTalmudim,
see Strack and Stemberger .
9
૥&HUWDLQO\ UDEELQLF OLWHUDWXUH ZDV QRW XQLIRUP $V 3KLOLS
Alexander (૶KDVVWDWHGQRWDOOWH[WVWKDWDUHGHVFULEHG
as rabbinical can be easily aligned with core rabbinical texts
(Mishnah, Talmudim, and early midrashim 7KXV FHUWDLQ mid-
rashim, targumim, and piyyutim are usually seen as rabbinical
but are considerably different from Talmudim. The same pos-
ition can be held with hekhalot literature and, more clearly, Sefer
Zerubbabel and Pirke de- Rabbi Eliezer.1RWZLWKVWDQGLQJWKLVLVQRW
the place to discuss the boundaries of rabbinic literature.
10
૥-HUHP\ &RKHQ 1999 ૶ VDZ WKH Hermeneutical Jew as
“constructed in the discourse of Christian theology, and above all
LQ &KULVWLDQ WKHRORJLDQVૼ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI 6FULSWXUH଀ )UHGULNVHQ
(XVHGWKHWHUP૿+HUPHQHXWLFDO-HZ଀૿7KHૻ-HZૼDVD
)LJXUHIRU:URQJO\5HDGLQJWKH%LEOH଀DVRSSRVHGWR૿5KHWRULFDO
-HZ଀૿7KHૻ-HZૼDVD3ROHPLF$QWL6HOI଀DQG૿5HDO-HZ଀
11
૥,QWKHODWWHUSDUWRIQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\$GROIYRQ+DUQDFN
considered Jews to be straw men in Christian texts.

૥2QWKHmenorah and its significance, see Hachlili .
13
૥6DUDQGD ILIWK૶VL[WK FHQWXULHV 6WREL VHFRQG૶IRXUWK FHQ-
WXULHV3KLOLSSRSROLVWKLUG૶I LIWKFHQWXULHVQRZ3ORYGLYLQ%XOJDULD
$HJLQD IRXUWK FHQWXU\ 7KH 'HORV V\QDJRJXH LV WKH HDUOLHVW LQ
WKH'LDVSRUDVHFRQGFHQWXU\b%&(DOWKRXJKLWVLGHQWLILFDWLRQDVD
synagogue is not undisputed.
14
૥6DUGLVWKLUG૶VL[WKFHQWXULHVDQG3ULHQHVHFRQG૶WKLUGFHQ-
WXULHV 7KHUH DUH GRXEWV DERXW SRVVLEOH V\QDJRJDO UHPDLQV LQ
0LOHWXV3HUJDPXP0RSVXHVWLDDQGPRVWUHFHQWO\/LP\UD
15
૥$SDPHDIRXUWK૶I LIWKFHQWXULHVDQG'XUD(XURSRVVHFRQG૶
WKLUGFHQWXULHV
13

Chapter 2

Italy

$VZHFDQUHDGLQ-RVHSKXVDQG3KLORWKH-HZLVKFRPPX-
QLW\LQ5RPHZDVSURPLQHQWEHWZHHQWKHILUVWFHQWXU\%&(
and first CE (Cappelletti ; Simonsohn  5RPDQ
Jews, however, were not of central concern for pagan
writers, who mentioned Jews only marginally.1 Although
many Jews arrived in Rome after the destruction of the
6HFRQG7HPSOHLQ&(૷WKH$UFKRI7LWXVLVDSHUPDQHQW
testimony of that fact—the life of Italian Jews continued
without major changes.
Six Jewish catacombs—dated between the second and
fifth centuries—were found in the city. Even though three
were destroyed in modern times due to landslides, pre-
vious explorers took notes of inscriptions and there are
now more than six hundred Jewish epitaphs registered.
Thanks to epigraphy, we know that there were at least
twelve synagogues in the city, although we do not know if
WKH\ZHUHDFWLYHDWWKHVDPHWLPH:HDOVRNQRZWKDW*UHHN
was the predominant language. This does not mean that
-HZVVSRNH*UHHNWKHHSLJUDSKLFODQJXDJHGRHVQRWDOZD\V
coincide with the spoken one. In this sense, it is important
WR NHHS LQ PLQG WKDW *UHHN ZDV DOVR D VDFUHG ODQJXDJH
for the Jews in antiquity. In contrast, it is surprising that
+HEUHZ૷DQG $UDPDLF૷UHSUHVHQWV OHVV WKDQ  SHU FHQW
of the record. It is likely that the Jewish communities of
14

14૦૦&+$37(5b

5RPH RSWHG IRU *UHHN DV D VDFUHG ODQJXDJH DQG /DWLQ

as a quotidian one. Finally, no rabbi is mentioned in
5RPDQ LQVFULSWLRQVb Archisynagogos, gerusiarch, archon,
grammateus, Father of the synagogue, Mother of the
synagogue, are all acknowledged but no rabbi.3 This prob-
ably means that the rabbinization process generated in
WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO GLG QRW UHDFK ,WDO\ DQG (XURSH XQWLO
the sixth century at the earliest (Schwartz  2QO\
in that century—in Venosa—is a rabbi mentioned in a
Jewish inscription.4 The rabbinization of Italy can also be
observed when comparing Roman inscriptions with those
IURPVRXWKHUQ,WDO\PDLQO\IURP9HQRVD,QQLQWKFHQWXU\
Venosa, Jews not only date their epitaphs according to the
falling of the Second Temple, but also use Hebrew as the
primary epigraphic language.5 Talmudic fragments and
piyyutim IURP 3DOHVWLQH DUH DOVR IRXQG LQ QLQWKFHQWXU\
epitaphs from Venosa. In terms of onomastics, a similar
FKDQJH FDQ EH GHWHFWHGb IURP OHVV WKDQ  SHU FHQW LQ
late ancient Rome, Semitic names became preponderant
in early medieval Venosa.
Concerning occupations, only four mentions of eco-
nomic activities are found in Roman inscriptions. In con-
trast, several Jews decided to record religious offices on
their relatives’ graves. Religion was more important than
economic activity, at least at the time of death. Regarding
iconography, typical Jewish symbols of the late ancient
SHULRGDUHIRXQGLQWKHFDWDFRPEVbmenorah, etrog, shofar,
lulav, Torah shrine, etc. These symbols were found not
only on the tombstones, but also on lucernaeODPSVVDU-
cophagi, and gold glasses (Rutgers 1995)XUWKHUPRUHDV
ZHZLOOVHHLQRWKHUUHJLRQVQHXWUDOIORZHUVDQLPDOVHWF
and even pagan imagery was also found in catacombs.
There are controversies around the Jewish use—or not—
of the pagan representations found in the catacomb of
Vigna Randanini (Cappelletti ૶%H\RQGWKDW
15

,7$/<૦૦15

human reliefs and other pagan imagery were also found

RQ-HZLVKbVDUFRSKDJL
Even though inscriptions referred to synagogues in Rome,
no archaeological remains were uncovered. However, ancient
V\QDJRJXHVZHUHGLVFRYHUHGLQ2VWLDDQG%RYD0DULQD7KH
2VWLD V\QDJRJXH ZDV IRXQG LQ  ,WV LGHQWLILFDWLRQ ZDV
simple thanks to inscriptions and Jewish iconography in situ.
The building was built ca. first century CE and was reformed
in the fourth.9 The existence of a synagogue of a considerable
size revealed the importance of the local Jewish community. In
addition, it was not only a preaching space but also a complex
that included numerous rooms (the specific uses of which are
\HWWREHLGHQWLILHGDNLWFKHQDQGSUREDEO\DMikvah (a bath
XVHG IRU ULWXDO LPPHUVLRQ RXWVLGH )XUWKHUPRUH WKH SODFH
for the Torah was modernized in the fourth century, implying
the growth of the Torah’s role in the liturgy. The synagogue
was abandoned—no sign of destruction or reutilization was
found—between the fourth and fifth centuries, probably due
to the decline of the city.10
7KH %RYD 0DULQD V\QDJRJXH ZDV XQFRYHUHG LQ WKH
V $OWKRXJK WKH ILQGLQJ ZDV QRW DV IDPHG DV WKH
Ostia synagogue, it was significant for many reasons.
On the one hand, except for an indirect reference in the
Codex Theodosianus and an inscription from Reggio di
&DODEULD ILIW\ NLORPHWUHV IURP %RYD 0DULQD WKHUH KDG
been no evidence of a Jewish community in the area. On
the other hand, the synagogue was probably built in the
fourth century CE, reformed in the sixth and destroyed in
some point between that century and the seventh. Those
dates are important because, according to Theodosian
and Justinian codes, since the fifth century no synagogue
was permitted to be reformed or ornamented.11 Thus,
these archaeological remains help us to call into question
the application of the Roman legislation. The synagogue
was easily identified because of a mosaic pavement with
16

16૦૦&+$37(5b

-HZLVKLFRQRJUDSK\bmenorah, etrog, and shofar. There is

a debate around the building’s location. Certain authors
considered it to be a rural synagogue, while others
suggested that the site was not well excavated and,
because of that, only a few structures were detected
(Costamagna +RZHYHU%RYD0DULQDZDVQRWSDU-
WLFXODUO\ODUJHDQGDVZHZLOOVHHLQ*UHJRU\WKH*UHDWૼV
Registrum, there were Jewish peasants in late ancient
,WDO\E\WKHHQGRIWKHVL[WKFHQWXU\
7KH %RYD 0DULQD V\QDJRJXH ZDV GHVWUR\HGb VLJQV RI
fire and abandoned coins were found in the ruins. The
destruction could be seen as the result not of anti-Jewish
DJJUHVVLRQEXWRI D/RPEDUG DWWDFNWKDWGHYDVWDWHGQRW
only Jewish buildings but also the entire region.
Returning to legislation, it is important to remark that
after Constantine, and—even more so—Theodosius, the
situation of the Jewish communities in the Roman Empire
changed. It was not an immediate transformation, but
Jews were gradually marginalized. In fact, the Codex
Theodosianus૷DFRPSLODWLRQRI5RPDQ/DZVSXEOLVKHGE\
7KHRGRVLXV,,LQ૷VKRZVWKHMXULGLFDOVXERUGLQDWLRQRI
the Jews, who were allowed to remain and practice their
UHOLJLRQEXWXQGHU&KULVWLDQFRQWURODQGUHJXODWLRQ/LQGHU
1HPR3HNHOPDQ7KXVDPRQJRWKHUODZVFRQ-
YHUVLRQWR-XGDLVPZDVSXQLVKHGb-HZVZHUHH[SHOOHGIURP
public administration and the army, they were not allowed
to have Christian slaves, and, as mentioned above, new
synagogues were not permitted to be built nor old ones to
be renovated. In contrast, old synagogues were protected
against attacks, the Sabbath was respected, and violence
against Jews discouraged. It is worth mentioning that it
is difficult to determine the degree of application of the
law. In addition, the Theodosian Code was promulgated
throughout the whole empire, though it was used more in
the west.
17

,7$/<૦૦17

The language employed in the Codex was very aggressive

because it incorporated language from the Church. Even
in the laws that protect Judaism, Jews were called nefaria
secta or superstitio, among other negative epithets. As
stated previously, during late antiquity the Fathers of the
Church attacked Jews discursively time and again. Indeed,
it is impossible to summarize all the vilifications of Judaism
written by Italian bishops during the fourth and fifth cen-
WXULHV$PEURVHRI0LODQFD૶*DXWHQWLXVRI%UHVFLD
(d.&KURPDWLXVRI$TXLOHLDd.FDDQG0D[LPXVRI
7XULQFD૶FDbDUHRQO\VRPHH[DPSOHVRIFOHULFVZKR
ZURWHDJDLQVW-HZV1HYHUWKHOHVVDVVWDWHGEHIRUHPRVWRI
the references to Jews in sermons, homilies, treatises, and
even letters do not provide information about historical Jews.
Even if those churchmen wrote in relation to an existing
problem with Jews, they did not provide much information
about Jewish life. Words related to hardheartedness, car-
nality, deicide, or simply general references to biblical Jews,
constitute the bulk of the material related to Judaism.
1RQHWKHOHVVVRPHWLPHVLWLVSRVVLEOHWRH[WUDFWVRPH
information. Ambrose, for example, had a dispute with
Emperor Theodosius following the destruction of a syna-
gogue in CallinicumQRZ$O5DTTDKLQ6\ULDLQ7KH
emperor wanted a local bishop to pay for the reconstruc-
tion of the Jewish building but Ambrose opposed. During
WKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQVRQO\$PEURVHૼVOHWWHUVVXUYLYHGWKH
bishop of Milan mentioned the burning of a synagogue in
Italy, probably in Milan.13
2QH FHQWXU\ ODWHU 3RSH *HODVLXV ,b d.  VHQW WZR
letters related to Jews. In the first, he referred to a Jew
called Telesinus ZKR WKH 3RSH FDOOHG uir clarissimus, an
KRQRULILFWLWOH*HODVLXVLQIDFWVDLGWKDWTelesinus had to
be considered one of them. This kind of evidence shows a
FORVHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQD3RSHDQGD-HZLQVSLWHRIWKH
SHUVLVWHQWDQWL-HZLVKUKHWRULF,QWKHRWKHUOHWWHU*HODVLXV
18

18૦૦&+$37(5b

stated that a Jew was claiming a slave who had escaped,

but the slave was arguing that his former owner had
circumcised him, a valid reason to escape according to the
Codex Theodosianus. Complaints about Jews circumcising
slaves were common in late antiquity. It is difficult to know
with certainty if Jews actually performed circumcision on
their slaves, but it is likely that they did, not for a proselyt-
izing aim, but due to ritual necessities. In fact, there are
activities such as winemaking or cooking that—according
WR-HZLVKODZ૷DQRQ-HZFDQQRWbSHUIRUP14
&DVVLRGRUXV FD ૶FD b LV DQRWKHU YDOXDEOH
source of information. He served in the administration of
Theodoric during the Ostrogothic period. Thanks to him
ZHNQRZWKDWWKHUHZHUH-HZLVKVHWWOHPHQWVLQ*HQRDDQG
Milan, places where little or no Jewish epigraphy has been
IRXQG &RQFHUQLQJ *HQRD KH PHQWLRQHG WKDW 7KHRGRULF
gave permission to reconstruct a synagogue, but the
king advised—according to Roman law—that Jews were
not permitted to embelish the building (Variae ,, 
$bVHFRQGGRFXPHQWZDVZULWWHQEHFDXVH-HZVSHWLWLRQHG
the king to enforce their rights. It is impossible to know
which rights had been violated, but the fact is they were
suffering aggressions and appealed to Theodoric (Variae,
,9  ,Q 0LODQ -HZV FRPSODLQHG DERXW D FHUWDLQ QRQ
specified problem in their synagogue. Theodoric replied
that he guaranteed their rights, but also reminded them
that the real faith was Christianity (Variae9,QDGG-
ition, Cassiodorus stated that a synagogue in the city of
Rome had been destroyed. This event, however, is con-
fusing, as the destruction of the synagogue appears to
have been a result of a conflict between Jews and their
slaves, rather than of a religious conflict (Variae,9
The Excerpta Valesiani are two anonymous chronicles.
One of them was written ca. 540 CE and focusses on
Theodoric’s politics. In relation to the Jews, the chronicle
19

,7$/<૦૦19

states that a synagogue had been burned in the city of

Ravenna. According to the chronicle, the destruction was
caused in retaliation against an alleged instance of Jewish
disrespect towards holy water (Excerptum Valesianum II,
;,9 ૶15 The text also alludes to a Jewish officer of
Theodoric called Symmachus who ordered the conver-
sion of every Catholic Church to Arianism (Excerptum
Valesianum II;9,૶$JDLQZHFDQREVHUYHDFORVH
relationship between a Jew and a Christian king. However,
it is important to keep in mind that the chronicle was
written as an attack on Theodoric and this entire tale is
probably a mere invention with which to besmirch the
king’s image, associating his Arianism with Judaism. Even
though certain historians suggest that Arians were more
moderated with regard to Jews, there is no clear evidence
pointing to that direction.
7KH QH[W SLHFH RI HYLGHQFH FRPHV IURP 3URFRSLXV
RI &DHVDUHD FD ૶FD  D %\]DQWLQH KLVWRULDQ
ZKR QDUUDWHG WKH *RWKLF ZDU $FFRUGLQJ WR KLP ZKHQ
%HOLVDULXV૷XQGHU -XVWLQLDQ RUGHUV૷DWWDFNHG ,WDO\ WKH
-HZV RI 1DSOHV UHPDLQHG OR\DO WR 2VWURJRWKLF DXWKRU-
ities. The Jewish inhabitants not only helped with the food
supply (De bello Gothico 9  ૶ EXW DOVR GHIHQGHG
the city (De bello Gothico9૶$JDLQZHFRXOG
see these references as an attempt to discursively asso-
FLDWHWKH2VWURJRWKVZLWK-HZV1HYHUWKHOHVVLWLVKLJKO\
plausible that Jews defended the city where they lived
more or less harmoniously under their Ostrogothic rulers.
*UHJRU\WKH*UHDW૷3RSHEHWZHHQDQG&(૷LV
the most important source with which to reconstruct the
history of the Jews in Italy at the end of late antiquity. In fact,
*UHJRU\,bQRWRQO\ZURWHDERXWWKH-HZVLQKLVWKHRORJLFDO
treatises, but also in his letters, compiled in the Registrum
epistularum. These were practical epistles, written in
order to solve religious, political, and social problems.
20

20૦૦&+$37(5b

From them, it is possible to perceive some lived realities

RILQGLYLGXDO-HZVDQGIHDWXUHVRI-HZLVKbFRPPXQLWLHV
Of letters relating to Jews, twenty-two out of twenty-
six referred to Jews living in Italy. They are mentioned in
$JULJHQWR&DJOLDUL/XQL0HVVLQD1DSOHV3DOHUPR5RPH
Terracina, and Venafro. Certain letters only referred to an
entire region—such as Sicily—without specifying cities.
/XQLLVWKHRQO\QRUWK,WDOLDQFLW\PHQWLRQHGLQFRQQHFWLRQ
with Jews. It is true that most of northern Italy was con-
WUROOHGE\WKH/RPEDUGVDQGDVDUHVXOWWKH3RSHGLGQRW
send many letters to that region (except for Ravenna, the
KHDG RI WKH %\]DQWLQH ([DUFKDWH 1RWZLWKVWDQGLQJ ZH
should also bear in mind that the epigraphic evidence is
rich in southern and central Italy and scarce in the north.
7KH*UHJRULDQRegistrum also shows that some cities,
VXFK DV 3DOHUPR Registrum 9,,,  KDG PRUH WKDQ
RQH V\QDJRJXH 0RUHRYHU WKH 3RSH PHQWLRQHG QRW RQO\
synagogues but also gardens and other structures near
them, confirming the existence of synagogal complexes
that the Ostia synagogue’s remains suggest. Another
aspect to remark on is that Jewish communities were
interconnected. The Jews of Rome presented petitions
WR *UHJRU\ LQ WKH QDPH RI WKH -HZLVK FRPPXQLWLHV RI
0DUVHLOOH$UOHVDQG3DOHUPRRegistrum,DQG9,,,
*UHJRU\ DOVR VWDWHG WKDW -HZLVK PHUFKDQWV IURP 1DSOHV
WUDYHOHGWR*DXORegistrum9,DQG,;7KLVLQWHU-
connection is important because it helps us to understand
KRZLGHDVERUQLQ3DOHVWLQHDQG%DE\ORQLDUHDFKHGUHJLRQV
DV*DXO,WDOVRUHYHDOVWKDWDNLQGRIUHOLJLRXVXQLIRUPLW\
among communities was possible. Iconographical simi-
ODULWLHV EHWZHHQ %RYD 0DULQD 2VWLD DQG V\QDJRJXHV RI
other regions can be understood in the same way.
7KH *UHJRULDQ Registrum also provides information
about Jewish economic activities. However, the epistles
focus on strategic activities. Minor problems created by
21

,7$/<૦૦21

an artisan or a peasant were not normally significant

enough to attract the attention of regional authorities.
There are nine mentions of Jewish economic activities in
the Registrumb VL[ UHIHU WR PHUFKDQWV WZR WR SHDVDQWV
and one to landowners.$VLVNQRZQ૷DQGWKH*UHJRULDQ
epistles confirm—usury was not a Jewish activity until the
second millennium (Toch 
*UHJRU\ GLG QRW SURYLGH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW -HZLVK
internal organization. He referred to Jews, but not to
rabbis or archisynagogoi $V IRU RQRPDVWLFV *UHJRU\
mentioned twelve Jewish names. Considering that four of
them were people who had converted to Christianity and
had probably changed their names, just eight remain. The
UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ 6HPLWLF DQG *UDHFR5RPDQ QDPHV
is consistent with the Jewish epigraphic record of the sixth
FHQWXU\/DKDP&RKHQE
*UHJRU\DOVRSURYLGHVLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHUHODWLRQVKLS
between Jews and Christians. He stated that the synagogues
RI3DOHUPRZHUHVHL]HGE\WKHORFDOELVKRSRegistrum, VIII,
 DQG ,;  WKH -HZV RI 7HUUDFLQD ZHUH WZLFH H[SHOOHG
from their synagogue (Registrum ,  DQG ,,  DQG D
former Jew who converted to Christianity seized the local
synagogue in Cagliari (Registrum ,;  ,Q HYHU\ FDVH
*UHJRU\WULHGWRSURWHFWWKH-HZVVXJJHVWLQJWKDWELVKRSV
return the synagogues or, according to the Roman law, gave
them a new space with compensation for the damages. He
responded in the same protective fashion when the Jews
RI 1DSOHV UHSRUWHG WKDW WKH\ KDG EHHQ GLVWXUEHG E\ ORFDO
authorities (Registrum;,,,7KHVHVLWXDWLRQVUHYHDOWKDW
DWWLWXGHVWRZDUGV-HZVZHUHQRWXQLIRUPbVRPHELVKRSVIHOW
WKDW WKH\ KDG WR EH FRQYHUWHG DQG RWKHUV OLNH *UHJRU\
thought that they should be allowed to continue living,
although in subordination, in the Christian world.
$ORQJWKHVHVDPHOLQHV*UHJRU\FULWLFL]HGWKHIRUFHG
FRQYHUVLRQRIWKH-HZVRI*DXORegistrum,GHVSLWH
2

22૦૦&+$37(5b

also wanting to convert the Jews, albeit with a different

strategy. On the one hand, he insisted on converting grad-
ually by preaching. On the other, he instructed his eccle-
siastic representatives in Sicily to offer Jews a reduction
in their taxes—they were settled on church land—if they
accepted Christianity (Registrum,,DQG9,WLVZRUWK
PHQWLRQLQJ WKDW *UHJRU\ RQO\ XVHG HFRQRPLF LQFHQWLYHV
with peasants; merchants were only invited to convert by
gradual preaching.
6RPHWLPHV*UHJRU\KLPVHOIDFWHGDJJUHVVLYHO\WRZDUGV
Jews. When Jews kept Christian slaves, he sent furious
letters to ecclesiastical and secular authorities that, against
the law, permitted that practice (Registrum,,,DQG,;
 DPRQJ RWKHUV +H DOVR UHDFWHG YLROHQWO\ ZKHQ KH
discovered that some Roman Christians were keeping the
Jewish Sabbath (Registrum;,,, All in all, these reactions
LOOXVWUDWHWKDW*UHJRU\WROHUDWHG-XGDLVPRQO\ZKHQKHVDZLW
as a static religion instead of an expansive one.
*UHJRU\ WKH *UHDW LV D FUXFLDO ILJXUH LQ WHUPV RI
understanding Christian anti-Judaism. In fact, the balanced
behaviour displayed in the letters is quite different to his
theological writings. In those texts, he repeated the same
anti-Jewish tropes that comprised the adversus Iudaeos
WUDGLWLRQ:K\"%HFDXVHZKHQ*UHJRU\ZURWHKLVHSLVWOHV
he was acting politically but when he wrote about Christian
theology, he followed the previous line of other Fathers of
the Church. He was not schizophrenic, he was a conser-
YDWLYHbD5RPDQSROLWLFLDQLQKLVOHWWHUVDQGDFKXUFKPDQ
in his theological treatises and homilies.19 In spite of this
fact, it is important to remember that other members of
WKH &KXUFK૷HYHQ LQ ,WDO\ DQG LQ *UHJRU\ૼV WLPH૷DFWHG
against the Jews not only discursively but also politically.
In conclusion, there was no systematic policy against
Jews in late ancient Italy. Although imperial law subordinated
Jews, the real status of each settlement was a result of
23

,7$/<૦૦23

a network of relationships that involved lay and ecclesi-

astic authorities. Moreover, the situation of each Jew was
FRQGLWLRQHGDOVRE\KLVVRFLDOSRVLWLRQDWOHDVWRQ*UHJRU\
WKH*UHDWૼVRegistrumbWKHSUHVVXUHWRZDUGFRQYHUVLRQZDV
stronger for Jewish peasants than for Jewish merchants.

Notes
1
૥7H[WV ZULWWHQ E\ SDJDQV RQ -XGDLVP LQ ODWH DQWLTXLW\ ZHUH
collected and commented on by Stern .

૥$QFLHQW -HZLVK LQVFULSWLRQV LQ 5RPH ZHUH JDWKHUHG E\ 1R\
1995 -,:(
3
૥'XHWRWKHOLPLWHGLQIRUPDWLRQSURYLGHGE\LQVFULSWLRQVWKH
prerogatives of each office are not clear. See Van der Horst ,
૶
4
૥,QVFULSWLRQVIURP,WDO\H[FHSW5RPH*DXODQG6SDLQZHUH
FRPSLOHG E\ 1R\ 1993   b -,:( b -,:( Qb  HDUO\ VL[WK FHQ-
WXU\ PHQWLRQHG WZR rebbites VLF WKDW DWWHQGHG D IXQHUDO ,W LV
worth noting that in the inscription the reference to rabbis seems
to reflect an exceptional situation. We will analyze the controversy
DERXWHSLJUDSKLFUDEELVLQ&KDSWHUb
5
૥9HQXVLDQLQVFULSWLRQVIURPWKHQLQWKFHQWXU\ZHUHSXEOLVKHG
LQGLIIHUHQWZRUNV$bEULHIVXPPDU\FDQEHILQGLQ&RODIHPPLQD
(ZKRKDVSXEOLVKHGPRVWRIWKH-HZLVK9HQXVLDQHSLWDSKV

૥$ ԯԬ԰Ի (piyyut LV D -HZLVK OLWXUJLFDO SRHP WKDW HPHUJHG LQ
3DOHVWLQH FD VL[WK FHQWXU\ 6HH 9DQ %HNNXP . Cesare
Colafemmina had published different southern Italian inscriptions
with talmudic references.

૥7KHFKRLFHRIQDPHLVQRWDQLUUHIXWDEOHLGHQWLW\PDUNHUEXW
does provide clues. On Jewish names in Western Europe during
late antiquity, see Ilan .

૥-,:(Qbb͈͖͋͞੟͔͛͗SUREDEO\DSDLQWHUQbbbutularus
de macello SUREDEO\ D EXWFKHU Qb b ਔ͕͔͖͔͒͗ VLF ZLWK ͒
PHUFKDQWQbbਂ͖͜੥͙͖͆>͔͗@PHGLF
9
૥7KHUH LV D FXUUHQW GHEDWH DURXQG WKH RULJLQDO XVH RI WKH
building. Some scholars suggest that it was built as a synagogue,
while others think that it was originally a house.
10
૥2Q 2VWLD V\QDJRJXH VHH 2OVVRQ HWb DO  DQG /HYLQH
૶
11
૥C.TH. (= Codex Thedososianus, 7KHRGRVLDQ FRGH ;9, 
24

24૦૦&+$37(5b

&(DQG;9,&()RUWKHWH[WDQGFRPPHQ-

WDULHVRQWKHVHODZVVHH/LQGHU૶DQG૶

૥2Q WKH V\QDJRJXH RI %RYD 0DULQD VHH 7URPED  and
Costamagna .
13
૥2Q$PEURVHDQGWKH-HZVVHH1DXUR\.
14
૥2Q &KULVWLDQ OHJLVODWLRQ DERXW -HZV DQG VODYHU\ VHH 'H
%RQILOV.
15
૥7KHFKURQLFOHDOVRPHQWLRQHGDVLPLODUHYHQWLQ5RPHEXWLW
did not add further information.

૥2Q *UHJRU\ WKH *UHDW DQG WKH -HZV VHH DPRQJ RWKHUV
Markus  ૶ DQG &RKHQ 1999 ૶ 6HH DOVR /DKDP
Cohen D.

૥0HUFKDQWVRUVLPLODURegistrum,,,,9,,;
,;SHDVDQWVb,,9ODQGRZQHUV,9

૥,WLVZRUWKDGGLQJWKDWWKHVH&KULVWLDQVFRXOGKDYHDGRSWHG
Jewish practices without the stimulus of Jewish proselytism.
19
૥2QWKLVWRSLFVHH&RKHQ1999૶6HHDOVR/DKDP&RKHQ
D, D, and E.
25

Chapter 3

North Africa

,Q  6WHIDQ =ZHLJ ZURWH The Buried Candelabrum,

a short and beautiful novel that recreates the story of
the menorah of the Second Temple. In fact, the Romans
stole the candelabrum after the destruction of Jerusalem
LQ  &( $FFRUGLQJ WR 3URFRSLXV LW ZDV DSSURSULDWHG
by the Vandals during the sack of Rome in 455. He also
claimed that the menorahZDVWDNHQDJDLQE\%HOLVDULXV
and carried to Constantinople when the Vandal kingdom
ZDV FRQTXHUHG LQ ૶ De bello Vandalico ,9 
Subsequently, all trace of the candelabrum was lost. In the
QRYHO=ZHLJHQYLVLRQHG-HZVEXU\LQJLW7KHKLVWRU\RIWKH
menorah is opaque but interesting because it connects
WKUHHFHQWUDOUHJLRQVLQODWHDQWLTXLW\b,WDO\1RUWK$IULFD
and the Eastern Roman Empire. This chapter is centred on
WKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFD
%HIRUHVWDUWLQJLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRFODULI\WKDW(J\SWZLOO
be analyzed separately. This is not an arbitrary decision:
as most scholars recognize, there were great differences—
JHRJUDSKLFDOHFRQRPLFDODQGFXOWXUDO૷EHWZHHQWKH1RUWK
African regions. Furthermore, we will focus on the Roman
province of Africa Proconsularis, mainly in the city of
&DUWKDJHDQGLWVVXUURXQGLQJVEXWDOVR&\UHQDLFD1XPLGLD
and Mauretania.
26

26૦૦&+$37(5b

Archaeological and epigraphic evidence is scarce.

7KH1DURV\QDJRJXHQRZ+DPPDP/ LILQ7XQLVWKLUW\
NLORPHWUHVIURP&DUWKDJHZDVGLVFRYHUHGLQDQG
was probably built between the fourth and sixth cen-
turies CE. It is the only late ancient synagogue uncovered
in Africa.1 It was a large synagogal complex, comprising
more than ten rooms. Moreover, only one chamber
can be directly connected to Judaism due to surviving
inscriptions and symbols. In fact, two small menoroth
ZHUHIRXQGDPRQJFRPPRQ1RUWK$IULFDQPRWLIVRQWKH
mosaic pavement. Epigraphic evidence found in situ
FRQILUPHGWKDWWKHEXLOGLQJZDVDV\QDJRJXH/H%RKHF
D ૶ 6WHUQ  ૶  )XUWKHUPRUH
lamps decorated with menoroth were also found at the
site. The building reveals the importance of the local
-HZLVK FRPPXQLW\ DQG WKH DGRSWLRQ RI RUGLQDU\ 1RUWK
African— late Roman—art in synagogal decoration. As
.DUHQ6WHUQVWDWHV1DURૼVV\QDJRJXHVKRZVWKDW-HZV
Christians, and pagans used the devotional vocabularies
of their immediate environment, incorporating their own
particularities (
The epigraphic material—despite being scarce is
VSUHDGDOORYHU1RUWK$IULFD૷JLYHVPRUHFOXHVDERXWORFDO
Jews.3/LQJXLVWLFDOO\WZRWKLUGVRIWKHLQVFULSWLRQV૷PRVWO\
epitaphs dated between the second and fourth century—
ZHUHZULWWHQLQ/DWLQZKHUHDVWKHUHVWZHUHLQ*UHHNDQG
Hebrew. Hebrew inscriptions are not only less numerous
WKDQ*UHHNRQHVWKH\DOVRVKRZHG૷OLNHWKHIHZIRXQGLQ
Rome— a limited use of the language: just the word ԴԬԳՀ
(shalom SHDFH ,Q UHODWLRQ WR QDPHV WKH SDWWHUQV DUH
VLPLODU WR 5RPHb *UDHFR5RPDQ QDPHV DUH SUHSRQ-
GHUDQWDWDOPRVWSHUFHQW4 Here we can see again the
Romanization of the Jewish population and the adaptation
of the Jews to the local milieu. In addition, the structure
of the names—tria nomina, dua nomina, etc.—in Jewish
27

1257+$)5,&$૦૦27

inscriptions changed at the same time as non-Jewish ones

(Stern ૶
*DPPDUWKૼVFDWDFRPEVQHDU&DUWKDJHRIIHUDQLQWHU
esting case. Actually, certain scholars such as Stephanie
%LQGHU  ૶ KHOG WKDW WKRVH EXULDOV SURYHG UDE-
binical influence on the late ancient Carthaginian Jewish
community.5 The main argument is that the architecture
of the catacomb is similar to some Jewish—and clearly rab-
ELQLFDO૷FDWDFRPEV LQ 3DOHVWLQH VXFK DV %HLW 6KHૼDULP
1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHFRQWHQWRIWKHHSLWDSKVDUHOLQJXLVWLFDOO\
iconographically, and onomastically to other Diaspora and
non-rabbinical communities, such as the Roman one. On
WKHRWKHUKDQGQRWDOPXGLFWH[WZDVIRXQGLQ*DPPDUWK
unlike in southern Italian cities of the early Middle Ages,
nor was any direct mention of rabbis found. Furthermore,
VRPHLQVFULSWLRQVFRQWDLQSDJDQUHIHUHQFHVVXFKDV૿'0଀
)URPRXUSRLQWRIYLHZWKH*DPPDUWKFDWDFRPEVVKRXOG
be seen as another Jewish expression in the Diaspora,
sharing habits not only with other Jewish communities—in
WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO DQG RXWVLGH૷EXW DOVR ZLWK QRQ-HZLVK
groups. The uncovering of a lamp with Christ and a
menorah also showed the many possibilities of syncretism
in late antiquity.9
Regarding literary sources, there are references to
Carthage in the Talmud, but they are generic and do not
VXSSO\ UHOLDEOH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW 1RUWK $IULFDQ -HZLVK
communities.10 Concerning non-Jewish sources, Tertullian
FD૶LVDJRRGVWDUWLQJSRLQW$VZLWKWKHPDMRULW\
of Christian sources, his texts do not openly show contact
with Jews. However, they provide hints about the relation-
ship between Jews and Christians in Carthage. The most
studied of Tertullian’s writing on this topic is, obviously,
his Adversus Iudaeos. There, Tertullian said that after
witnessing a public dispute between a Jew and a Christian,
he decided to write a text to demonstrate the superiority
28

28૦૦&+$37(5b

of Christianity. As we see again and again in Christian

late ancient literature, Tertullian insisted on the idea that
0RVDLF/DZKDGFKDQJHGDIWHU-HVXV'HVSLWHWKHIDFWFHU-
tain authors hold that his view on Judaism was balanced
IRU H[DPSOH %LQGHU  PRVW RI 7HUWXOOLDQૼV SURGXF-
tion was clearly anti-Jewish.
It is difficult to know if the arguments sustained by
Tertullian in his Adversus Iudaeos were generated in a
real polemic. In fact, while some scholars suggested that
Tertullian’s text reflects an actual controversy, others
argued it was a discursive construction made to reaffirm
Christian identity in opposition to Judaism.11 8OWLPDWHO\
the fact is that Tertullian wrote a text against the Jews—
based on the Old Testament, the only text recognized as
valid for both groups—in which he explained why Jesus
was the messiah and the Jews had misunderstood him.
Even though the text is not especially aggressive, it
associated Jews with incredulity. The same tropes are
repeated in other Tertullian writings, such as Ad nationes or
Apologeticum. However, it is worth noting that Tertullian’s
most aggressive words towards the Jews were written in
his Adversus Marcionem.
In spite of the fact that Tertullian uses a lot of anti-
Jewish clichés that only lead us to hermeneutical or rhet-
orical Jews, there are some clues about the existence of
real contact with Jews. As Claudia Setzer ( ૶
stated, Tertullian knew customs that were not written in
WKH%LEOHVXFKDVGDLO\LPPHUVLRQRUWKHYHLOLQJRIZRPHQ
In addition, William Horbury (VXJJHVWHGWKDWWKHUH
is a probable reference to a Jewish parody of Jesus’ death
in De Spectaculis. Thus, even though Tertullian occa-
sionally used Jews as rhetorical figures to shape Christian
identity, in other cases he revealed certain aspects of his-
torical Jews. However, even if Tertullian’s texts show some
29

1257+$)5,&$૦૦29

level of knowledge of contemporary Judaism, his informa-

tion does not help us much to reconstruct the daily life of
-HZLVKFRPPXQLWLHVLQ1RUWK$IULFD
$XJXVWLQHRI+LSSR૶&(DOVRDXWKRUHGDWH[W
related to Jews: the Tractatus adversus Iudaeos, which
LVDFWXDOO\DVHUPRQ$OWKRXJKWKH1XPLGLDQ+LSSRQRZ
$QQDED LQ $OJHULD ZDV QRW DV LPSRUWDQW DV &DUWKDJH
Augustine’s production was profuse and his political influ-
ence was prominent across the west. The Tractatus has
been analyzed in depth by several scholars and is not easy
to date, but was probably written after 410 CE.13 It consists
RIGLIIHUHQWDUJXPHQWVH[SODLQLQJ-HVXVૼUROHLQ*RGૼVSODQ
and the Jews’ mistaken interpretations of him. Although
WKHWH[WLVQRWYHU\bKRVWLOH$XJXVWLQHUHSHDWHGO\VWDWHV
WLPHDQGDJDLQWKDW-HZVFDQQRWXQGHUVWDQGWKH%LEOHDQG
that they are carnal, proud, blind, etc.
Harsher words directed at Jews can be found in other
$XJXVWLQLDQWH[WV$V%UHQW6KDZKDVVKRZQ$XJXVWLQH
was strikingly anti- Jewish in his sermons against Donatism.
The author clearly exposed Augustine’s rhetorical violence
towards Jews, highlighting that he was as tough as other
Fathers of the Church like Jerome or John Chrysostom.
Aggressive expressions related to deicide, among other
anti- Jewish topics, are found in different texts written by
Augustine, mainly in his works against Christian adver-
saries. As Shaw stated, Jews in Augustine served as “a
XVHIXOEHQFKPDUNRIEDGQHVV଀
The problem of Augustinian texts is, again, that they
do not give us any clues about Jews. In fact, historical Jews
are practically absent from Augustine’s works. There are
references to them only in two epistles, which is very little
compared to the extent of Augustine’s literary production.
However, it is worth noting that in one of those letters, he
ruled in favour of a Jew in a property conflict with a Christian.14
30

30૦૦&+$37(5b

Thus, we know that Augustine had contact with Jews, but it is

difficult to measure the frequency of the interaction.
Even if we accept that Augustine had knowledge of con-
temporary Jews, there is an outstanding debate around
his position toward Jews. The traditional point of view
emphasizes aggression towards Judaism motivated by the
competition between Jewish and Christian orthodoxies
(Efroymson  %XW 3DXOD )UHGULNVHQ , among
RWKHU SXEOLFDWLRQV WDNHV D GLIIHUHQW DSSURDFK )LUVW VKH
considers that Augustine’s attitude towards the Jews was
relatively benign. Second, she maintains that position was
a product of Augustine’s discussions with other Christian
JURXSVPDLQO\WKH0DQLFKHDQV$V0DUFLRQFD૶FD
Manicheans denied the value of the Old Testament as a
sacred book. Augustine responded to them by restoring
the role of the Jews before Jesus as the chosen people, but
also after Christ as testes veritatisZLWQHVVHVRIWKHWUXWK15
Fredriksen’s position was both criticized and praised.
$b IXOO GLVFXVVLRQ RI KHU FRQFOXVLRQV LV EH\RQG WKH VFRSH
of this volume, but it is worth remembering that her work
is insightful and has promoted a radical re-reading of
$XJXVWLQHૼV SHUVSHFWLYH WRZDUGV -XGDLVP 1HYHUWKHOHVV
Augustine’s texts show more about his attitude toward
-XGDLVPWKDQDERXW-HZVLQ1RUWK$IULFD
Augustine died in 430 CE during the Vandal siege. The
QH[WSLHFHRILQIRUPDWLRQDERXW-HZVLQ1RUWK$IULFDFDPH
QRWIURP9DQGDOVEXWIURP%\]DQWLQHVDIWHUWKHFRQTXHVW
RI%HOLVDULXVLQ Indeed, the Novella 37 de Africana
Ecclesia established that all the synagogues of Africa had
WR EH FRQYHUWHG WR FKXUFKHV 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKHUH LV QR
information to confirm the fulfillment of the law, which
was probably an isolated decree, produced immediately
DIWHU WKH %\]DQWLQH FRQTXHVW 5DEHOOR  DQG /LQGHU
૶
31

1257+$)5,&$૦૦31

Notes
1
૥7KHUHZHUHFRQWURYHUVLHVDURXQGDEXLOGLQJLQ/HSWLV0DJQD
which was identified as a synagogue (Hachlili ૶+RZHYHU
no definitive proof of the identification was provided. On the other
KDQG /XQG 1995 UHIHUUHG WR D SUREDEOH V\QDJRJXH LQ &DUWKDJH
due to the uncovering of many lamps decorated with menoroth in
the same area. His theory, however, is highly speculative.

૥2Q WKH +DPPDP/LI V\QDJRJXH VHH +DFKOLOL  ૶
/HYLQH૶DQG%OHLEHUJ.
3
૥7KH FRPSLODWLRQ RI 1RUWK $IULFDQ LQVFULSWLRQV PDGH E\ /H
%RKHFD is still useful.
4
૥/H %RKHF E. See also Stern . However, compara-
WLYHO\WKHUHDUHPRUH6HPLWLFQDPHVLQ1RUWK$IULFDWKDQLQ5RPH
This was occasionally explained as the combination of the influ-
HQFH RI RWKHU 6HPLWLF ODQJXDJHV VXFK DV 3XQLF DQG WKH HIIHFW
of a close relationship with Jewish—and rabbinical— communities
RI 3DOHVWLQH 1HYHUWKHOHVV DV ZH ZLOO VHH ODWHU LQ WKLV FKDSWHU
WKLVODVWbSRLQWLVFRQWURYHUVLDO2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHGLIIHUHQFH
EHWZHHQ 5RPH DQG 1RUWK $IULFD૷ SHU FHQW PRUH 6HPLWLF
names—is not significant.
5
૥$OVR /H %RKHF D DVVRFLDWHG *DPPDUWKૼV FDWDFRPEV
with rabbinical Judaism.

૥2QO\RQH1RUWK$IULFDQLQVFULSWLRQ/H%RKHFDQbLQ
Volubilis—in present- day Morocco—mentions a rabbi. The debate
around epigraphic rabbis is dealt with below.

૥'0૷'LV0DQLEXV૷ZDVDSDJDQIRUPXODKDELWXDOO\HPSOR\HG
in epitaphs. However, it was also found in Christian and Jewish
contexts. There is a current debate around its Christian and Jewish
use. Did it just appear as a result of reutilization of previous grave-
stones? Were tombstones prefabricated in shared workshops? Did
it have religious connotations? The answer is not simple.

૥7KLVLVDOVRWKHSRVLWLRQRI6WHUQDQGZDVFKDOOHQJHG
E\%LQGHU૶
9
૥6HH6LPRQ. As the menorah is inverted in the lucerna,
certain scholars suggested that it represented the subordination
of the Jewish religion instead of syncretism.
10
૥)RUH[DPSOHy (= Yerushalmi, Jerusalem Talmud<RPDD
b (= Bavli, Babylonian TalmudBerakhot 33a; b Rosh HashanaD
11
૥2Q 7HUWXOOLDQૼV Adversus Iudaeos see, among others,
Efroymson , Dunn DQG%LQGHU.
32

32૦૦&+$37(5b

૥,QDe spectaculis૶7HUWXOOLDQ૷DUJXLQJDJDLQVW-HZV૷
suggested that they claimed Mary was a prostitute and Jesus’ corpse
KDGEHHQPRYHGE\DJDUGHQHULQVWHDGRIEHLQJUHVXUUHFWHG$V
Horbury (FRUUHFWO\VXJJHVWHGHYHQWKRXJKERWKUHIHUHQFHV
FRXOG KDYH EHHQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI WKH 1HZ 7HVWDPHQW 0DU\ૼV
morality is also attacked in the Bavli and the gardener moving
Jesus’ corpse is found in the literature known as Toledot YeshubSDU-
odies on Jesus’ life and death that were popular among Jews in late
antiquity, the Middle Ages, and even in modern times. The first
manuscripts of Toledot YeshuGDWLQJIURPWKHQLQWKFHQWXU\ZHUH
found in the Cairo Genizah, but Christian authors such as Origen,
Epiphanius and, later, Agobard, knew about those parodies. The
exact dating of the Toledot Yeshu literature remains controversial.
On Toledot Yeshu,VHH0HHUVRQDQG6FK¦IHU
13
૥$FFRUGLQJ WR 6KDZ   WKH Adversus Iudaeos was
written in the last year or two of Augustine’s life.
14
૥$XJXVWLQHEpistolae, 7KHUH$XJXVWLQHPHGLDWHGLQDFRQ-
IOLFWEHWZHHQD-HZLVKODQGRZQHUQDPHG/LFLQLXVDQG9LFWRUSURE-
DEO\ D IHOORZ ELVKRS ,QWHUHVWLQJO\ /LFLQLXV KDG YLVLWHG $XJXVWLQH
WR REWDLQ KHOS 7KH RWKHU FRPPXQLFDWLRQ LV HSLVWOH  ZKHUH
Augustine—subtly arguing against Jerome—affirmed that the Jews
RI2HDSUHVHQWGD\7ULSROLZHUHFRQVXOWHGUHJDUGLQJWKHLU+HEUHZ
knowledge, about Jerome’s translation of the book of Jonah. It is dif-
ficult to know if this information is real or just a polemical argument.
$b-HZLVKKHDOHULVPHQWLRQHGLQDe civitate Dei,
15
૥2QWKH-HZVDVtestes veritatis, see Cohen 1999૶DQG
Massie .

૥$OVR4XRGYXOWGHXVZURWHDJDLQVW-HZV+RZHYHURQO\her-
meneutical and rhetorical Jews are found in his texts.
3

Chapter 4

Gaul

1RPRUHWKDQWKUHHODPSVGHFRUDWHGZLWKmenoroth were
IRXQGLQDQFLHQW*DXOUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHHQWLUHODWHDQFLHQW
-HZLVKDUFKHRORJLFDOUHFRUGLQWKHUHJLRQ%RGGHQVb+RVDQJ
 ૶ ,Q DGGLWLRQ RQO\ WKUHH LQVFULSWLRQV ZHUH
discovered. Among them, one—the most important, an
epitaph that will be analyzed in the following chapter—
pertained to the western region of the Gallia Narbonensis,
under Visigothic control. The others were a seal with
the name Ianuarius and a menorah (I Jewish Inscriptions
of Western Europe   b -,:( Qb  DQG D ULQJ WKDW
contained the name Asterius and two menoroth (1 JIWE
Qb1 It is worth noting that the ring and seal could have
EHORQJHGWRSHRSOHMXVWWUDYHOLQJLQ*DXO+DQGOH\,
૶2QFHDJDLQZHQHHGQRQ-HZLVKVRXUFHV
7KH ILUVW UHIHUHQFH WR -HZV LQ D *DOOLF VRXUFH FRPHV
from Ravennius (d.FD&($UFKELVKRSRI$UOHVZKR
VWDWHG WKDW -HZV DWWHQGHG +LODU\ RI $UOHVૼ FD ૶
funeral and sang—in Hebrew—in his honour (Vita Hilarii
Arelatensis7KHUHDUHVHYHUDOVWRULHVDERXW-HZV
mourning and honouring Christian bishops in the period.
Even though it is not impossible that Jews could have
had a good relationship with a bishop, the most probable
hypothesis is that these kinds of narratives were intended
to glorify the saints’ image.3 For that reason, information
34

34૦૦&+$37(5b

provided about singing in Hebrew has to be approached

with caution.
:LWK 6LGRQLXV $SROOLQDULV FD ૶ &( ELVKRS RI
Arles, we are on firmer ground. He mentioned Jews and
former Jews converted to Christianity in his letters. In fact,
despite criticizing his Judaism, he commended a Jew called
Gozolas in two epistles.4
+RZHYHU LQ *DXO WKHUH ZHUH DOVR FKXUFKPHQ ZKR
vilified Judaism from the beginning of late antiquity. For
H[DPSOH +LODU\ RI 3RLWLHUV FD ૶ &( UHSHDWHGO\
condemned Jews from a theological point of view. In Hilary,
Jews functioned merely as hermeneutical devices to con-
struct and transmit Christian identity. In fact, we do not
know if he actually interacted with Jews. The same applies
WR3URVSHURI$TXLWDLQHFD૶&(5
Evidence concerning Jewish communities comes mostly
from the Merovingian period. The Merovingian dynasty
reigned for nearly three hundred years and was charac-
terized by continuous territorial disputes between heirs.
&DHVDULXVRI$UOHVFD૶&(ZKROLYHGLQDYRODWLOH
Arles—which passed between the rule of Visigoths, Ostro-
JRWKVDQG)UDQNV૷GHOLYHUHGPRUHWKDQVHUPRQV+H
also employed Jews as rhetorical devices. Though he was
aggressive toward Judaism, his discourses were milder
than other churchmen. Contemporary sources suggest,
once again, that Jews grieved for him when he died, but
this is probably an example of the continuation of the
aforementioned trope about the death of saints.
&DHVDULXV SUHVLGHG RYHU WKH &RXQFLO RI $JGH LQ 
Councils are another type of source that reveal, albeit tan-
JHQWLDOO\LQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQ-HZVDQG&KULVWLDQVLQ*DXO
3DNWHU%RGGHQV+RVDQJ7KHFRXQFLOGHFLGHG
that Jews had to be catechumens for eight months before
FRQYHUVLRQ FDQRQ  ,Q DGGLWLRQ FDQRQ  VWDWHG WKDW
meals with Jews were forbidden.
35

*$8/૦૦35

%HIRUHWKH&RXQFLORI$JGHDQRWKHUFRXQFLOZDVKHOGLQ
9DQQHVDURXQG&(&DQRQSURKLELWHGFOHULFVIURP
eating with Jews, arguing that they considered Christian
IRRGLPSXUH'XULQJ&(DFRXQFLOKHOGLQEpaon again
forbade Christians from sharing meals with Jews. Other
prohibitions of shared meals are found in canon 14 of
WKH 7KLUG &RXQFLO RI 2UOHDQV  &( DQG FDQRQ  RI
WKH &RXQFLO RI 0¤FRQ  &( 'RHV WKLV LQGLFDWH WKDW
Christians were eating alongside Jews? Or were councils
simply repeating previous prohibitions? Answering that
is not easy, but the most probable hypothesis is that
Christians and Jews were having meals together because
they did not understand the difference or they just did not
attribute any importance to their neighbour’s religion. The
boundaries between Jewish and Christian identities were
clear only for religious elites, not for the lay population.
With regard to mixed marriages, they were forbidden
LQ FDQRQ  RI WKH 6HFRQG &RXQFLO RI 2UOHDQV  &(
Again, bishops were trying to separate communities.
The same prohibition was enunciated two years later at
&OHUPRQW)HUUDQGFDQRQ&DQRQRIWKHVDPHFRXQFLO
also established that Jews were not permitted to be judges
over Christians, a prohibition that had been promulgated
previously in the Codex Theodosianus;9,DQG;9,
,QFDQRQRIWKH7KLUG&RXQFLORI2UOHDQV&(
another prohibition against mixed marriages was enacted.
In the same canon, there is a limitation that had been
DOUHDG\LPSRVHGLQ,PSHULDO/DZbLQWHUGLFWLRQRIRZQHUVKLS
RI&KULVWLDQVODYHVE\-HZV1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHFDQRQZDV
milder because it established that the Jews should receive
a competens pretium VXLWDEOH SULFH IRU WKH ORVW VODYH
Regarding this issue, the situation of the Jews gradually
worsened. Thus, while in the Third Council of Orleans, a
Christian slave was only able to abandon his Jewish owner
when the Jew had beaten him; in canon 30 of the Fourth
36

36૦૦&+$37(5b

&RXQFLORI2UOHDQV&(QRUHDVRQZDVQHFHVVDU\IRU

IUHHLQJ D &KULVWLDQ VODYH 0RUHRYHU LQ  &( FDQRQ 
RIWKH&RXQFLORI0¤FRQVWDWHGDIL[HGFRPSHQVDWLRQ૷
solidi—for each Christian slave freed. The sum was worse
WKDQ WKH ૿VXLWDEOH SULFH଀ VWLSXODWHG LQ SUHYLRXV FRXQFLOV
EHFDXVH DFFRUGLQJ WR :LOOLDP 3DNWHU   LW ZDV
lower than the normal market price.
$ERYH ZKHQ ZH DQDO\]HG WKH OHWWHU ZULWWHQ E\ 3RSH
*HODVLXV ZH VWDWHG WKDW -HZV WHQGHG WR FRQYHUW WKHLU
VODYHV7KHVDPHSUHRFFXSDWLRQZDVDOVRVHHQLQ*UHJRU\
WKH *UHDWૼV HSLVWOHV &DQRQ  RI WKH )RXUWK &RXQFLO
RI 2UOHDQV DQG FDQRQ  RI 0¤FRQ UHIHUUHG H[SOLFLWO\ WR
Jewish proselytism towards slaves and established penal-
ties against the practice.
Finally, canon 33 of the Third Council of Orleans is par-
ticularly interesting. It prohibited Jews from being pre-
sent among Christians between Holy Thursday and Easter
Monday. Was this law an anti-Jewish measure? Or, per-
haps, were rulers trying to avoid attacks that were regu-
ODUO\ GLUHFWHG DJDLQVW -HZV GXULQJ (DVWHU" %RWK DQVZHUV
are possible. From our point of view, the authorities were
attempting to avoid public disorder during a period in
which, in several churches, Christians heard that the Jews
had killed Christ.
All in all, the councils offer a tool with which to recon-
struct the interaction between Jews and Christians. It is
true that no direct conclusions can be drawn from religious
law. Certainly, the prohibition of shared meals does not
mechanically imply that Jews and Christians were eating
WRJHWKHU1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHUHSHWLWLRQRIWKDWODZFRXOGVLJ-
nify that the authorities were worried about the practice.
The most widely known event related to Judaism in
ODWH DQFLHQW *DXO LV WKH IRUFHG FRQYHUVLRQ RI WKH -HZV
RI &OHUPRQW)HUUDQG LQ  &( 7KHUH DUH WZR VRXUFHV
37

*$8/૦૦37

ZKLFKQDUUDWHWKHHSLVRGHbDcarmen written by Venantius

)RUWXQDWXVFD૶FD&(DQGLibri historiarum by
*UHJRU\ RI 7RXUV FD ૶ &( 9HQDQWLXV ZURWH WKH
SRHPGXHWRDVSHFLILFUHTXHVWIURP*UHJRU\ZKRUHODWHG
the facts to him. Thus, Venantius’ poem relies on informa-
WLRQ SURYLGHG E\ WKH ELVKRS RI 7RXUV 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH
accounts are slightly different.
Venantius’ carmen is particularly aggressive. He employed
adversus Iudaeos tropes continuously. He even spoke about
a Jewish smell, a reference that is not found in previous
Christian writings. According to the poem (Carmina9WKH
HYHQWVXQIROGHGDVIROORZVbGXULQJ$VFHQVLRQ'D\ZLWKRXW
any reason, Christians destroyed Clermont’s synagogue;
the local bishop, Avitus, gave a violent speech trying to con-
vert the Jews of the city; the Jews resisted and gathered in
a house; an armed Christian mob then threatened the Jews;
the Jews sent a messenger to Avitus affirming that they
agreed to be converted, and after that the whole Jewish
community converted to Christianity.
*UHJRU\RI7RXUVODLGRXWDGLIIHUHQWYHUVLRQ7KHILUVW
attack, in his tale, came from the Jews. During Easter—again,
at Easter9—a Jew poured rancid oil over another Jew who
was going to be converted to Christianity and was marching
in white garments in the middle of the Christian procession.
The Christians reacted immediately but Avitus decided to
FDOPWKHP)URPKHUH*UHJRU\UHSHDWV9HQDQWLXVૼQDUUDWLYH
with, however, two differences: no weapons are used by the
Christians and not all the Jewish community were converted.
:DOWHU *RIIDUW   FRUUHFWO\ VWDWHG WKDW *UHJRU\
“FRXOGQRWTXLWHVWRPDFKWKHDUPHGFURZG଀DQGRSWHGIRU
the idea of a non-violent conversion. Along the same lines
is the affirmation that only five hundred Jews of the com-
munity were converted and the rest went to Marseille.
,QGHHG *UHJRU\ RI 7RXUV DV ZLWK *UHJRU\ WKH *UHDW DQG
38

38૦૦&+$37(5b

Isidore of Seville, felt that conversions had to be volun-

tary. Even though sometimes they acted in contradic-
tion with this idea, their texts sustained the need for
sincere conversion.
It is difficult to decide which version is more accurate.
1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHIDFWLVWKDWLQWKHEXONRIWKH-HZLVK
FRPPXQLW\ RI &OHUPRQW ZDV IRUFLEO\ FRQYHUWHG *RIIDUW
; Rose 7KLVZDVQRWFRPPRQIRUWKHSHULRGDQG
it is important to highlight the decision came from Avitus
and not from lay authorities. As was pointed out in the
Italian context, local decisions could change the fortune of
each Jewish community.
%XW$YLWXVૼUHVROXWLRQQHHGVWREHFRPSDUHGZLWKRWKHU
actions that affected the life of the Jews in late ancient
*DXO$FFRUGLQJWRKLVDQRQ\PRXVKDJLRJUDSKHU)HUU«RORI
8]ªVFD૶&(IRUFLEO\FRQYHUWHGWKH-HZLVKFRP-
PXQLW\ RI 8]ªV DW VRPH SRLQW EHWZHHQ  DQG  &(
,Q  DFFRUGLQJ WR *UHJRU\ RI 7RXUV .LQJ &KLOSHULF ,
FD ૶ &( GHFLGHG WKDW -HZV PXVW EH FRQYHUWHG
WR &KULVWLDQLW\ $V ZH VDZ *UHJRU\ WKH *UHDW૷LQ ૷
denounced that Jews from Marseille and Arles were being
converted by force. Finally, the Chronicle of Fredegar (ca.
VHYHQWKFHQWXU\VWDWHGWKDW.LQJ'DJREHUWFD૶
decreed the conversion of the entire Jewish community of
*DXOLQ૶
Obviously, these facts paint a dismal picture for the Jewish
FRPPXQLWLHVRI*DXODWWKHHQGRIODWHDQWLTXLW\+RZHYHU
scholars have different perspectives on the impact of each
measure. Regarding Ferréol, only one source, the Vita
Ferreoli, mentions the conversion. Concerning Chilperic’s
GHFLVLRQ*UHJRU\RI7RXUVZDVQRWYHU\FOHDUDQGKHZDV
probably referring, as we will see, to the conversion of cer-
tain Jews. With regard to Dagobert, only the controversial
Chronicle of Fredegar spoke about the forced conversion
39

*$8/૦૦39

and many scholars doubted the veracity of the event or its

real scope.
Certainly, it is difficult to deny that the situation of
WKH -HZV LQ ODWH DQFLHQW *DXO ZDV SUREOHPDWLF 6FKRODUV
such as Michel Rouche ( DUH FRQYLQFHG WKDW DOO
the mentioned actions against the Jews were actually
SHUIRUPHG 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ WKDW ZH KDYH
LVbIUDJPHQWDU\
What do we know about Jewish daily life in late ancient
*DXO"$VVXJJHVWHG*DOOLFFRXQFLOVSUHVHQWXVHIXOLQIRU-
PDWLRQ $GGLWLRQDOO\ *UHJRU\ RI 7RXUV SURYLGHG VRPH
hints about them. Even though Judaism and Jews were
QRWKLVSULPDU\FRQFHUQVRPHRI*UHJRU\ૼVWDOHVLQFOXGH
-HZV 7KH ELVKRS GHVFULEHG WKH VWRU\ RI 3ULVFXV D PHU-
FKDQW FORVH WR .LQJ &KLOSHULF 3ULVFXV KDG D GLVFXVVLRQ
DERXW UHOLJLRQ ZLWK WKH NLQJ ZKR FDOOHG RQ *UHJRU\ WR
FRQYLQFHDQGFRQYHUWKLP%XWWKH-HZZDVQRWFRQYHUWHG
and he even argued against the king and the bishop. In
IDFW 3ULVFXV GHSOR\HG DQWL&KULVWLDQ DUJXPHQWV Libri
Historiarum, 9, 10 1RQHWKHOHVV DV KDV DOUHDG\ EHHQ
noted, Chilperic decreed that certain Jews, including
3ULVFXVPXVWEHFRQYHUWHGWR&KULVWLDQLW\3ULVFXVUHVLVWHG
again, but this time he was imprisoned. When he obtained
a special permit—by bribe—to attend the marriage of his
son, he was killed by a former Jew—who had converted to
&KULVWLDQLW\૷FDOOHG3DWKLULibri Historiarum,9,
,W LV YHU\ GLIILFXOW WR ILQG RXW PRUH DERXW 3ULVFXV
EHFDXVH *UHJRU\ LV WKH RQO\ DYDLODEOH VRXUFH 0RUHRYHU
his example shows the proximity of certain Jews to royal
power, and the risks that position entailed. In addition,
we must bear in mind that Jews carried out different eco-
nomic activities in late antiquity but, as we saw in the
Italian case, the sources focus on people in high positions
VXFKDV3ULVFXVQRWRUGLQDU\ZRUNHUV
40

40૦૦&+$37(5b

*UHJRU\DOVRPHQWLRQHGWKDWZKHQ*XQWUDPFD૶
 &( DUULYHG LQ 2UOHDQV -HZV DVNHG KLP WR UHFRQ-
struct their synagogue (Libri Historiarum,9,,,7KHNLQJ
rejected the idea and, also, gave a speech attacking the
Jews. This reference is important for two reasons. First,
a synagogue was destroyed in the kingdom, showing
tensions between Jews and Christians, even though it is
impossible to identify the perpetrator (clerics? lay people?
ORFDODXWKRULWLHV"6HFRQGWKH-HZV૷FRQWLQXLQJWKHWUDG-
ition of the Codex Theodosianus—attempted to convince
*XQWUDPDQGWKDWIDFWUHYHDOVDFRPPXQLW\WKDWWKRXJKW
negotiation was possible.
2WKHUIUDJPHQWVRI*UHJRU\RI7RXUVૼWH[WVVKRZSHDFH
ful coexistence between Jews and Christians. For example,
the predecessor of Avitus of Clermont, Cautinus, was said
to be a friend of the Jews (Libri Historiarum, ,9  2I
FRXUVH*UHJRU\FRXOGKDYHWULHGWRGHQLJUDWHWKHELVKRSૼV
image, associating him with Judaism. Libri Historiarum
also presented a tale of an archdeacon who, after partially
recovering his sight in St. Martin’s sanctuary, appealed
to a Jewish doctor for a complete cure and—as a divine
punishment—lost his vision. The story was probably an
invention but shows, again, the possibility of interaction.11
*UHJRU\DOVRPHQWLRQHGDVKLSPDQQHGE\-HZVGLVSOD\LQJ
the diversity of occupations held by Jews in the period (De
gloria confessorum
,Q FRQFOXVLRQ WKH VLWXDWLRQ RI WKH -HZV LQ *DXO FDQ
be interpreted in different ways. There was violence,
expressed by forced conversions and destruction of
synagogues. On the other hand, there is evidence of inter-
action between Jews and Christians, not only among lay
people but also public officials and churchmen. Again, the
fate of each Jewish community depended on the king in
SRZHUDQGORFDOELVKRSV1RV\VWHPDWLFSROLF\WRWKHGHW-
riment of Jews was carried out, except the controversial
41

*$8/૦૦41

GHFUHHRI'DJREHUW&HQWXULHVODWHU$JREDUGRI/\RQFD
૶ &( XQGHU WKH &DUROLQJLDQV FRPSODLQHG DERXW
Jews collecting taxes or converting slaves. Although
Agobard wrote for the purposes of polemic, the most
probable explanation is that Jewish communities led a
UHODWLYHO\QRUPDOOLIHLQ*DXOHYHQDIWHU'DJREHUW

Notes
1
૥-,:(QbIURP$XFKVHHPVWREHDODWHLQVFULSWLRQ

૥2QWKHILUVWWUDFHVRI-HZVLQ*DXOVHH*HLVHO.
3
૥$OVR*UHJRU\RI7RXUVVitae PatrumbVDLGWKDW*DOODQRWKHU
Christian bishop, was also mourned by the Jews at his funeral.
4
૥6LGRQLXV $SROOLQDULV Epistulae et carmina, III, 4 and IV,
b0HQWLRQVRIRWKHU-HZVDOVRLQ9,5HIHUHQFHVWRD&KULVWLDQ
converted from Judaism, in VIII, 13.
5
૥2QWKHVHDXWKRUVVHH*RQ]£OH]6DOLQHURD.

૥2Q &DHVDULXV DQG WKH -HZV VHH 0LNDW  7KH -HZLVK
reaction at his funeral was narrated in Vita Caesarii   ,
composed by five bishops, including Cyprianus of Toulon (ca.
૶&(. The VitabDOVRDIILUPHGWKDW-HZVEHWUD\HG
the Merovingians during a siege of Arles.

૥$OVRWKHCodex Theodosianus (C.TH.;9,DQG C.TH.,,,
bKDGIRUELGGHQPDUULDJHVEHWZHHQ-HZVDQG&KULVWLDQV

૥&DQRQRI0¤FRQFRXQFLOUHSHDWHGWKHVDPHODZ
9
૥,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRUHPDUNRQWKHXVXDOYLROHQFHDJDLQVW-HZV
during Easter in late antiquity. Easter violence was even more
intense in the Middle Ages.
10
૥3ULVFXVSURYRFDWLYHO\VWDWHGWKDW*RGKDGQRGHVFHQGDQWV
nor partners. He quoted the Old Testament (Dt.bWRMXVWLI\
his position.
11
૥Libri Historiarum.9b,QDe virtutibus sancti Martini epis-
copi,,,*UHJRU\UHIHUUHGWRD-HZZKRPRFNHGD&KULVWLDQIRU
believing in the curative capabilities of Saint Martin’s relics. The
Christian was healed and the Jew fell ill, sticking to his Judaism due
to stubbornness.

૥2Q$JREDUGRI/\RQDQGWKH-HZVVHH+HLODQG/DQJHQ
walter . As we stated previously, Agobard knew certain tales
contained in Toledot Yeshu.6HHQ&KDSWHU
42

Chapter 5

Spain

$WVRPHSRLQWEHWZHHQDQG16LVHEXWFD૶
&( .LQJ RI WKH 9LVLJRWKV GHFUHHG WKDW DOO WKH -HZV RI
the kingdom had to be converted to Christianity. After
that decision, both religious and secular law repeat-
HGO\GLVFXVVHGWKHQHZVLWXDWLRQ%XWWKHOHJLVODWLRQZDV
ambiguous. It is frequently unclear whom the laws were
UHIHUULQJWRZKHQXVLQJWKHWHUP૿-HZ଀bZKHWKHUWKH\ZHUH
former Jews converted to Christianity or, simply, Jews.
Furthermore, Visigothic legislation never referred to ex-
-HZVDV૿&KULVWLDQV଀RU૿QHZ&KULVWLDQV଀7KDWYDJXHQHVV
could be seen even in the Seventeenth Council of Toledo
&(WKDWHVWDEOLVKHGWKHHQVODYHPHQWRIWKH૿-HZV଀
of the realm. Were they Jews or were they Christians? As
we will see, the actual extent of forced conversions in the
Visigothic world is difficult to establish.
Was the Visigothic policy toward Judaism an excep-
tion? The majority of scholarship on the issue would
answer in the affirmative but there is not a uniform con-
sensus on the topic. As was noted in the previous chapter,
WKHUHZHUHIRUFHGFRQYHUVLRQVLQ*DXO:HDOVRILQGIRUFHG
conversions in the east. However, the magnitude of the
measures against Jews and former Jews in Spain was on a
different scale. For almost one hundred years laws against
Iudaei and Iudaei baptizati3 were promulgated by councils
43

63$,1૦૦43

and kings. There was no precedent of this kind of atti-

tude against the Jews in antiquity and because of that,
Visigothic Hispania should be considered an exception.
As previously mentioned, the extent of the forced
conversions must be analyzed carefully. First, the law
continued to speak about groups of non-converted Jews
until the end of the seventh century. Second, due to the
existence of certain texts written by Christians that, even
after the Sisebut decree, attacked Jewish practices and
beliefs. In addition, there is a Jewish epitaph written during
Egica’s rule.
%HIRUHDQDO\]LQJWKHVHYHQWKFHQWXU\LWLVQHFHVVDU\
to return to the first testimonies on late ancient Hispanic
-HZV 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ IHZ LQVFULSWLRQV KDYH EHHQ IRXQG
-,:(QQ૶UHODWHGWR-XGDLVPLQODWHDQFLHQW6SDLQ
and only one of them was written after the forced conver-
VLRQ-,:(Qb,WLVDQLQVFULSWLRQRUGHUHGE\D-HZ
called ParagoroIRUKLVWKUHHGHDGFKLOGUHQLQ1DUERQQH,W
ZDVGDWHGH[SOLFLWO\LQWKHUHLJQRI(JLFDZULWWHQLQ/DWLQ
with some words in Hebrew and a menorah. This is very
LPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHPRUHWKDQb\HDUVDIWHUWKH6LVHEXW
forced conversion, there were Jews living in a territory
controlled by Visigoths. The only problem with this inscrip-
WLRQ LV WKDWLW ZDV IRXQG LQ 1DUERQQH 7KH ZHVW RI Gallia
Narbonensis was under Visigothic rule but control of that
area was not easy for the monarchy. In fact, the enslave-
ment of Jews established in the Seventeenth Council
of Toledo included an exception for the Narbonensis.
%HIRUHKDQG -XOLDQ RI 7ROHGR KDG VDLG WKDW UHJLRQ ZDV
WKH૿EURWKHORIWKH-HZV଀4)RUWKLVUHDVRQWKH1DUERQQH
inscription should be considered with caution.
Archaeologically, the panorama is not better. There was
an intense debate about a building found in Elche. When
it was uncovered in 1905, it was generally deemed to be
DFKXUFK1HYHUWKHOHVVVRPHDXWKRUVVWDWHGWKDWLWZDVD
4

44૦૦&+$37(5b

V\QDJRJXH1RZDGD\VHYHQWKRXJKWKHUHLVQRGHILQLWLYH
consensus, most scholars believe that the building was
&KULVWLDQ%HFDXVHRIWKDWLWZLOOQRWEHDQDO\]HGKHUH5
The earlier late ancient texts about the Jewish pre-
VHQFHbLQHispaniaFRPHIURPWKH&RXQFLORI(OYLUDFDb
&( Canons of that council that referred to Jews reflected
D FORVH UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK &KULVWLDQV FDQRQ  SURKLELWHG
marriage between a Christian woman and a Jew, and
FDQRQ  FRQGHPQHG DGXOWHU\ EHWZHHQ D &KULVWLDQ PDQ
and a Jewish woman. Canon 49 forbade Jewish blessings of
Christian fields, and canon 50 rejected shared meals. If the
abovementioned date is accepted for this council, Hispanic
bishops of the early fourth century were worried—as can
EH VHHQ LQ WKH *DOOLF FDVH૷DERXW SRVVLEOH LQIOXHQFHV RI
Judaism on Christians.
$V5DXO*RQ]£OH]6DOLQHURVKRZHG*UHJRU\RI
(OYLUDIRXUWKFHQWXU\H[SUHVVHGWKHVDPHNLQGRIWHQVLRQ
In his homilies, the bishop suggested that there were open
GLVSXWHVEHWZHHQ-HZVDQG&KULVWLDQV*UHJRU\VWUXFNDQ
aggressive stance towards Judaism, employing adversus
Iudaeos tropes. He also emphasized the risks of practices
such as Sabbath and circumcision.
Sometimes anti-Jewish discourse was accompanied by
SK\VLFDOYLROHQFH7KLVLVWKHFDVHQDUUDWHGLQWKH/HWWHU
of Severus of Minorca—also known as Epistula Severi—
a document dating from the fifth century. The Epistula
GHVFULEHV WKH PLUDFXORXV DQG YLROHQW FRQYHUVLRQ RI
the Jewish community of Mahón, a city on the island of
0LQRUFDFD&($FFRUGLQJWRWKHOHWWHUWKHUHODWLRQ-
ship between Christians and Jews deteriorated after the
arrival of the relics of Saint Stephen. The tension came
to a climax when Jewish women attacked a Christian pro-
cession that was trying to initiate a public confrontation
with the Jews. The Christian retaliation—according to the
Epistula—was the destruction of the local synagogue. This
45

63$,1૦૦45

event triggered—after other tensions—the wholesale con-

version of the Jewish community, including members who
had held public office as defensor civitatis and Patronus.
This last fact is important because it shows that Jews
holding public offices was usual in the late ancient world.
The incident in Mahón bears strong similarities with the
IRUFHGFRQYHUVLRQRIWKH-HZVRI&OHUPRQW8QIRUWXQDWHO\
there are no further sources that would allow greater pre-
FLVLRQ RQ WKH LVVXH 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH IDFWV QDUUDWHG E\
6HYHUXVDUHSODXVLEOH%UDGEXU\; Sivan 
%XW DV ZH REVHUYHG SUHYLRXVO\ IRUFHG FRQYHUVLRQV
ZHUH QRW DOZD\V WKH UXOH $b YHU\ LQWHUHVWLQJ H[DPSOH
also on Visigothic territory, was canon 9 of the Council
RI 1DUERQQH  &( ,W VWDWHG WKDW -HZV ZHUH DOORZHG
to hold a funeral procession through the city, but they
ZHUHIRUELGGHQWRVLQJSVDOPV/LQGHU૶7KDW
norm expressed the place reserved for Judaism in certain
ELVKRSVૼPLQGVbDPDUJLQDODQGVLOHQWVXEVLVWHQFH
Continuing with religious law, another council was held
LQbWKH7KLUG&RXQFLORI7ROHGR7KLVPHHWLQJZDVYLWDO
EHFDXVHLWZDVFHOHEUDWHGDIWHU5HFFDUHGૼVFD૶
rejection of Arianism and the conversion of the kingdom to
WKH1LFHQHIDLWK&DQRQDJDLQVW-XGDLVPZDVLQOLQHZLWK
ERWK OD\ DQG UHOLJLRXV DQWHFHGHQWVb SURKLELWLRQ RI PL[HG
marriages, ownership of Christian slaves, public office,
circumcision, etc. There is only one new addition to the
FDQRQDGUDPDWLFRQHbFKLOGUHQERUQWRPL[HGPDUULDJHV
had to be taken from their families and baptized. There is
still a fierce debate around the impact of Reccared’s con-
YHUVLRQWRWKH1LFHQH&UHHGRQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ
-HZV DQG &KULVWLDQV *RQ]£OH] 6DOLQHUR  +RZHYHU
from our point of view, the real change came with the
forced conversion decreed by Sisebut.
8QIRUWXQDWHO\WKHUHDUHQRUHFRUGVRI6LVHEXWૼVGHFUHH
,WZDVPHQWLRQHGLQWKH)RXUWK&RXQFLORI7ROHGR&(
46

46૦૦&+$37(5b

and there are references in Historia Gothorum,  DQG

in Etymologiae 9  , both texts written by Isidore
RI 6HYLOOH FD ૶ :KHQ ,VLGRUH H[SODLQHG 6LVHEXW
measure he said that it was taken with zeal but without
wisdom because faith had to be obtained with persuasion
and not violence. Also in his Sententiae ,,   ,VLGRUH
stated that arguments and exempla and not force were
WKHEHVWZD\VWRFRQYHUWSHRSOH1HYHUWKHOHVVKHSURE-
ably presided over the Fourth Council of Toledo, where
FDQRQ  VWLSXODWHG WKH LPSRVVLELOLW\ RI UHYHUWLQJ WKH
forced conversion. Despite accepting the inappropriate
nature of forced conversions, the canon prohibited the new
converts from returning to Judaism. This measure can be
seen as theological realism—conversion is permanent—or
as a tacit endorsement of the monarchy’s policy.
In fact, Isidore’s attitude towards Judaism was harsh.
References to Jews and Judaism can also be found in his
theological works. Furthermore, he wrote an entire trea-
WLVHGHGLFDWHGWR-XGDLVPbDe fide catholica contra Iudaeos.
7KH WH[W ODFNHG RULJLQDOLW\b LW UHSHDWHG DOO WKH adversus
Iudaeos tropes of previous Fathers of the Church (even
anti-Donatist DUJXPHQWV HPSOR\HG E\ $XJXVWLQH DQG LW
did not provide any information about contemporary Jews.
Moreover, it is significant that Isidore decided to write a
text against the Jews. Even though it is difficult to date the
work with precision, it is probable that he wrote the book
after the forced conversion, with the aim of convincing and
retaining the new converts to Christianity.9
&HUWDLQ VFKRODUV VXFK DV %DW6KHYD $OEHUW 1990,
૶ KDYH VXJJHVWHG WKDW ,VLGRUHૼV LQWHQWLRQ ZDV
WKH JUDGXDO HOLPLQDWLRQ RI -XGDLVP 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKDW
statement has to be approached cautiously. Isidore, like
the majority of the church fathers, wanted the conver-
sion of the Jews. In that sense, he was similar to other
churchmen. However, he lived in a different context, where
47

63$,1૦૦47

the Visigothic monarchy had decided to use violence to

convert Jews en masse. He adapted himself to the situ-
DWLRQ7KXVKHZDVQRPRUHRUOHVVYLROHQWWKDQ*UHJRU\
WKH*UHDWRU*UHJRU\RI7RXUV10
Isidore was not the last late ancient Hispanic churchman
ZKRVSRNHDERXW9LVLJRWKLF૿-HZV଀7KHUHDUHUHIHUHQFHVLQ
%UDXOLXVRI=DUDJR]DFD૶&(7DLXVRI=DUDJR]D
FD ૶ DQG ,OGHIRQVXV RI 7ROHGR FD ૶
8QIRUWXQDWHO\ QRQH RI WKH WKUHH SURYLGHG LQIRUPDWLRQ
about Jewish daily life. They simply repeated anti-Jewish
tropes without mentioning interaction between Jews and
Christians. In certain fragments they suggested that
૿-HZV଀KDGFRQWLQXHGZLWKWKHLUSHUILG\EXWLWLVQRWFOHDU
which group they were speaking about; non- converted
Jews or Christians who had formerly been Jews.11 Only
-XOLDQRI7ROHGRFD૶&(JDYHFHUWDLQKLQWVDERXW
Jews and former Jews. For example, in De comprobatione
aetatis sextae he seemed to be familiar with certain rab-
binical traditions. In addition, in Historia Wambae, as we
noted previously, he disapproved of the Visigothic policy
LQ1DUERQQHWRZDUGV-HZV$OOLQDOO&KULVWLDQDXWKRUVGR
QRWRIIHUPXFKKHOSLQWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKH+LVSDQLF૿-HZLVK଀
communities in the seventh century.
In fact, there is a problematic dependence on legal
sources, both religious and secular. As we said previ-
ously, it is difficult to know with precision whether a law
appeared in order to solve a problem or if it was a pre-
ventive measure. Furthermore, the repetition of a law
could signify a simple juridical custom or the persist-
ence of the problem that previous laws aimed to resolve.
Additionally, as we anticipated, Visigothic law regarding
Jews has another problem. The word Iudaeus is used both
for Jews and for Christians who had previously been Jews.
Sometimes it is easy to identify the groups the legislation
was referring to, as in Lex Visigothorum (=LV13
48

48૦૦&+$37(5b

ZKHUHLWLVZULWWHQ૿-HZV଀LQRSSRVLWLRQWR૿EDSWL]HG-HZV଀
or in LVZKHUH૿-HZV଀KDYHWRDYRLGFRQWDFWZLWK
the “other Jews that persevere in their perfidy of their
KHDUW DQG QHJOHFW WKH FRQYHUVLRQ WR WKH &KULVWLDQ IDLWK଀
%XWLQRWKHUODZVGLVFHUQLQJZKHWKHU૿-HZ଀GHQRWHVD-HZ
RUD&KULVWLDQLVQRWHDV\%HQYHQLVWH/DKDP&RKHQ
DQG3HF]QLN
However, if the usefulness of the legislation as a his-
torical source is accepted,14 a model can be suggested.
After the Sisebut decree, lawmakers insisted on two core
SROLFLHVbFRQWURORIIRUPHUO\-HZLVK&KULVWLDQVDQGFRQYHU-
sion of Jews. Regarding control, there are many laws, but
ZH ZLOO SUHVHQW WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQWb )RUPHU -HZV ZHUH
compelled to pronounce personal and public oaths where
they had to state their abandonment of Judaism and
acceptance of Christianity (LV    DQG   
They had to remain with the local bishop during Sabbath
and other Jewish celebrations (LVDQGWKH\KDG
to publically observe Christian festivities (LV   
When they travelled, they had to obtain a letter from the
local bishop of every town where they had stayed (LV
7KH\FRXOGQRWSURYLGHWHVWLPRQ\LQDWULDOLV
7KH\DOVRKDGWRHDWSRUN15
Thus, according to the law, ex-Jews were treated as
suspicious by the authorities. We do not know to what
extent the legislation was actually enforced, but symbol-
ically Jewishness was thought of as some kind of indelible
PDUN$bIudaeus baptizatus was neither a Christianus, nor
a Iudaeus.
The law also referred to Jews who had never been
baptized. This shows that the conversion process was
QRW IXOO\ DFFRPSOLVKHG 1HYHUWKHOHVV ODZPDNHUV WULHG
repeatedly, to complete conversions. Visigothic legisla-
tion also punished Christians— even inside religious and
lay elites—who collaborated with the Jews (LV.
49

63$,1૦૦49

DPRQJRWKHUVUHYHDOLQJSUREDEO\WKHLQWHJUDWLRQRIWKH
૿-HZV଀LQWRVRFLHW\
Religious law was similar, but less systematic than
secular. As with the laic law, it established that Jews had
to be converted, and Christians—former Jews, also called
૿-HZV଀૷KDGWRSHUVHYHUHLQWKHLU&KULVWLDQIDLWK6XVSLFLRQ
towards this group was—also in the canons—perpetual.
Why were Jews mass converted in Hispania? Why,
after the failure of the Sisebut decree, did other kings
continue attempting to convert Jews and control them?
The answers are not straightforward. It is likely that the
Visigothic monarchy thought religious conversion was the
best way to solidify the union of a weak and multiethnic
kingdom. The Visigoth kings, in fact, were in an insecure
position because Visigoth nobility was never entirely con-
trolled by the regnant houses. However, other kingdoms
were as volatile as the Visigoth and they did not choose
UHOLJLRXVXQLILFDWLRQDVDVROXWLRQ3XWWLQJKLVWRULRJUDSKLF
points of contention to one side, the important issue in
the Visigoth case is that, for first time in Europe, the
entire Jewish population of one kingdom was converted
by force and, after that, there was a permanent policy of
maintaining the new status quo. It was also the first time
when even after conversion, former Jews continued to be
FRQVLGHUHG૿-HZV଀

Notes
1
૥7KHUHDUHGLIIHUHQWRSLQLRQVDURXQGWKHSUHFLVHGDWHRIWKH
IRUFHGFRQYHUVLRQ:HIROORZ*RQ]£OH]6DOLQHUREZKR
RSWHGIRUGXHWRWKHEtymologies of Isidore of Seville, among
other reasons.

૥&DQRQb6HHFRXQFLOWH[WVDQGFRPPHQWDULHVLQ0DUW¯QH]
'¯H]DQG5RGULJXH]DQG/LQGHU.
3
૥7KHUHDUHUXOHVLQ9LVLJRWKLFODZLQZKLFKFHUWDLQDFWLYLWLHV
ZHUHSURKLELWHGIRU૿-HZV଀DQG૿EDSWL]HG-HZV଀)RUH[DPSOHLV
50

50૦૦&+$37(5b

 VWDWHGb Merito ergo testificari prohibiti sunt Iudei, seu

baptizati, sive non extiterint baptizati.
4
૥-XOLDQ RI 7ROHGR Historia Wambae, b ,Q Insultatio, I, Julian
criticized the population of the Narbonensis for nurturing friendship
with the Jews.
5
૥$ VXPPDU\ RI WKH GLIIHUHQW SRVLWLRQV LQ 3RYHGD 1DYDUUR
6HHDOVR/HYLQH૶

૥$OVRNQRZQDVWKH&RXQFLORI,OLEHUULV$OWKRXJKWKHPDMRULW\
of scholars agree on the existence of the council and its approxi-
mate dating, certain researchers have doubts about the council
text that survived to the present day. See, for example, Vilella—
%DUUHGD.

૥6LPLODU H[SUHVVLRQV FDQ EH IRXQG LQ 3RWDPLXV RI /LVERQ
IRXUWK FHQWXU\ DQG 3DFLDQ RI %DUFHORQD FD ૶FD  2Q
WKHVHDXWKRUVVHH*RQ]£OH]6DOLQHUR.

૥,QWHUHVWLQJO\ WKH %LVKRS RI 7HUUDFLQD VDLG WR *UHJRU\ WKH
*UHDWWKDWKHKDGH[SHOOHGWKH-HZVIURPWKHV\QDJRJXHEHFDXVH
the building was too close to the church and the psalms could be
KHDUGIURPLW6HH*UHJRU\WKH*UHDWRegistrum, II, 45.
9
૥7KLVSRLQWKRZHYHUUHPDLQVFRQWURYHUVLDO&HUWDLQDXWKRUV
in fact, consider that the De Fide was written before the Sisebut
GHFUHH RI IRUFHG FRQYHUVLRQ *RQ]£OH] 6DOLQHUR E ૶
There are also discussions around the degree of knowledge that
Isidore had of Judaism.
10
૥2Q,VLGRUHDQGWKH-HZVVHHDOVR$OEHUW1990, Cohen 1999,
૶'UHZVDQG/DKDP&RKHQ.
11
૥2Q WKHVH DXWKRUV VHH %OXPHQNUDQ] , Del Valle
5RGU¯JXH]DQG*RQ]£OH]6DOLQHUR.

૥7KHUH DUH GRXEWV DURXQG WKH UHOLJLRQ RI -XOLDQ ,QGHHG D
0R]DUDE&KURQLFOHZULWWHQLQVWDWHGWKDWKHKDGEHHQD-HZ
Concerning rabbinical traditions, Julian wrote about the cosmic
Sabbath, a messianic idea that has similarities with b Sanhedrin
2Q-XOLDQVHH'HO9DOOH5RGULJXH]
13
૥(YHQ WKRXJK 9LVLJRWKV QHYHU UHIHUUHG WR WKHLU ODZV DV
/H[b 9LVLJRWKRUXP (LV ZH ZLOO XVH =HXPHUૼV  FRPSLODWLRQ
and terminology.
14
૥5DFKHO 6WRFNLQJ  DUJXHV WKDW WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW
Jews and conversi which can be obtained from Visigothic law is
not valid because it dealt more with lawgivers’ conceptions than
with the reality.
15
૥,WLVYHU\LQWHUHVWLQJWKDWODZVFRPSHOOLQJ-HZVWRHDWSRUN
show changes even inside the Visigoth law. LV.VWDWHGWKDW
51

63$,1૦૦51

Jews had to eat everything, without discerning between pure and

impure food. LV.H[SUHVVHGWKDW૿-HZV଀KDGWRVZHDU૷LW
was a placitum—that they ate pork but if they were not able, at
least to consume food cooked with pork. LVWKHODVWODZ
UHJDUGLQJSRUNFRQVXPSWLRQVWDWHGWKDWLI૿-HZV଀ZHUHQRWDEOH
to eat pork because they felt aversion due to the nature of the
pig meat, but they acted as Christians, they did not need to be
punished. In this law, we think is possible to see a kind of nego-
tiation between the recently converted and the authorities. See
/DKDP&RKHQDQG3HF]QLN.

૥2Q -HZV DQG 9LVLJRWKLF ODZ VHH *RQ]£OH] 6DOLQHUR E,
DQG0DUWLQ1HPR3HNHOPDQ.

૥$V ZH VWDWHG WKHUH DUH VLPLODULWLHV EHWZHHQ VHFXODU DQG
UHOLJLRXV ODZ UHJDUGLQJ WKH ૿-HZV଀ ,Q IDFW ERWK corpora mutually
LQIOXHQFHG HDFK RWKHU )RXUWK &RXQFLO RI 7ROHGR  &(b DJDLQVW
&KULVWLDQVWKDWFROODERUDWHZLWK૿-HZV଀FFKLOGUHQRIWKH૿-HZV଀
had to be separated from their parents in order to be educated by
&KULVWLDQVFSURKLELWLRQRILQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQ૿-HZVWKDWZHUH
FRQYHUWHG଀DQG૿-HZVWKDWSHUVLVWLQWKHLU-XGDLVP଀FDJDLQVW
૿-HZLVK଀ RZQHUVKLS RI &KULVWLDQ VODYHV F  6L[WK &RXQFLO RI
7ROHGR&(bSXEOLFRDWKPDGHE\૿-HZV଀DEMXULQJ-XGDLVPF
1LQWK&RXQFLORI7ROHGR&(b૿%DSWL]HG-HZV଀PXVWUHPDLQZLWK
ELVKRSVGXULQJWKHGD\VRI-HZLVKIHVWLYLWLHVF7KHUHDUHDOVR
JHQHUDOUHIHUHQFHVWRWKH૿-HZV଀DQGFRQILUPDWLRQRISUHYLRXVODZV
LQWKH(LJKW&(7HQWK&(7ZHOIWK&(6L[WHHQWK
&(DQG6HYHQWHHQWK&(&RXQFLOVRI7ROHGR
52

Chapter 6

Egypt

It is known that Alexandria was probably the most important

Jewish diasporic settlement in antiquity. In fact both Jewish
and non-Jewish sources referred to a huge Jewish popula-
tion in the coastal city. However, it was not only Alexandria
that was important; Jews were spread all over Egypt.
Several texts written by Jews living in Egypt survived.
7KHPRVWZLGHO\NQRZQDXWKRULVREYLRXVO\3KLOR+DGDV
/HEHO  EXW WKHUH DUH DOVR DQRQ\PRXV VRXUFHV VXFK
as the Epistle of Aristeas 1LFNHOVEXUJ  7KH Epistle
narrated the mythical translation of the Old Testament
LQWR*UHHNDVVRFLDWLQJWKHSeptuagint to Alexandria.1%XW
these writings were produced before the second century
&(8QIRUWXQDWHO\LQODWHDQWLTXLW\WKHUHDUHIHZHU-HZLVK
DQGQRQ-HZLVKVRXUFHVWKDWVSRNHDERXW-HZV:K\FRXOG
that be?
/LIH IRU -HZV LQ (J\SW KDG WKUHH WXUQLQJ SRLQWVb WKH
$OH[DQGULDQSRJURPRI&(WKHDQQLKLODWLRQRI૶
CE, and the expulsion from Alexandria in 415 CE. Even
though these events affected Alexandrian Jews more than
other Jews living in Egypt, the centrality of that community
was of such importance that there was a knock-on effect
for other Jews in the region.
The relationship between Jews and non-Jews in Alexandria
was tense. Certainly, there was contact between groups, but
53

(*<37૦૦53

sources highlighted aggression from both sides. According to

3KLOR$OH[DQGULDQ-HZVZHUHPDVVLYHO\DWWDFNHGE\SDJDQV
LQ  &(b VHYHUDO -HZV ZHUH NLOOHG V\QDJRJXHV GHVWUR\HG
and houses burned. The level of violence was, as Erich
*UXHQUHPDUNVQHZ$IWHUWKHSRJURP, Jews were
allowed to live only in one of the five Alexandrian quarters,
probably forming—according to Stroumsa ( ૷
the first ghetto%XWWKHZRUVWZDV\HWWRFRPH'XULQJWKH
7UDMDQFDPSDLJQDJDLQVWWKH3DUWKLDQVWKDWEHJDQLQ&(
eastern Jewish communities rebelled against the Romans.
(J\SWLDQ-HZVZKRKDGQRWUHEHOOHGLQWKH-HZLVK:DU૶
&(MRLQHGWKHPRYHPHQWDJDLQVW5RPH7KHUHVXOWRIWKDW
decision was a retaliation that destroyed the majority of the
-HZLVKFRPPXQLWLHVRI(J\SWEHWZHHQDQG&(
That annihalation can be seen in the epigraphic evidence.
Despite the fact that inscriptions found in Egypt were scarce
in relation with the estimated Jewish population between
antiquity and late antiquity, only thirteen out of 135 were
ZULWWHQDIWHUWKHVHFRQGFHQWXU\+RUEXU\DQG1R\1993
Despite the notoriety of the Cairo Genizah, the manu-
scripts found there were written from the ninth century
onward.31HYHUWKHOHVVSDS\ULUHODWHGWR-HZVXQFRYHUHGLQ
late ancient Egypt also reveal a decline of the Jewish popu-
ODWLRQDIWHU&(3DS\ULZULWWHQE\-HZVDQGPHQWLRQVRI
Jews in papyri reappeared only in the mid-third century.4
%XWDJDLQDIWHUWKHILUVWWKLUGRIWKHIRXUWKFHQWXU\WKHUH
are few documents mentioning Jews or written by them.5
On the other hand, the few papyri found show that Jews
held a range of positions in society, namely landowners,
IDUPHUVSHDVDQWVWUDGHUVDQGVDLORUV+DDVb૶
3UREDEO\WKHEHVWNQRZQSDS\UXVLVDKetubah (a type
RI-HZLVKPDUULDJHFRQWUDFWZULWWHQLQ$QWLQRSROLVERWKLQ
$UDPDLFDQG*UHHNGDWHGWR&(6LUDWHWbDO,W
could be associated with the rabbinization process that we
VDZLQ,WDO\DQG1RUWK$IULFD2WKHUSDS\ULVKRZDVLPLODU
54

54૦૦&+$37(5b

development of Hebrew and Aramaic. On the other hand,

it is possible that the rabbinization and Hebraization phe-
QRPHQD GHSHQGHG RQ LPPLJUDWLRQ IURP 3DOHVWLQH DIWHU
&(7KHKetubah reminds us that Egyptian Jews were
not only living in Alexandria.
What can archaeology contribute to this panorama?
8QIRUWXQDWHO\DOPRVWQRWKLQJ(YHQWKRXJKWKHUHLVZULWWHQ
evidence of Jewish temples in Elephantine and Heliopolis, and
synagogues in several Egyptian cities including Alexandria,
no Jewish archaeological remains have ever been found.
6RPHLQVFULSWLRQVFRQWDLQLQJWKHZRUG͕͖͔͚͊͘͜੣Proseuche,
V\QDJRJXHZHUHXQFRYHUHGEXWQREXLOGLQJKDVEHHQIRXQG
/DVWEXWQRWOHDVWLWLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWWRFRQVLGHUDOEHLW
EULHIO\ (J\SWLDQ PDJLFDO WH[WV DQG DUWLIDFWV૷PDLQO\
amulets—both Jewish and Christian, written in the period
XQGHU VWXG\ %RKDN  $V ZH ZLOO VHH EHORZ LQ WKH
VHFWLRQUHJDUGLQJPDJLFERZOVRI%DE\ORQLDLWLVQRWDOZD\V
SRVVLEOH WR GLVWLQJXLVK EHWZHHQ ૿-HZLVK଀ RU ૿&KULVWLDQ଀
amulets because there was a shared magical culture. In
IDFW૿-HZLVK଀PDJLFDOWH[WVLQFRUSRUDWHGIRUHLJQHOHPHQWV
ZKLOH ૿&KULVWLDQ଀ DPXOHWV DOVR HPSOR\HG QRQ&KULVWLDQ
components, including certain Jewish words. However,
%RKDN  VWUHVVHG WKH SDUWLFXODULW\ RI -HZLVK PDJLF
ZKLOH %RXVWDQ DQG 6DQ]R  FKDOOHQJHG D VLPSOLVWLF
view around shared magical practices. They suggested
WKDW FHUWDLQ ૿-HZLVK଀ QDPHV DQG ZRUGV WKDW DSSHDUHG LQ
Christian magical texts no longer carried Jewish meanings.
As a preliminary conclusion, sources show a strong
and dynamic Jewish life in Egypt from Hellenistic times up
WRWKH-HZLVK5HYROWLQ૶DQGDIWHUWKDWDUHGXFHG
and volatile continuing existence, marked with sporadic
attacks, mainly in Alexandria.
The more important sources about Jewish commu-
nities during late antiquity, also in Egypt, are Christian.
However, they do not provide much information. Origen
5

(*<37૦૦55

૶&(LVDJRRGVWDUWLQJSRLQWEXWKLVWH[WVDUHQRW
free of problems. First of all, even though he was born in
$OH[DQGULDKHWUDYHOHGWR5RPHLQ૶WR$UDELDLQ
૶DQGWRWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOLQ૶$IWHUDFRQ-
flict with the bishop of Alexandria, he moved to Caesarea
LQ3DOHVWLQHLQ+HFRQWLQXHGWRWUDYHOEXW&DHVDUHD
UHPDLQHG KLV KRPH XQWLO KLV GHDWK LQ  7KHVH IDFWV
are important because it is difficult to obtain informa-
tion about the period in which Origen lived in Alexandria.
Even his texts written in that city could have been edited
ODWHULQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHO7KXVLWLVQRWFOHDULIKLVNQRZ-
ledge about Judaism was produced in an Egyptian or in a
3DOHVWLQLDQPLOLHX
Origen wrote many texts. He used the typical anti-
Jewish discourses in his production, attacking Jews for
WKHLU UHMHFWLRQ RI -HVXV 1HYHUWKHOHVV KH GLG QRW ZULWH
a specific work against them and had frequent contact
with Jews, not only for the purposes of debate, but also
to improve his knowledge of Hebrew. His writing shows
exegetical strategies similar to rabbinical ones. Certainly,
2ULJHQૼVPDLQSUREOHPZHUHSDJDQVDQGFHUWDLQ*QRVWLFV
who were religious groups that denied the validity of the
Old Testament. From that point of view, he defended the
OHJLWLPDF\RIWKH-HZLVK%LEOHREYLRXVO\FULWLFL]LQJ-HZVIRU
their reaction against Jesus.9
%XW DJDLQ QR YLWDO LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW $OH[DQGULDQ
Jews can be found.10 It is necessary to keep in mind that
Origen was born seventy years after the Jewish revolt
against Trajan. As already stated, only at the end of the
third century did Egyptian Jews—according to the papyro-
ORJLFDO UHFRUG૷EHFRPH SDUWLDOO\ YLVLEOH DJDLQ 7KHUH
is, however, a text— De Principiis—written during this
Alexandrian period that reveals some knowledge about
UDEELQLF-XGDLVP$V'H/DQJHSIIVXJJHVWHG
Origen knew the rabbinical stipulation about the distance
56

56૦૦&+$37(5b

that a man can walk during Sabbath (two thousand

FXELWVDPHDVXUHPHQWZULWWHQLQWKHMishnah. Were there
rabbinized Alexandrian Jews at the beginning of the third
century? It was highlighted here that some papyri display
signs of Hebraization in the fifth century, but more evi-
GHQFHLVQHHGHG,QIDFW'H/DQJHVXJJHVWHG
that it is difficult to know if Origen reedited De Principiis in
WKH/DQGRI,VUDHORULIKHDFTXLUHGWKHUDEELQLFDOLQIRUPD-
WLRQGXULQJKLVILUVWWUDYHOWR3DOHVWLQH2QWKHRWKHUKDQG
in his Contra Celsum, Origen demonstrates—through the
pagan Celsus—that he was familiar with Jewish narratives
against Jesus, similar to Toledot Yeshu traditions.11 Thus,
Origen exhibited theological anti-Judaism and, at the same
time, contact with the Jewish community. The problem is
that his own life makes it difficult to know which Jews he
had contact with and where.
We have mentioned the expulsion of the Alexandrian
FRPPXQLW\DFFRPSOLVKHGE\WKHELVKRS&\ULOFD૶
&( LQ ૶ &KULVWRSKHU +DDV   VXJJHVWHG
that that situation was an exception and it should not be
extrapolated to the whole period. However, although it is
true that interaction was the rule, it is also true that there
were intense tensions between Jews and Christians, and
WKHHYHQWVRI૶ZHUHDZDWHUVKHG
Cyril’s rhetoric was fiercely anti-Jewish, even before
becoming bishop of Alexandria. Haas correctly stated that
after the destruction of the pagan Serapeum in 391 CE,
Jews became the most significant religious adversary.
Even though there is no evidence of Judaizing attitudes
in Alexandria, Cyril considered the existence of a signifi-
cant alternative religious community to be intolerable.
The opportunity came, according to Socrates Scholasticus,
from a Jewish attack. After a conflict between Jews and
Christians related to Jewish attendance to the theatre on
Saturdays, one night Jews spread the notice that the main
57

(*<37૦૦57

Alexandrian church was on fire. When Christians arrived

at the place, Jews killed a great number of them in the
ambush. The following day Cyril gathered a big crowd,
seized all the synagogues—converting some of them to
churches, burning others—and evicted the Jews, while also
destroying houses and shops. It is difficult to pin down pre-
cisely what happened, but it is important to highlight that
the Jewish population was not passive and often reacted
violently against Christians and pagans (Irshai 2Q
the other hand, there is a debate around the continuing
survival of the Jewish settlement in Alexandria (Stroumsa
; Irshai (YHQDFFHSWLQJLWVFRQWLQXLW\WKH-HZLVK
population of the city was certainly reduced. It is more dif-
ficult to trace the situation of other Jewish Egyptian com-
munities, but epigraphic and papyrological records also
show a decline.
/HRQWLXVRI1HDSROLVVDLGLQWKHVHYHQWKFHQWXU\WKDW
there were Jews living in Alexandria. The Genizah found
in Cairo revealed that, up to the ninth century, the vitality
of Egyptian Jews was reborn. Whether this was the result
of fresh immigration—as was probably the case after
&(૷RULQGLJHQRXVJURZWKLWLVGLIILFXOWWRDQVZHU

Notes
1
૥&XUUHQWO\WKHSeptuagint is seen as the conclusion of a long
process of translation that involved different places of the Diaspora
DQGHYHQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHO2QWKHSeptuagint see Rajak .

૥2QWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRI-HZU\LQ૶&(VHH.HUNHVODJHU
. In contrast, stating continuity based on papyrological evi-
GHQFHRXWVLGH$OH[DQGULDDQGDVXSSRVHGO\-HZLVK$OH[DQGULDQ
embassy to Rome, Haas ૶
3
૥6RPH PDQXVFULSWV DUH SUREDEO\ FRSLHV RI SUHYLRXV WH[WV
However, up to this day scholars have not found any significant
information about late ancient Egyptian Jews there.
4
૥6HH 7FKHULNRYHU     ,b &3- 3DS\UL UHODWHG WR ODWH
DQFLHQW(J\SWZHUHFRPSLOHGLQ7FKHULNRYHUHWbDO ,,,&3-
58

58૦૦&+$37(5b

For Jewish literary works written in papyrus, see van Haelst ,
who also sees a decline in the second century. Ostraca are also
important to reconstruct Jewish life.
5
૥7DO,ODQZKRLVFRPSLOLQJDQXSGDWHRI&3-FULWLFL]HV
Tcherikover’s compilation, mainly for ignoring papyri in Aramaic
and Hebrew. She thinks that the new found papyri and new cri-
teria of compilation, shows continuity of the Jewish settlement
DIWHU&(,QDGGLWLRQVKHEHOLHYHVWKDW(J\SWLDQ-HZLVKFRP-
munities between the fifth and seventh centuries were more
important than Tcherikover affirmed. However, even with the
new manuscripts, the panorama outlined by Tcherikover has not
FKDQJHGGUDPDWLFDOO\1HYHUWKHOHVVLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRDZDLW,ODQૼV
SXEOLFDWLRQRI,9&3-EHIRUHGUDZLQJGHILQLWHFRQFOXVLRQV

૥+DDVIIEHOLHYHGWKDWSURFHVVHVRI+HEUDL]DWLRQ
and rabbinization became pronounced in the last part of the fourth
FHQWXU\ 1HYHUWKHOHVV PRUH HYLGHQFH LV QHFHVVDU\ WR VXSSRUW
WKH LGHD RI DQ HDUO\ +HEUDL]DWLRQ $OVR ,ODQ  REVHUYHV WKH
increasing use of Aramaic and Hebrew in Egypt after the fourth
century, although she sustains that both languages were important
even before that. She also highlights the importance of papyri with
piyyutim that demonstrate a strong link between Egypt and the
/DQGRI,VUDHO

૥7KHRQO\H[FHSWLRQFRXOGEHWKHDQFLHQWWHPSOHRI(OHSKDQWLQH
where certain authors (see Rosenberg  VXJJHVWHG WKDW D
IORRUbRIEHWWHUTXDOLW\XQFRYHUHGLQWKH૿$UDPDLFTXDUWHU଀ZDVD
WHPSOH RI <DKZHK GDWLQJ IURP WKH ILIWK FHQWXU\ %&( UHIHUUHG WR
in papyri of that period. However, it is difficult to confirm if the
excavated structure belonged to the mentioned temple.

૥/HYLQHIIUHFRJQL]HGWKDW(J\SWLDQLQVFULSWLRQVRI
WKHWKLUGFHQWXU\%&(ZHUHWKHILUVW૿KDUG଀HYLGHQFHRIV\QDJRJXHV
EXW KH RSWHG IRU 3DOHVWLQH DV WKH SODFH ZKHUH V\QDJRJXHV
originated.
9
૥2Q 2ULJHQ DQG WKH -HZV VHH 'H /DQJH  and Drake
b૶
10
૥7KHUH DUH PHQWLRQV RI -XGDLVP LQ &OHPHQW RI $OH[DQGULD
DV ZHOO 1HYHUWKHOHVV KH UHIHUUHG PDLQO\ WR rhetorical Jews. On
&OHPHQWDQGWKH-HZVVHH&DUOHWRQ3DJHW. See also Timothy
and Aquila, a polemical text written between the fifth and sixth
century, probably in Egypt.
11
૥2Q WKH VWDWHPHQWV DJDLQVW &KULVWLDQV H[SUHVVHG E\ WKH
figure of the Jew in the Contra Celsum as a reproduction of real
Jewish-$OH[DQGULDQDQWL&KULVWLDQDUJXPHQWVVHH1LHKRII.
59

(*<37૦૦59

૥6HH +DDV   DQG 6WURXPVD . There are also


UHIHUHQFHV૷WKRXJK LPSUHFLVH૷LQ -RKQ RI 1LNLX DQG 0LFKDHO WKH

Syrian. On the other hand, according to Anastasius Sinaita there was
a Jewish philosopher called Acoluthos in sixth-century Alexandria.
60

Chapter 7

The Land of Israel

It is impossible to summarize the history of the Jews in the

/DQGRI,VUDHOGXULQJODWHDQWLTXLW\LQDIHZSDJHVEXWZH
can present an overview. However, first it is necessary to
lay out the most important events of the period.
$IWHUWKHGHIHDWRIWKH-HZLVK5HYROW૶&(-HZLVK
FRPPXQLWLHVEHJDQDVORZUHRUJDQL]DWLRQ,Q&(-HZV૷
XQGHU WKH OHDGHUVKLS RI %DU .RNKED૷UHEHOOHG RQFH PRUH
against Rome. Again they were defeated and that event
UHSUHVHQWHGDKDUGEORZIRU-HZLVKFRPPXQLWLHVLQ3DOHVWLQH
*UDGXDOO\WKHFHQWUHRI-HZLVKOLIHPRYHGIURP-XGHDWR*DOLOHH
/HYLQH ; Sivan  ૶ 0HDQZKLOH &KULVWLDQLW\
JUHZVORZO\LQ3DOHVWLQH7KLVLVQRWWKHSODFHWRGLVFXVVWKH
SUHFLVHPRPHQWRIWKH૿SDUWLQJRIWKHZD\V଀EXWLQWKHILUVW
two centuries CE, differences between Jews and Christians
were not as obvious as they are for a modern observer.
Here it is worth mentioning Israel Yuval’s (SROHPLFDO
position: Rabbinical Judaism as a response to Christianity.
Even though Yuval’s point of view was not accepted by all
scholars, his works are important as they remind us that
rabbinical Judaism was a new creation. As Alan Segal (
has previously stated, both religions, rabbinical Judaism and
Christianity, were not father and son, but brothers.
61

7+(/$1'2),65$(/૦૦61

8QOLNH RWKHU UHJLRQV ZH KDYH VWXGLHG WKHUH DUH

VHYHUDO ODWH DQFLHQW WH[WV ZULWWHQ E\ -HZV LQ 3DOHVWLQH
that have survived to the present day. The Mishnah
was written at the beginning of the third century and
compiles a series of laws regarding different areas of
Jewish life, such as agriculture, criminal law, marriage,
idolatry, etc. Tosefta is another collection, similar to the
Mishnah DOVR HGLWHG LQ WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO DURXQG WKH
same time. Finally, the Talmud Yerushalmi— completed
around the fourth to fifth centuries— commented on
certain mishnaic tractates. Genesis Rabbah, Leviticus
Rabbah, and Pesikta de- Rav Kahana, among others, were
also produced in the period.1
All this written production offers a significant amount of
information, which represents a big advantage over other
UHJLRQVZHKDYHVHHQLQSUHYLRXVFKDSWHUV1HYHUWKHOHVV
as stated in the introduction, rabbinical texts are not
straightforward. In fact, the Yerushalmi compiled different
rabbinical dicta attributed to rabbis between the second
FHQWXU\%&(DQGIRXUWKFHQWXU\&($VZHZLOODOVRVHHLQ
the Bavli, there is a long-running debate around changes—
or additions—made by the final editors of the texts (if we
DFFHSWWKHH[LVWHQFHRIILQDOHGLWRUV
While rabbis were compiling—or creating—the Yesushalmi,
an important change happened in the Roman Empire:
Constantine legalized Christianity and developed a pro-
Christian policy. In spite of the fact that he only converted
himself to Christianity on his deathbed, and that only after
7KHRGRVLXV ,b GLG WKH HPSLUH EHFRPH RIILFLDOO\ &KULVWLDQ
&RQVWDQWLQHૼV GHFLVLRQ KDG D GLUHFW LPSDFW RQ 3DOHVWLQHૼV
topography. Indeed, the proliferation of churches such as
the Holy Sepulchre changed the shape of Jerusalem and
DFFHOHUDWHGWKHPRYHPHQWRI-HZVWR*DOLOHH,QGHHGDIWHU
the fourth century, Jerusalem gradually became a Christian
62

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FLW\,WLVQHFHVVDU\WRVWUHVVWKDWbWKHSURFHVVZDVSURJUHV-
sive because up to the fourth century the Christian popula-
WLRQLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOZDVbVSDUVH
%XWJUDGXDOO\WKH&KULVWLDQL]DWLRQRIWKHHPSLUHEHFDPH
central. Concerning legislation, the situation of the Jews
deteriorated. As we have seen, the Codex Theodosianus
PDUJLQDOL]HG-HZV%XWWKHJustinian Code—promulgated in
DQGDQGZLGHO\XVHGLQWKHHDVW૷ZDVHYHQWRXJKHU
(Rabello  7RODQ HWb DO  7ZR RI -XVWLQLDQૼV ZHOO
known novellae are good examples. As noted in &KDSWHUb,
novella 37 established the conversion of every African syna-
gogue into a church in 535 CE. In addition, in the Novella 146
̶͖͊̈́ ̫͇͖͆̈́͒͞૷HQDFWHG LQ  &(૷-XVWLQLDQ GHWHUPLQHG
WKDW *UHHN /DWLQ RU DQ\ RWKHU ODQJXDJH ZDV DOORZHG WR
be employed during the Jewish liturgy. According to him,
the decree arose from an internal dispute among Jews
UHJDUGLQJWKHXVHRI+HEUHZRU*UHHNLQWKHV\QDJRJXHV
+HDOVRVWDWHGWKDWZKHQUHDGLQJWKH%LEOHLQ*UHHNWKH
Septuagint or Akilas’ translation had to be used. Although
there are disagreements around the language that was
used previously by the Jews, the majority of scholars believe
that the novella confirmed the Hebraization process and its
tensions. Furthermore, the law shows the interference of
the Christian emperor in Jewish internal issues.
/HVV WKDQ D FHQWXU\ ODWHU DQG DIWHU WKH HSKHPHUDO
3HUVLDQ FRQTXHVW RI -HUXVDOHP LQ  &(૷SUREDEO\ ZLWK
Jewish help3—Emperor Heraclius decreed the forced con-
version of Jews of the empire. Certainly, it is not clear if the
PHDVXUH ZDV LPSOHPHQWHG RU QRW 1HLWKHU LV LW SRVVLEOH
to know—if indeed it was applied—the extent of forced
conversions (Dagron and Déroche ૶
%H\RQGWKHVHPDFURSROLWLFDOHYHQWVZKDWGRZHNQRZ
DERXW-HZLVKOLIHLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHO"$VVWDWHGSUHYLRXVO\
there are many sources that reconstruct that history and
63

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hundreds of pages would be necessary to deal with them

in full.4/HWXVVXPPDUL]HWKHDYDLODEOHVRXUFHVEHJLQQLQJ
with the archaeological and epigraphic record.
As Seth Schwartz ( VWDWHG FLWLHV RI WKH /DQG
of Israel during late antiquity looked like typical Roman
cities. Even in the most important Jewish settlement—
*DOLOHH૷LWLVYHU\GLIILFXOWWRILQGVSHFLILF-HZLVKIHDWXUHV
apart from synagogues. In cities like Sepphoris or Tiberias,
there were Roman baths, theatres, temples, and pagan
imagery (Dauphin ,QGHHGWKHUDEELQLFDOPRYHPHQW
OHIWIHZDUFKDHRORJLFDOWUDFHVLQ3DOHVWLQHGXULQJWKHILUVW
four centuries CE. According to Schwartz, Judaism prac-
tically disappeared in the region, except for the marginal
UDEELQLFDOJURXS%XWHYHQUDEELVQHHGHGWRFRH[LVWZLWK
WKHSDJDQHQYLURQPHQWDVWKHDQHFGRWHRI5DEEL*DPDOLHO
in a Roman bath with an Aphrodite sculpture, narrated in
the Mishnah, shows.5
Certainly, Schwartz’s thesis is quite radical. According
to him, Jews were using pagan imagery not as mere orna-
mentation. Furthermore, he believed there were Jews who
૿IRUJRW଀WKHLU-XGDLVP+RZHYHUWKHUHDUHPRUHPRGHUDWH
KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDOSRVLWLRQV)RUH[DPSOH+D\LP/DSLQ
suggests that the rabbinical group was a new movement,
a product of the provincialization and Romanization of the
Jewish elite. This sub-elite was the result of negotiation
EHWZHHQWKH-HZLVKSDVWDQGWKH5RPDQGRPLQDWLRQ/DSLQ
also states that the rabbinical movement was marginal
until the fourth century. It was marginal even within the
sparse Jewish population, which did not forget Judaism but
instead had different conceptions of it.
As mentioned above, there is one distinctive Jewish
EXLOGLQJLQWKHUHJLRQbWKHV\QDJRJXH7KHODUJHPDMRULW\
RI ODWH DQFLHQW V\QDJRJXHV ZHUH IRXQG LQ *DOLOHH DQG
they date from between the fourth and eighth centuries
64

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CE. There were also synagogues in central and southern

3DOHVWLQH EXW WKH\ ZHUH IHZHU WKDQ LQ *DOLOHH :HUOLQ
7KXVDUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHFRQILUPVWKDW*DOLOHH
was the most important Jewish settlement in late antiquity.
A controversy seethes around the rabbinical—or
non-rabbinical—character of late ancient synagogues.
$FFRUGLQJWRFHUWDLQDXWKRUVVXFKDV=HHY6DIUDL1995
synagogues were strongly associated with the rab-
binical movement. However, the majority of scholars
have highlighted that there is no significant evidence
to affirm that. First, only a few rabbis are mentioned in
the epigraphic material found in synagogues. Second,
certain architectural and iconographical features do
not correspond with traditions found in the rabbinic lit-
erature. Indeed, the iconography uncovered in several
synagogues contributed to increasing the complexity of
WKHGHILQLWLRQ=RGLDFVZHUHGLVFRYHUHGLQWKHSDYHPHQW
RIWKHV\QDJRJXHVRI6HSSKRULV%HLW$OSKDDQG+DPPDW
Tiberias, among others. It is important to highlight that
+DPPDW7LEHULDVDQG%HLW$OSKDDOVRKDYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV
of Helios in the centre of the zodiacal disk. %H\RQG WKH
discussion about its meaning—a simple calendar, an
ornament, a religious manifestation, etc.—rabbinic litera-
ture was generally against that kind of art. Furthermore,
human representations were found in synagogue
pavements and reliefs. To give an example, the beau-
WLIXO V\QDJRJXH RI +XTRT૷XQFRYHUHG LQ ૷QRW RQO\
contains images of elephants but also representations of
KXPDQVbDJHQHUDOSRVVLEO\$OH[DQGHUWKH*UHDWDQGKLV
VROGLHUV ,Q %HLW $OSKD KXPDQ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV LQFOXGHG
ELEOLFDO VFHQHV VXFK DV WKH %LQGLQJ RI ,VDDF :HUH WKHVH
synagogues decorated against rabbinical will? Or were
they approved by the rabbis? The answer is problematic,
because although strict rabbinic literature rejected figural
art, some fragments of the Talmudim are ambiguous. As
65

7+(/$1'2),65$(/૦૦65

Catherine Hezser (૶VXJJHVWVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWR

avoid the historiographical practice that strictly separates
rabbis from non-rabbis. There were synagogues that
were probably built by non-rabbinical groups, but others
could have been built—or accepted—by the rabbinical
movement. Interaction between rabbinical and non-
rabbinical Jews was common. On the other hand, there
were also differences within the rabbinical movement
itself. Moreover, as stated above, the rabbinical movement
was marginal until the fourth century and did not achieve
complete control of Judaism until the sixth century.
/DWH DQFLHQW -HZLVK DUW FKDQJHG GUDPDWLFDOO\ DURXQG
the seventh to eighth centuries. In fact, synagogues
VXFK DV 1DૼDUDQ RU 6XVL\D ZHUH PRGLILHG E\ LFRQRFODVWV
Human—and sometimes animal—figures were destroyed
DQG RFFDVLRQDOO\ UHSODFHG E\ JHRPHWULF GHVLJQV 1HZ
synagogues, as in Jericho, were built without figural
DUW 2QO\ WKH VSHFLILF -HZLVK UHSHUWRLUH ZDV NHSWb WKH
menorah, etrog, shofar, Torah shrine, etc. Those icono-
clastic interventions have been read in different ways.
Some scholars see a replication of the wider iconoclastic
movement in Christendom, others, the influence of
Islam, and certain researchers consider that iconoclasm
UHSUHVHQWHGWKHILQDOYLFWRU\RIWKHQDWXUDOO\LFRQRFODVWLF
rabbinical movement. Again, no consensus has been
reached but the fact is that the beautiful and complex
synagogal Jewish art from late antiquity disappeared after
the eighth century. Finally, it is necessary to highlight, as
Steven Fine (GLGZKHQKHDQDO\]HGDUWLQWKH-HZLVK
FDWDFRPEVRIWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOWKDW૿-HZLVKDUW଀LQODWH
DQWLTXLW\ZDVVLPLODUWR*UDHFR5RPDQDUW,QIDFW૿-HZLVK
DUW଀FRXOGEHFRQVLGHUHGDEUDQFKRI*UDHFR5RPDQDUW
Architectural features of the synagogue are useful in
reconstructing some important issues of daily religious
life. For example, the growing area allotted to the Torah
6

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LQODWHDQFLHQW3DOHVWLQLDQV\QDJRJXHVUHYHDOHGWKHFHQ-
WUDOLW\ RI UHDGLQJ WKH 3HQWDWHXFK 7KH VDPH SKHQRP-
enon can be seen in relation to synagogal pavements
representing biblical scenes, or even Torah arks. On the
other hand, the existence of guest chambers and different
rooms remind us of the importance of the synagogue as a
communal centre.
Other characteristics are important too. Most of the
V\QDJRJXHV LQ WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO ZHUH RULHQWHG WRZDUG
-HUXVDOHP LPSO\LQJ WKDW HYHQ WKRXJK *DOLOHH ZDV WKH
new Judaic centre, Jerusalem kept its central place in the
Jewish worldview. As we saw when studying iconography,
the shape of synagogues was also influenced by their
HQYLURQPHQW 7KXV V\QDJRJXHV XQFRYHUHG LQ WKH *RODQ
Heights had structures similar to non-Jewish buildings in
Syria. Despite attempts to establish architectural syna-
JRJDOW\SHVLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOGLYHUVLW\ZDVWKHUXOH
(YHQ LQ D VLQJOH UHJLRQ IRU H[DPSOH %HLW 6KHૼDQ /HYLQH
(SIIGHPRQVWUDWHGWKHYDULDELOLW\RIDUFKLWHF-
tural patterns of five contemporary synagogues.9
It is necessary to highlight that despite Theodosian
and Justinian codes prohibiting the erection or reformation
of Jewish temples, synagogues continued to be built and
UHIXUELVKHGLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOGXULQJWKHZKROHSHULRGRI
ODWHDQWLTXLW\1RWOHVVLPSRUWDQWDUFKDHRORJLFDOVWXGLHV
have demonstrated that no dramatic demographic decline
RFFXUUHGLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOGXULQJODWHDQWLTXLW\,QIDFW
except for Judea, the Jewish population remained stable or
HYHQLQFUHDVHGLQWKHUHVWRI3DOHVWLQHSULQFLSDOO\*DOLOHH
DQG WKH *RODQ 7KH TXDQWLW\ RI ZULWWHQ SURGXFWLRQ IURP
the period confirms the vitality of Jewish communities in
the region.
The other specific Jewish archaeological remains are
cemeteries and catacombs. From these remains, a great
67

7+(/$1'2),65$(/૦૦67

amount of information can be obtained. In this sense, the

most important late ancient site related to Judaism in the
/DQGRI,VUDHOLV%HLW6KHૼDULPLQ/RZHU*DOLOHH.UDHPHU
 ,W LV WKH PDMRU -HZLVK QHFURSROLV૷FRPSRVHG RI
more than twenty-five catacombs dating from between
the third and fifth century CE—in which Jews of Israel
and from different places of the Diaspora were buried.
However, as Fine suggests (WKHFDWDFRPEVRI
%HLW 6KHૼDULP KDG VFDQW -HZLVK LGHQWLW\ PDUNHUV ,Q IDFW
beside a small repertoire of icons and certain inscriptions,
the architecture and iconography are similar to pagan and
Christian ones. Even rabbis were buried in catacombs with
pagan symbolism.
As in the synagogues, the specific Jewish iconographic
repertoire consisted of menorah, shofar, lulav, etrog,
etc. Along with these symbols are found a neutral set of
PRWLIVXVXDOO\XVHGE\SDJDQVbGRRUVVKLSVKRUVHVOLRQV
skeletons, and masks, among others. Furthermore, there
are also human figures. Even images representing gods,
like the goddess Victoria, are found in the catacombs.
Again, this kind of iconography shows that rabbinical
measures were not taken by all the Jews. It does not neces-
sarily imply that rabbis did not use the catacombs, but it
shows once again that the rabbinical movement was slowly
growing, and Judaism was a multifaceted phenomenon.
This can also demonstrate that even inside the rabbinical
movement there were different perspectives regarding art.
One of the catacombs is particularly eminent because
-XGDKWKH3ULQFHYehuda Ha-NasiWKHUHGDFWRU૷DFFRUGLQJ
to the tradition—of the Mishnah was allegedly buried
there. In fact, catacomb 14 is not only a monumental site,
inscriptions with the names of the sons of Judah were found
in situ.10 This brings us to the discussion about epigraphic
rabbis. In  Shaye Cohen stated that not only is the
68

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ZRUG ૿UDEEL଀ VFDUFHO\ SUHVHQW LQ ODWH DQFLHQW -HZLVK HSLJ-

raphy—throughout the Mediterranean—but also that the few
mentions found implied an honorific title not directly linked
to the rabbinical movement.11 Even though Cohen’s perspec-
tive gained consensus in its time, later on different scholars
questioned his statements and currently most researchers
consider that certain epigraphic rabbis were undoubtedly
linked to the rabbinical movement (Hezser 
Regarding epigraphy, different types of informa-
tion can be obtained. The languages used by Jews is an
LPSRUWDQWLVVXH,QJHQHUDO૿UDEELV଀HSLWDSKVZHUHZULWWHQ
LQ $UDPDLF RU +HEUHZ \HW PRVW 3DOHVWLQLDQ ODWH DQFLHQW
LQVFULSWLRQVDUHLQ*UHHN,QIDFWRQO\LQ-XGHDWKH*RODQ
DQG FHUWDLQ YLOODJHV RI *DOLOHH GR +HEUHZ DQG $UDPDLF
LQVFULSWLRQVUHDFKWKHVDPHQXPEHUDV*UHHNRQHV6PHOLN
  $OWRJHWKHU EHWZHHQ  DQG  SHU FHQW RI
-HZLVK ODWH DQFLHQW HSLJUDSK\ XQFRYHUHG LQ WKH /DQG RI
,VUDHOZDVZULWWHQLQ*UHHN6PHOLN(YHQLQVLGH
V\QDJRJXHV *UHHN LV VLJQLILFDQW UHSUHVHQWLQJ D WKLUG RI
the inscriptions (Fine  +RZHYHU LW LV LPSRUWDQW WR
KLJKOLJKWDGLDFKURQLFDQGUHJLRQDOIHDWXUHbD+HEUDL]DWLRQ
process can be seen slowly from the second century
onward, mainly in the countryside.
On the other hand, the epigraphic record also shows—
after the fourth century—the gradual rabbinization of the
population. The presence of talmudic references confirms
the slow but definite growth of rabbinical culture in the
/DQG RI ,VUDHO 1HYHUWKHOHVV ZH PXVW EHDU LQ PLQG WKDW
just a small proportion of the Jews—those who had mid and
high economic status—had epigraphic habits and, because
of that, generalizations should be made with caution.
%HIRUH DQDO\]LQJ UDEELQLF OLWHUDWXUH LW LV LPSRUWDQW
to draw attention to another kind of text that survived
from the period. Even before late antiquity, the letters of
%DEDWKDૼVIDPLO\IRXQGLQWKH-XGDHDQGHVHUWGDWLQJIURP
69

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WKH%DU.RNKEDSHULRGDUHXVHIXO7KHVHSDS\ULFRQILUPHG
the multiplicity of languages employed in the region, at
OHDVWLQZHDOWK\FLUFOHV7KH\ZHUHZULWWHQPDLQO\LQ*UHHN
EXW DOVR LQ $UDPDLF DQG 1DEDWHDQ $PRQJ WKH OHWWHUV D
marriage contract that is very different to the Ketubah
imposed by rabbis was found. This shows, again, the diver-
sity within Judaism.13
1RZ LW LV WLPH WR DGGUHVV WKH UDEELQLF OLWHUDWXUH $V
mentioned previously, the material produced by rabbis
during late antiquity is by far the most important written pro-
duction of the period. However, it is necessary to understand
that those texts were written with a performative purpose.
Thus, texts do not only display ideas, worldviews and certain
realities, but also the society that rabbis desired. This means
that rabbinical sources should be interpreted very carefully
because it is not easy to separate wishes, projections, and
realities. They exaggerated their influence, not only in their
RZQWLPHEXWDOVRLQHDUOLHUFHQWXULHV%HFDXVHRIWKDWDUFK-
aeological and epigraphic evidence should be studied along-
side rabbinical texts, not to confirm facts but to compare
them and enrich the panorama (Meyer 
What does rabbinic literature say about Jews in late
antiquity? Rabbis spoke more about rabbis and norms
WKDQ DERXW QRQUDEELV -HZV RU QRQ-HZV 5HIHUHQFHV
to the common Jewish population—generally called am
ha’aretz—are scarce and always negative. Therefore, we
should begin with the rabbinical group. It was stated previ-
ously that its growth was gradual. In fact, rabbis during the
second century should be seen as a minority faction. Even
though the Yerushalmi attempted to exaggerate rabbinical
power, certain passages of the text demonstrate that rab-
binical authority was questioned by several Jews (Hezser
૶
In their beginnings, rabbis were just a wealthy elite
whose decisions were only voluntarily adopted by other
70

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Jews. The first rabbis—the Tannaim—were prosperous men,

generally landowners who usually distinguished them-
selves from poor people. The next generations—rabbis
known as Amoraim—were more heterogeneous, but most
RIWKHPKHOGDFRPIRUWDEOHHFRQRPLFSRVLWLRQ/DSLQ
It is important to keep in mind that this was an agricul-
tural society and rabbis were directly or indirectly linked to
farming activities.
Sometimes they lived in big cities, and, as we said pre-
YLRXVO\ODWHDQFLHQWFLWLHVLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOZHUHSDJDQ
and, later, Christian. All in all, as Joshua Schwartz (
VWDWHVWKHPDWHULDOUHDOLW\RI-HZLVKOLIHLQ3DOHVWLQHGXULQJ
late antiquity was not very different from the non-Jewish
one. Of course, religious practices were diverse, but the
daily life of a Jew, a pagan, or a Christian was quite similar.
5DEELVZHUHDZDUHRIODQJXDJHGLYHUVLW\LQWKH/DQGRI
Israel. Even though they promoted Hebrew and Aramaic,
they accepted other languages for certain situations, for
example in y (= Yerushalmi, Jerusalem Talmud Sotah
E૶F7KH\DOVRDWWHPSWHGWRLPSRVHWKHLULGHDVDERXW
food permitted for consumption (Rosenblum 7KH\
sought to control the judicial system as well, using private
courts that only issued judgments when both parties vol-
untarily agreed to rabbinical participation.
%XW -HZLVK FRPPXQLWLHV LQ 3DOHVWLQH ZHUH QRW DORQH
The rabbis knew that and struggled to control the inter-
action among religious groups. In fact, Avoda Zara—
Mishnah’s tractate and Yerushalmi’s commentary—were
entirely dedicated to regulating contact between Jews and
QRQ-HZV 7KH PDLQ WDUJHW RI 3DOHVWLQLDQ UDEELV ZDV QRW
Christianity—which was not very strong until the fourth
century—but pagan religiosity. Thus, Avoda Zara stipulated
ordinances related to pagan habits and celebrations such
as the Calends.14 Contacts with non-Jews were not for-
bidden—it was impossible to avoid in pagan cities—but
71

7+(/$1'2),65$(/૦૦71

regulated. For example, Jews were not allowed to trade

with pagans before and after their festivals and rituals in
m (= MishnahAvoda Zara 1, 3, and in y Avoda Zara 39a ff.
The remarkable scarcity of references to Christianity
LQHDUO\3DOHVWLQLDQUDEELQLFOLWHUDWXUHKDVJHQHUDWHGPXFK
debate. This issue is impossible to tackle in a few pages,
but from our point of view that absence was the result of
WKHVORZJURZWKRI&KULVWLDQLW\LQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHODWWKH
time of the Mishnah and, even the Yerushalmi.15 However,
&KULVWLDQVOLYLQJLQ3DOHVWLQHGLGVSHDNDERXW-HZV-HURPH
FD ૶ &( ZKR LQWHUDFWHG ZLWK -HZV GXULQJ KLV
WLPHLQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOLVDJRRGH[DPSOH6WHPEHUJHU
1993 ,Q IDFW KH KDG -HZLVK WHDFKHUV ZKR KHOSHG KLP
learn Hebrew. He also said that Jews continued to go to
WKHUXLQVRIWKH6HFRQG7HPSOHRQWKH1LQWKRI$YLQRUGHU
to mourn (In Sophoniam  )XUWKHUPRUH KH UHIHUUHG
WRWKH-HZLVK͉͚͙͖͎͊͊ͣ͊͗͘, a probable translation of ԧԷՁ
(tanaWKDWFRXOGLQGLFDWHWKDWKHKDGPHWUDEELV He also
GHVFULEHGWKH/DQGRI,VUDHODVDSODFHRYHUUXQE\-HZV
6DPDULWDQV DQG 3DJDQV EXW ZH PXVW UHPHPEHU WKDW
Christian literature often overstates the size of the adver-
sary. All in all, Christian authors such as Jerome exhibit
interaction between communities. Interactions that rabbis
decided not to record, probably because they did not con-
sider it important or urgent.
Christian sources are also important in reconstructing
political facts that Jews did not state in their texts. For
example, the majority of the testimonies on the Jewish
UHEHOOLRQDJDLQVW&RQVWDQWLXV*DOOXVLQ૶&(GHULYHG
IURP&KULVWLDQVRXUFHVb&KU\VRVWRP-HURPH6RFUDWHVRI
Constantinople, and Sozomen. Even though the rebellion
was not very important, it represents the most significant
-HZLVKPLOLWDU\DFWLRQDIWHUWKH%DU.RNKEDUHYROW19 Again,
the problem with Christian sources is that they are often
polemical and generic.
72

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3DJDQ VRXUFHV DOVR SURYLGH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW -HZV

7KH UHEHOOLRQ RI &RQVWDQWLXV *DOOXV ZDV UHFRUGHG E\
Aurelius Victor (Liber de Caesaribus2QWKHRWKHU
KDQG/LEDQLXVWRJLYHDQRWKHUH[DPSOHZURWHOHWWHUVWR
WKH -HZLVK 3DWULDUFK These letters show a cordial rela-
tionship between the two men, in contrast with certain
DJJUHVVLYHUHIHUHQFHVIRXQGLQ/LEDQLXVૼRWKHUWH[WV
7KLVEULQJVXVWRWKHILJXUHRIWKH-HZLVK3DWULDUFK,W
is not easy to measure the real power of this office during
late antiquity. Different laws in the Theodosian Code
attributed him juridical prerogatives within the Jewish
community, and referred to him using honorific titles
such as clarissimus. The office remained active until the
first third of the fifth century. Furthermore, one question
UHPDLQVRSHQDQGFRQFHUQVWKHH[WHQWRIWKH3DWULDUFKૼV
MXULVGLFWLRQLQWKH-HZLVKFRPPXQLW\$V*RRGEODW
H[SODLQVVRPHVFKRODUVVHHWKH3DWULDUFKDVMXVWDPHPEHU
of a stronger rabbinical dynasty, while others consider he
held a different kind of power. From our point of view,
the relationship with the Roman Empire gave special
LQIOXHQFHWRWKH3DWULDUFKHYHQWKRXJKKLVSRZHUVKRXOG
not be overstated. He was an important interlocutor for
the empire and he certainly had influence—though not
without tensions—in rabbinical circles.
Finally, where were the non-rabbinical Jews? This is
a difficult question to answer because rabbis said little
about non-rabbis. As we have already remarked, certain
texts reveal tensions with the rabbinical way of life, and
rabbis always despised the am ha’aretz. Thus, the voice
of non-rabbinical—or not entirely rabbinical—Jews did
not survive. 8QGHQLDEO\ WKH DUFKDHRORJLFDO DQG HSL-
graphic record could help us to imagine a multifaceted
Judaism, but our available insights into the worldview of
non-rabbinical Jews is very limited. All in all, it is important
to highlight that in all likelihood rabbinical and non-
73

7+(/$1'2),65$(/૦૦73

rabbinical Jews were not so very different. Indeed, Jews,

&KULVWLDQV DQG SDJDQV LQ WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO ZHUH PRUH
similar than popular representations suggest.

Notes
1
૥)RU D EULHI LQWURGXFWLRQ WR 3DOHVWLQLDQ UDEELQLFDO WH[WV VHH
Strack and Stemberger .

૥2Q WKH Novella 146, see Colorni  and Rutgers ,
among others.
3
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૶DQG6LYDQ.
4
૥)RUDQH[FHOOHQWVXPPDU\DQGDQDO\VLVRQVRXUFHVWRUHFRQ-
VWUXFW-HZLVKKLVWRU\LQWKH/DQGRI,VUDHOGXULQJODWHDQWLTXLW\VHH
Hezser .
5
૥M (= Mishnah$YRGDZarab2QWKHGLVFXVVLRQEHWZHHQ
*DPDOLHODQGDSDJDQSKLORVRSKHULQD5RPDQEDWKLQ$FFRVHH
Friedheim ૶

૥2Q-HZLVK3DJDQ&KULVWLDQDQG0XVOLPSDYHPHQWVLQODWH
DQFLHQW3DOHVWLQHVHH7DOJDP. Specifically related to syna-
gogal pavements in the period, Fine , and Hachlili .

૥2QLFRQRFODVPLQ-HZLVKV\QDJRJXHVVHH<XYDO+DFKDP.

૥7KH 7KHRGRWXV LQVFULSWLRQ૷IRXQG LQ -HUXVDOHP DQG GDWLQJ
from the first century CE—stated that the synagogue had
been built “for the reading of the Torah and for teaching of the
commandments, and the guest rooms, the chambers and water
ILWWLQJVIRUWKHQHHGRIVWUDQJHUVଉ଀7KHLQVFULSWLRQQRWRQO\VKRZV
the importance of the reading of the Torah— even in an earlier
period—but also the communal significance of the building. The
RULJLQDO*UHHNWH[WDQGWKHWUDQVODWLRQLQ+DFKOLOL
9
૥2QODWHDQFLHQW3DOHVWLQLDQV\QDJRJXHVLQJHQHUDOVHHDOVR
Ribak , Hachlili , and Fine . The analysis of Batei
MidrashKRXVHVRIVWXG\ZKRVHDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHPDLQVFDQEH
easily confused with synagogues or are never discovered at all
due to their simplicity, is very difficult.
10
૥6HH.UDHPHU૶$FFRUGLQJWRb Ketubot 103a-b,
-XGDKWKH3ULQFHZDVEXULHGLQ%HLW6KHૼDULP
11
૥2Q WKH GHEDWH DURXQG HSLJUDSKLF UDEELV VHH DOVR /DSLQ
, among others.

૥$QFLHQW-HZLVKLQVFULSWLRQVIURP3DOHVWLQHZHUHFRPSLOHGE\
Frey ( $Q XSGDWHG FRPSLODWLRQ LQ &RWWRQ HWb DO ૶
74

74૦૦&+$37(5b

LQVFULSWLRQVIURP-HUXVDOHP$PHOLQJHWbDO&DHVDUHDDQG

WKHPLGGOHFRDVWDQGVRXWKFRDVW7KLVFROOHFWLRQZLOOEH
FRPSOHWHG ZLWK WKH SXEOLFDWLRQ RI YROXPHV RQ WKH 1HJHY DQG
*DOLOHHUHVSHFWLYHO\
13
૥2QWKH%DEDWKDDUFKLYHVHH6PHOLN. After this archive,
there is a hiatus of almost four hundred years until the next
discovered Jewish papyrus in the region. See Cotton .
14
૥6HH IRU H[DPSOH m Avoda Zara 1, 3, and y Avoda Zara
F 2Q WKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI 3DJDQ IHVWLYDOV LQ WKH Talmud, see
Friedheim .
15
૥7KHUH DUH QR PRUH WKDQ ILYH GLUHFW UHIHUHQFHV WR -HVXV LQ
Tosefta and Yerushalmi. See, on this topic, SchäIHU and Murcia
. On the other hand, Yuval (VXJJHVWHGWKDWPHQWLRQVRI
Christianity were deliberately omitted in order to overturn that
religion. Indeed, Yuval thinks that the rabbinic literature was an
DQVZHUWRWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQW$OVRHPSKDVL]LQJWKHLPSRUWDQFH
of Christianity and its influence in the growth of the rabbinical
PRYHPHQWVHH%R\DULQ1999 and . From our point of view,
rabbis knew of Christianity but they were not obsessed with it.

૥-HURPH Epistulae,   2Q WKH XVH RI ͉͚͙͖͎͊͊ͣ͊͗͘
instead of ԧԷՁ, see Stemberger 1993, 354. It is important to
highlight that this fragment does not mechanically mean that
Jerome had contact with rabbis.

૥-HURPH Epistulae, 93. See Sivan   $JDLQ ZH
should approach Jerome’s information carefully.

૥)RU D FRPSOHWH OLVW RI &KULVWLDQ DXWKRUV WKDW ZURWH DERXW
the Jewish revolt against Constantius, see Stern , 501. On the
rebellion, see Stemberger 1999૶
19
૥7KH UHYROW ZDV WDQJHQWLDOO\ UHIHUUHG WR LQ UDEELQLFDO
sources, but without mentioning Constantius or providing infor-
mation about the event. For a list of rabbinical references, see
Stern , 501.

૥2Q /LEDQLXVૼV HSLVWOHV WR WKH -HZLVK 3DWULDUFK VHH 6WHUQ
 ૶ $b PLQRULW\ JURXS RI VFKRODUV WKLQN WKDW /LEDQLXVૼV
FRPPXQLFDWLRQVZHUHVHQWWRWKH&KULVWLDQ3DWULDUFK

૥,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR PHQWLRQ DJDLQ WKH SRVLWLRQ RI 3KLOLS
Alexander (ZKRUHPLQGVXVWKDWFHUWDLQWH[WVZKLFKZHFDOO
rabbinical, were written, perhaps, by different (and even non- rab-
ELQLFDOJURXSV+RZHYHULWLVUHDOO\KDUGWRGHYHORSDSLFWXUHRI
WKHP6HHQ&KDSWHU
75

Chapter 8

Babylonia

In b KiddushinED3DOHVWLQLDQUDEELVWDWHGWKDW-HZLVK
%DE\ORQLDQ JHQHDORJ\ WKDQNV WR D GHFLVLRQ RI (]UD ZDV
SXUHU WKDQ WKH 3DOHVWLQLDQ RQH 7KLV GHFODUDWLRQ UHIOHFWV
WKHFRQYLFWLRQRI%DE\ORQLDQUDEELVE\PHDQVRIWKHBavli
DERXWWKHVKLIWRIWKHUDEELQLFDOFHQWUHIURPWKH/DQGRI
Israel to Mesopotamia, a territory under control of the
6DVVDQLG(PSLUHDQGFDOOHG%DE\ORQLDE\WKH-HZV
Even though the Bavli is also a commentary on the
Mishnah, it differs from the Yerushalmi in various aspects.
First of all, it was finished later, between the sixth and sev-
enth centuries. This question is not as uncomplicated as it
may seem because, as we have seen, there are numerous
disagreements about the final redaction of the text. It is
presented as a compilation of rabbinical interpretations
IURP WKH VHFRQG FHQWXU\ %&( XS WR WKH ILIWK FHQWXU\ &(
There are also anonymous statements, the dating of which
is still debated. On the other hand, the Bavli has a different
style to the Yerushalmi. It is less centred on legal issues and
it dedicates more space to stories. Moreover, in contrast to
the Yerushalmi, only Berakhot, out of the eleven agricultural
mishnaic tractates, was commented on in the Bavli.1
%HIRUH WDFNOLQJ UDEELQLF OLWHUDWXUH ZH ZLOO ILUVW GLV-
FXVVDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHPDLQV8QIRUWXQDWHO\QRLPSRUWDQW
76

76૦૦&+$37(5b

-HZLVK UXLQV ZHUH IRXQG LQ %DE\ORQLD 1R V\QDJRJXH RU

academy has been discovered in the most important rab-
ELQLFDO ODQG 1R -HZLVK FHPHWHULHV RU JUDYHV KDYH EHHQ
uncovered in the region. Only two types of artifacts have
EHHQIRXQGbVHDOVDQGPDJLFERZOV
/HWૼVEHJLQZLWKVHDOV7KH\ZHUHXVHGLQWKH6DVVDQLG
Empire by kings, magi =RURDVWULDQ SULHVWV, officers,
merchants, and the wealthy in general. They were small
SLHFHV ZLWK D QDPH DQG DQ HPEOHP /HVV WKDQ ILIW\
Sassanid Jewish seals have been identified.3 Indeed, iden-
tification of Jewish seals is not straightforward, as most of
WKH PRWLIV XVHG E\ -HZV ZHUH DOVR XVHG E\ =RURDVWULDQV
and Christians. Additionally, all the seals we have were
obtained on the black market and as a result, there can
be no certitude about the sites of provenance. Only the
seals that contain Hebrew, Aramaic, or specific Jewish
iconography have been decisively identified as Jewish.
This means that several seals, probably used by Jews,
cannot be recognized as such, which leads us to believe
WKDW %DE\ORQLDQ -HZV XVHG PRUH -HZLVK LGHQWLW\ PDUNHUV
than they actually employed. On top of this, it is difficult
to date the seals.
%XWEH\RQGWKHVHGLIILFXOWLHVFHUWDLQFRQFOXVLRQVFDQ
be reached. Some of the seals identify rabbis mentioned
in the Bavli 7KH PRVW LPSRUWDQW LV +XQD EDU 1DWKDQ
(Friedenberg  Qb  amora, and Exilarch from the
fourth century. Even though the identification is not
absolutely certain, most scholars agree with it. Thus, the
seals provide physical proof of the existence of rabbis in
WKHbUHJLRQ
Seals also give us a glimpse of Jewish iconography—
RUDUW૷LQ%DE\ORQLD7KH\H[KLELWYHU\IHZVSHFLILFPRWLIV
related to Jews. Indeed, only the combination of etrog
and lulav can be described as specifically Jewish. This
is important because representations of these Sukkot
7

%$%</21,$૦૦77

fruits were found in almost every region inhabited by

Jews in late antiquity. On the other hand, the absence
of menorah GHVLJQV LV UHPDUNDEOH 3HUKDSV VHDOV ZLWK
menoroth remain to be found, or Sassanid Jews did not
use the image, unlike the entire Jewish iconography
RI WKH 'LDVSRUD DQG WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO4 Along with the
etrog and the lulav, there are illustrations used also by
&KULVWLDQVDQG=RURDVWULDQVbOLRQVUDPVEHDUVSKHDVDQWV
roosters, stars, the Moon, etc. Figural portrayals are not
DEVHQWb WKHUH DUH -HZLVK VHDOV LQ ZKLFK WKH %LQGLQJ RI
Isaac is represented. Despite most of the seals with that
GHVLJQEHLQJ&KULVWLDQWKH\KDYHFURVVHVWZRVHDOVKDYH
Hebrew letters and no crosses. The motifs were also used
LQ FHUWDLQ V\QDJRJDO PRVDLF SDYHPHQWV LQ 3DOHVWLQH DV
LQ%HLW$OSKD6XVL\DDQG6HSSKRULV2WKHUVHDOVKDYHQR
crosses or Hebrew inscription and can be interpreted as
being either Jewish or Christian.
Seals with the representation of Daniel inside the
/LRQૼV GHQ ZHUH DOVR IRXQG $FFRUGLQJ WR )ULHGHQEHUJ
( ૶ WKH\ DUH DOO &KULVWLDQ ,QGHHG WKHUH DUH
seals of Daniel with crosses. However, certain pieces only
show Daniel with two lions (Fridenberg QQ૶
without crosses, and can be identified as Jewish. It is
true that Daniel in an orans position (elbows close to the
sides of the body and the hands outstretched sideways,
SDOPV XS LV D &KULVWLDQ PRWLI +RZHYHU VRPH 3DOHVWLQH
V\QDJRJDO PRVDLF SDYHPHQWV૷1DૼDUDQ DQG 6XVL\D IRU
example—had the same design. Furthermore, there is a
relief in the Ein-Samsan synagogue of Daniel in a clear
orans position (Fine 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKUHH
Jewish seals (Friedenberg QQ૶૷UHOLDEO\LGHQ-
tified as such since they were written in Hebrew— contain
human figures. Again, these representations show us that
Jews used figurative art, even at the heart of the rabbin-
ical land.
78

78૦૦&+$37(5b

Incantation bowls are more intricate than seals

because they have longer texts. They date from between
the fifth and eighth centuries and were written in Jewish
%DE\ORQLDQ$UDPDLFDOVRXVLQJZRUGVIURP0DQGDLFDQG
Syriac.5 The texts they contain are composed principally
RI PDJLF VSHOOVb SURWHFWLRQ DJDLQVW GHPRQV SHUVRQDO
enemies, and curses; protection for babies and the unborn;
curses against foes; healing incantations; etc. Most of the
bowls were acquired on the black market but a few were
uncovered in archaeological excavations, where they were
discovered buried upside down. It is important to high-
OLJKWDV'DQ/HYHQHKDVGRQHWKDWLQFDQWDWLRQV
were not written to be read.
It is equally as important to emphasize that incanta-
tion bowls were not exclusively Jewish. Indeed, certain
researchers suggested that it is not useful to label magic
ERZOV DV ૿-HZLVK଀ ૿&KULVWLDQ଀ RU ૿0DQLFKHDQ଀ 0DJLFDO
practices often reflect knowledge and habits shared by
the whole population, without religious distinctions, and
incantation bowls are no exception. In fact, certain bowls
were translated into the dialect of other religious communi-
WLHVZLWKQRVLJQLILFDQWFKDQJHVWRWKHWH[W/HYHQH,
SbII2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQWKHIHZRIILFLDOH[FDYDWLRQV
where incantation bowls were uncovered, bowls written in
GLIIHUHQWGLDOHFWV0DQGDLFDQG-HZLVK%DE\ORQLDQ$UDPDLF
IRUH[DPSOHZHUHIRXQGLQWKHVDPHKRXVH0RUHRYHUFHU-
WDLQ ૿-HZLVK଀ ERZOV FRQWDLQHG WKH QDPHV RI SDJDQ JRGV
and formulae(YHQ-HVXVLVPHQWLRQHGRQVRPH૿-HZLVK଀
bowls written in Aramaic (Harviainen /HYHQH,
૶ )LQDOO\ WKH QDPHV RI WKH RZQHUV RI ૿-HZLVK଀
LQFDQWDWLRQERZOVDUHVRPHWLPHV=RURDVWULDQLPSO\LQJLW
was not only Jews that used these bowls.%HFDXVHRIWKHVH
facts, Juusola (1999  DVVHUWV WKDW LQFDQWDWLRQ ERZOV
were inter-confessional material.
79

%$%</21,$૦૦79

:K\ WKHQ GR VFKRODUV VSHDN DERXW ૿-HZLVK଀ LQFDQ-

tation bowls? First, as stressed above, the language.
Second, there are quotations from the Old Testament,
mainly from liturgical texts. There are invocations also,
WR<DKZHKDQGDQJHOVDQGDUFKDQJHOVVXFKDV*DEULHO
Michael, Ariel, Raphael, Metatron, etc. In addition, certain
bowls contain references similar to Hekhalot literature.
Another issue concerns the relationship between rabbis
and magic bowls. Scholarship is divided on this point. Some
scholars claim that incantations were written by semi-lit-
erate sorcerers, while others consider that the same scribes
who wrote rabbinical texts inscribed incantation bowls
/HYHQH૶7KHUHDUHDUJXPHQWVLQIDYRXURIHDFK
position. First, the Aramaic found on magic bowls is similar
to Talmudic Aramaic, but not identical (Shaked ૶
Thus, it could be the result of scribes who were not rab-
binical or just a decision to create a different kind of text.
Second, there are rabbis mentioned on incantation bowls.
$JDLQZHKDYHWKHGHEDWHDURXQGWKHTXHVWLRQbZHUHWKH\
૿UDEELV଀DVZHVHHLQWKHBavli, or it was just an honorific
title?9 Furthermore, m Sanhedrin 10:1 prohibits the use
of biblical verses for magic purposes. Why, then, would a
rabbi have commissioned a magic bowl? As stated previ-
ously, TalmudimZHUHLQWHQGHGWRVKDSHVRFLHW\%XWHYHQ
members of the rabbinical group exhibited behaviours
contradicting what the Bavli established. Magic, perhaps,
ZDV RQH RI WKH ૿GHYLDWLRQV଀ WKDW FHUWDLQ UDEELV DFFHSWHG
without breaking with the rabbinical movement. The conclu-
sion, again, is that practices performed by rabbis were not
YHU\GLIIHUHQWIURPQRQUDEELQLFDODQGQRQ-HZLVKbJURXSV
Magic bowls were also illustrated. And, as we saw in
WKH 3DOHVWLQLDQ V\QDJRJXHV DQG -HZLVK %DE\ORQLDQ VHDOV
figurative art is found there. In the case of the bowls, there
are portrayals of demons, animals, humans, and hybrid
80

80૦૦&+$37(5b

FUHDWXUHV7KHW\SHRILFRQRJUDSK\LVVLPLODUWRWKH3HUVLDQ
showing again the influence of the milieu. In fact, the kinds
of representations found on the Jewish bowls are very
VLPLODUWRLPDJHVIRXQGRQ3HUVLDQDPXOHWV9LOR]Q\
5HJDUGLQJ RWKHU HYLGHQFH WKHUH DUH QR =RURDVWULDQ
sources from the Talmudic period that mention Judaism.10
However, Christian texts written in the Sassanid context
reveal interaction and tension with the Jews. Aphrahat (ca.
૶FD  &( DQG 1DUVDL FD ૶FD b DUH JRRG
examples. Certain Demonstrationes written by Aphrahat
were directed against Jews. In Demonstratio  IRU
example, he attacked the Jewish attitude towards sex and
reproduction.111DUVDLLQWKH3HUVLDQ1LVLELVDOVRYLOLILHG
the Jews through written texts. It is possible that, as cer-
WDLQVFKRODUVKDYHVXJJHVWHG$SKUDKDWDQG1DUVDLPHUHO\
repeated pre-existing anti-Jewish clichés. Additionally,
DV ZH VDZ WKH WHUP ૿-HZ଀ ZDV DOVR XVHG DV D KHUPHQ-
eutical device in conflicts between different Christian
groups. However, even accepting that some texts were
not directed against historical Jews, evidence taken as a
whole seems to confirm that Christians in the Sassanid
Empire were interacting with them. As we stated previ-
ously, it is difficult to know which kind of Jews—rabbinical
or non-rabbinical—they were engaging in dialogue with.
For all of these reasons, rabbinic literature should be
WDNHQLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQ%XWZKLFKSHULRGGRHVWKHBavli
reflect? In other words, did the last editors create their own
tales and modify stories attributed to previous rabbis? As
we said before, there is a controversy around the edition
of the Bavli. Kalmin (1994 EHOLHYHG WKDW WKH WUDQVPLV-
sion of earlier traditions was relatively accurate, while
RWKHUVVXFKDV1HXVQHUDPRQJRWKHUSXEOLFDWLRQV
considered the Bavli to be a text shaped by the last
HGLWRUV $b WKLUG SRVLWLRQ KHOG E\ 'DYLG +DOLYQL 
81

%$%</21,$૦૦81

highlighted the role of the stammaim, writers of the

anonymous passages of the Bavli. According to him, these
rabbis took previous traditions, selected some of them,
and rewrote others. This position can be seen as inter-
mediate, because it considers the possible transmission of
certain non-re-elaborated fragments, while stressing the
influence of the last editors.
6R ZKDW ZDV -HZLVK %DE\ORQLD OLNH DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH
Bavli? First, the text mentions cities and places that
allow us to construct a Talmudic geography. The lar-
gest Jewish settlements in Mesopotamia were located in
WKH VRXWK 1HXQVHU ૶ *DIQL 1990 ,Q IDFW WKH
PRVW LPSRUWDQW DFDGHPLHV૷1HKDUGHD 0DKR]D 6XUD
DQG 3XPEHGLWD૷ZHUH LQ WKDW UHJLRQ +RZHYHU -HZV DOVR
OLYHG LQ QRUWKHUQ FLWLHV OLNH 1LVLELV૷EHIRUH DQG DIWHU WKH
Sassanid conquest—though they were not as numerous as
in the south. Another difference between the two regions
was the importance of Christianity.13,Q1LVLELVE\WKHILIWK
century the Christian population outnumbered the Jews. In
contrast, Christianity was not demographically significant
in the south. Of course, the majority of the population in
both regions were neither Christian nor Jewish.
%\WKHWLPHWKHBavli was edited, rabbis held a hege-
PRQLFSRVLWLRQLQ-XGDLVP3DOHVWLQLDQUDEELVDVZHKDYH
already remarked, gradually imposed their leadership
EHWZHHQWKHVHFRQGDQGIRXUWKFHQWXULHVEXW%DE\ORQLDQ
rabbis were in a strengthened position. There were non-
rabbinical Jews, but in the sixth century most of the Jews
had embraced rabbinism. In fact, as Rubenstein (,
૶ SRLQWV RXW WKH DWWLWXGH RI %DE\ORQLDQ UDEELV
towards the am ha’arez was more violent than that of the
3DOHVWLQLDQV)XUWKHUPRUH.DOPLQ૶VWDWHVWKDW
%DE\ORQLDQUDEELVZHUHYROXQWDULO\LVRODWHGDWOHDVWXQWLO
the fourth century, even inside the Jewish community. In
82

82૦૦&+$37(5b

addition, there is a consensus about the influence of rabbis

over the entire Jewish population around the sixth century.
The Bavli also portrays a good relationship between
rabbis and the Sassanid government. Although their
UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKH 3DUWKLDQV ZDV EHWWHU WKH UDEELQ-
ical movement—beyond certain sporadic and isolated
persecutions—maintained cordial relations with the
Sassanid court. In fact, the famous dictum “ԧԷ԰ԪԧՁԬԲԳԵԪԧԷ԰Ԫ଀
WKHODZRIWKHNLQJGRPLVWKHODZZDVZULWWHQLQWKHBavli
(b Bava Kamma 113a, among other places in the Bavli
7KH([LODUFK૷DSRVLWLRQVLPLODUWRWKH3DWULDUFKLQWKH
/DQG RI ,VUDHO૷UHSUHVHQWHG WKH PRVW GLUHFW QH[XV ZLWK
WKH6DVVDQLGJRYHUQPHQW%XWWKHUHDFKRIWKH([LODUFKૼV
power is uncertain due to the scarcity of sources. Was
WKH -HZLVK %DE\ORQLDQ FRPPXQLW\ FHQWUDOL]HG ZLWK WKH
Exilarch at its head? Was he a kind of local governor? Was
he similar to the Catholicos, the leader of the Christians
LQ3HUVLD"1RVLPSOHDQVZHUFDQEHJLYHQ+HUPDQ
However, certain facts are unquestionable. The Exilarch
was wealthy, he asserted Davidic descendency, and he
held certain juridical prerogatives that included the con-
trol of prices within the Jewish community. Rabbis—as the
Bavli reveals—recognized the Exilarch’s authority, but also
criticized it.
Turning to rabbis, they prioritized the study of and
commentary on the Torah. In fact, the emphasis placed
on the study of the Torah is greater in the Bavli than in the
Yerushalmi. Rabbis were, of course, the self-proclaimed
authorities on analyzing scripture and obtaining laws
from it. We are sure that in the Islamic period, the geonic
academies were at the heart of the rabbinical movement.
However, according to the Talmud, academies were
established earlier. The Sura academy, for example, was
founded—in accordance with rabbinical sources—around
&(1HYHUWKHOHVVDV*RRGEODWWVXJJHVWVWKH
83

%$%</21,$૦૦83

earliest academies—if in fact they existed at that time—

were simple organizations, far from the complexity
seen in Islamic times. In that sense, during amoraic
times, study was centred on masters and their circles of
disciples that probably gathered in private houses.
Even though certain scholars have suggested that
commerce was the most important rabbinical economic
activity, most of the rabbis were involved in agriculture
DQGDVVRFLDWHGDFWLYLWLHV$V*DIQL૶VWDWHG
even though the Bavli contains more text dedicated to
commerce than the Yerushalmi, this does not mean that
rabbis were removed from farming activities. In fact, a
serious analysis of the Bavli shows that there were many
landowners among the rabbis, and others were—directly
or indirectly—linked to the agricultural sphere. Of course,
there were also artisans and merchants. In that sense
the rabbinical movement took part in the same economic
activities that the rest of the Jewish and non-Jewish popu-
lation of the Sassanid Empire did.
It is not easy to reconstruct contacts between rabbis
and other religious groups. On the Christian side, as
we have seen, there were conflicts with Jews. However,
%DE\ORQLDQUDEELQLFOLWHUDWXUHOHIWIHZWUDFHVRIWKDWFRQ-
troversy. Jesus, Christians, and Christianity were given no
more than twelve direct mentions in the whole Bavli. It
is true that references to Jesus or the even more ascetic
૿JR\LP଀ ZHUH FHQVRUHG LQ WKH ODWH 0LGGOH $JHV DQG LQ
HDUO\PRGHUQLW\1HYHUWKHOHVVHYHQPDQXVFULSWVSULRUWR
WKH&KULVWLDQFHQVRUVKLSDQG-HZLVKVHOIFHQVRUVKLSVKRZ
WKDW&KULVWLDQLW\ZDVQRWDFHQWUDOFRQFHUQIRU%DE\ORQLDQ
rabbis.14 This is coherent with the context we have
GHVFULEHGb D OLPLWHG &KULVWLDQ FRPPXQLW\ LQ %DE\ORQLD
and a self- confident rabbinical movement in the region.
:KHQWKH3DUWKLDQG\QDVW\ZDVUHSODFHGE\WKH6DV
VDQLG=RURDVWULDQLVPDFTXLUHGDPDMRUSRVLWLRQLQWKHQHZ
84

84૦૦&+$37(5b

empire. Indeed, magi affected some parts of Jewish life.

'LVUXSWLRQVZHUHFHQWUHGRQULWXDOLVVXHVUHODWHGWR=RURDV
trian religiosity.15 )RU H[DPSOH LQ =RURDVWULDQLVP ERGLHV
cannot be buried due to the purity of the soil (examples
in b Bava Bathra D DQG b Yevamoth E DQG ULWXDO
immersion in mikvaot was also prohibited (for example,
b Yevamot E ,Q DGGLWLRQ ILUH ZDV VDFUHG IRU =RURDV
trianism and the Bavli describes tensions around this too
(see b GittinE૶D+RZHYHULWLVLPSRUWDQWWRKLJKOLJKW
WKDW DWWHPSWV WR FRQYHUW -HZV WR =RURDVWULDQLVP DUH QRW
detected in the rabbinic literature.
Furthermore, beyond those disruptions it is possible
to detect a positive attitude, not only toward the govern-
PHQW EXW DOVR WRZDUG 3HUVLDQV DQG =RURDVWULDQLVP )RU
example, the Bavli stated that weapons could not be sold
WRDQ\QRQ-HZVH[FHSW3HUVLDQVb Avoda ZaraD,Q
DGGLWLRQ-HZVDQG3HUVLDQVH[FKDQJHGJLIWVDFFRUGLQJWR
b ArakhinEDQGWKHVLWXDWLRQRID-HZDQGD=RURDVWULDQ
sharing the same house is described— or imagined—in b
Avoda ZaraD*DIQL7KHUHZDVDOVRDQLPSOLFLW
DGPLUDWLRQRI3HUVLDQSXULW\QRUPV$FFRUGLQJWR<DDFRY
Elman (D and E FHUWDLQ UHJXODWLRQV LQ WKH
Bavli regarding menstruation were heavily influenced
E\=RURDVWULDQQRUPV,QIDFWWKHBavli should be under-
stood in its Iranian context, because not only purity
norms but also other cultural aspects were adopted from
WKH3HUVLDQV It is important to keep in mind that there
were also western influences on the text—mainly from
3DOHVWLQH૷WKURXJKWKHYerushalmi but also as a result of
frequent trips between both regions.
$VZHKDYHVHHQEHLQJDQRQUDEELQLFDO-HZLQ%DE\ORQLD
ZDVPRUHGLIILFXOWWKDQLQ3DOHVWLQH7KHUDEELQLFDODSSURDFK
towards am ha’aretz is, in fact, worse in the Bavli than in
the Yerushalmi. Certainly, am ha’aretz as a concept does
85

%$%</21,$૦૦85

not necessarily imply non-rabbinical or opposition to rabbis.

However, people not involved in rabbinical discussions and
resolutions were regarded by the rabbis as uneducated.
Indeed, sometimes the voices of the common people can
be heard in the Bavli. 1RQUDEELV DUH KRZHYHU DEVHQW
from our history. Even though we could imagine them using
magic bowls or going to synagogues, no literature depicts
them beyond a caricature.

Notes
1
૥2Q WKH Bavli, VHH 1HXVQHU , Kalmin 1994, and Halivni
, among others.

૥2QDUFKDHRORJ\LQ-HZLVK%DE\ORQLDVHH*HOOHU.
3
૥-HZLVKVHDOVZHUHFRPSLOHGE\)ULHGHQEHUJ.
4
૥,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWKDWWKHBavli does mention the menorah on
GLIIHUHQWRFFDVLRQV,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKHUHLVD%DE\ORQLDQSURKLELWLRQ૷
not found in Yerushalmi—against reproducing the menorah (for
example, b Avoda ZaraD, but it can be understood as a ban on
making a reproduction and not a depiction. On debates around
this prohibition, see Hachlili ૶2EYLRXVO\PRUHDUFK-
aeological evidence is needed.
5
૥&RPSLODWLRQDQGFRPPHQWDULHVRI-HZLVKLQFDQWDWLRQERZOV
LQ1DYHKDQG6KDNHG1993/HYHQHDQG6KDNHGHWbDO.
For an interesting approach to Sassanian incantation bowls, see
Morony .

૥$V ZH VWDWHG SUHYLRXVO\ D QDPH GRHV QRW DOZD\V LQGLFDWH
UHOLJLRQ1RWZLWKVWDQGLQJLWLVDQLPSRUWDQWLGHQWLW\PDUNHU

૥+RZHYHUDV-XXVROD1999DVVHUWHGODQJXDJHDQGUHOLJLRQ
do not always match. Thus, certain incantation bowls written in
Syriac—a dialect most commonly used by Christians—contained
Jewish texts and were apparently used by Jews.

૥Hekhalot literature are late ancient and early medieval
Jewish texts related to mysticism. See Schäfer .
9
૥$FFRUGLQJWRDUHFHQWDUWLFOHZULWWHQE\6KDNHG૿UDEELV଀
in magic bowls were effectively Talmudic rabbis. He analyzes an
incantation bowl, where Rav Ashi is mentioned as the owner, con-
FOXGLQJWKDW૿7KHERZOPDGHIRU5DY$VKLVRQRI0DणODIWDPD\KDYH
EHHQPDGHIRUWKLVSHUVRQ଀
86

86૦૦&+$37(5b
10
૥7KHUH DUH FHUWDLQ UHIHUHQFHV DWWDFNLQJ WKH -HZV LQ WKH
6NDQG*XPDQLN 9LFDU D WH[W ZULWWHQ LQ WKH QLQWK FHQWXU\ ZKLFK
SUREDEO\ FROOHFWHG HDUOLHU ZULWWHQ WUDGLWLRQV 6HH 1HXVQHU ,
૶
11
૥2Q $SKUDKDW DQG WKH -HZV VHH .ROWXQ)URPP , and
/L]RUNLQ(\]HQEHUJ.

૥1HYHUWKHOHVVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRKLJKOLJKWWKDWWKHUHLVQRFRQ-
sensus around the role—and even the existence—of the stammaim.
13
૥1HVWRULDQ&KULVWLDQLW\ZDVYHU\LPSRUWDQWLQWKHDUHDDIWHU
the fifth century.
14
૥2Q -HVXV DQG &KULVWLDQLW\ LQ WKH Bavli, see Schäfer ,
Murcia 6HHDOVR/DKDP&RKHQDQG
15
૥2Q-HZVDQG=RURDVWULDQLVPVHH1HXVQHU*DIQL,
and Elman D and E.

૥)RU H[DPSOH DFFRUGLQJ WR (OPDQ E  +XQD EDU
1DWKDQXVHGWKH=RURDVWULDQEHOWWKHKustig. For the Bavli and the
,UDQLDQFRQWH[WVHH%DNKRVDQG6KD\HJDQ.

૥,Q b Sanhedrin 99a an epikoros—a term that can be
WUDQVODWHGDV૿(SLFXUHDQ଀DOWKRXJKWKDWLVQRWWKHH[DFWPHDQLQJ૷
challenged the role of the rabbis. He stated that they read and
studied the Torah only for their own benefit.
87

Afterword

Over the course of these pages we have tried to elaborate

on a snapshot of Jewish communities in late antiquity. Due
to space concerns, we have not been able to analyze sig-
nificant Jewish settlements in Syria, Asia Minor, and the
%DONDQV+RZHYHUWKHVFRSHRIWKHUHJLRQVVWXGLHGKDYH
given a broad view of Judaism in the period.
We have showed the importance of all types of sources
when reconstructing Jewish life, namely buildings, arti-
facts, inscriptions, and Jewish and non-Jewish texts. As
we are dealing with groups that left scant traces, it is
important to employ all the available evidence.
Is it possible to summarize the history of the Jews in
late antiquity? As we have seen, our knowledge is imper-
fect because of the insufficiency of sources. In Italy, we
depend heavily on Christian sources, although there are
WZR XQFRYHUHG DQFLHQW V\QDJRJXHV ZKLOH LQ %DE\ORQLD
there are many Jewish texts, but no significant archaeo-
ORJLFDOUHPDLQV,Q*DXORQO\DIHZLQVFULSWLRQVDUHDYDLO-
DEOHDQGDJDLQ&KULVWLDQWH[WVZKLOHLQ6SDLQ&KULVWLDQ
legal codes are almost the only avenue available to us in
order to find out about the Jews. This disparity of sources
makes it difficult to compare distinct regions. As no Jewish
texts survived in Western Europe, uncovering the scope of
the rabbinization process in the region is a difficult task.
8

88૦૦$)7(5:25'

The absence of archaeological remains—apart from seals

DQGPDJLFERZOV૷LQ%DE\ORQLDPDNHVLWKDUGWRFRQWUDVW
the imagined rabbinical society with material sources.
2QO\ LQ WKH /DQG RI ,VUDHO DUH WKHUH D YDULHW\ RI VRXUFHV
WKDW SURYLGH D UHODWLYHO\ FRPSOHWH YLHZ 1HYHUWKHOHVV
HYHQ LQ 3DOHVWLQH VFKRODUV FRQWLQXH WR HQJDJH LQ ILHUFH
debates around certain issues, such as the strength of the
3DWULDUFKRUWKHLQYROYHPHQWRIWKHUDEELQLFDOPRYHPHQW
in the synagogues, among other aspects.
1ROHVVLPSRUWDQWZHNQRZPRUHDERXWWKHHOLWHVWKDQ
we do about the common people. As is often the case in
ancient and medieval times, constructing history from below
LVQRWDOZD\VSRVVLEOHbSRRUSHRSOHLQDQWLTXLW\GLGQRWKDYH
seals, did not always make tombstones for their deaths, and
JHQHUDOO\GLGQRWZULWHRUWKHLUWH[WVZHUHQRWSUHVHUYHG
Was there a common Judaism in late antiquity? The
answer is not straightforward. There are certain patterns
that could be compared. For example, artistic motifs such
as menorah, lulav, or etrog are found in the archaeological
UHPDLQV RI ,WDO\ *DXO 1RUWK $IULFD DQG 3DOHVWLQH 7KH
improvement of the space for the Torah can be seen in sev-
eral regions. There is also evidence of rabbinical influence
in southern Italy from the sixth century onward and even
HDUOLHU LQ 1RUWK $IULFD :H DOVR NQRZ WKH ILQDO UHVXOW WKH
almost complete rabbinization of the Diaspora by the ninth
FHQWXU\)XUWKHUPRUH3DOHVWLQLDQ-XGDLVPZDVUHUDEELQL]HG
E\%DE\ORQLDQ-XGDLVPLQWKHHDUO\0LGGOH$JHV
On the other hand, there were also differences between
the regions. The iconography of synagogues and ceme-
teries, beyond the specific Jewish repertoire, featured art
shared with other religious groups of every region. Even
architectural features were influenced by the designs spe-
cific to each location. Although Jewish culture in Europe—due
to the absence of Jewish texts—is difficult to analyze, both
Talmudim VKRZ 5RPDQ &KULVWLDQ DQG 3HUVLDQ LQIOXHQFHV
89

$)7(5:25'૦૦89

1R OHVV LPSRUWDQW SROLWLFDO DQG UHOLJLRXV FRQFHUQV DOVR

LPSDFWHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI -HZLVK FRPPXQLWLHVb WKH
empowerment of Christianity in the Roman Empire was crit-
LFDOIRU-HZLVKVHWWOHPHQWVLQVLGHLW,QFRQWUDVW=RURDVWULDQV
overall were more moderate than Christians. However,
Christianity was not uniform and that reality also affected
WKH -HZV 7KXV -HZV OLYLQJ LQ *DXO ZHUH LQ D EHWWHU SRV-
ition than Jews under the Visigoths. Moreover, even within
a single region, the position of the religious elite influenced
the policy toward Jews. As we saw in Italy, Jews living in
Terracina were expelled twice from their synagogue whilst
only one hundred kilometres north, in Rome, Jews were
SURWHFWHGE\WKH3RSH
90

Further Reading

7KHIROORZLQJEULHIDQQRWDWHGOLVWSUHVHQWVWLWOHVDOUHDG\PHQWLRQHG

and/or cited in the book. The list is not meant to be comprehen-
sive, but we have selected these titles because they are central to
understanding key features of the Jewish history in late antiquity.

General
'RKUPDQQ1DWDOLHDQG$QQHWWH<RVKLNR5HHGHGVJews, Christians,
DQG WKH 5RPDQ (PSLUHb 7KH 3RHWLFV RI 3RZHU LQ /DWH $QWLTXLW\.
3KLODGHOSKLDb8QLYHUVLW\RI3HQQV\OYDQLD3UHVV
A fundamental compilation of chapters regarding different aspects of
Jewish history in late antiquity.

Fine, Steven. Art & Judaism in the Greco-Roman World: Toward a New
Jewish Archaeology&DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Clever, far-reaching, and in some ways polemical, this book studies not
only late ancient Jewish art and architecture but also contemporary
visions on those topics.

Hachlili, Rachel. Ancient Synagogues. Archaeology and Art: New

Discoveries and Current Research/HLGHQb%ULOO
An excellent, comprehensive, and actualized survey of the ancient
synagogues in Israel and the Diaspora.

.DW]6WHYHQHGbThe Cambridge History of Judaism9RO7KH/DWH

5RPDQ5DEELQLF 3HULRG &DPEULGJH &DPEULGJH 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV

An essential collection of chapters related to Judaism between the first
century and seventh century CE.
91

)857+(55($',1*૦૦91

/HYLQH/HHThe Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years1HZ

+DYHQb<DOH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
A clear and ample book in which the origin and development of the syna-
gogue is studied.

9DQ GHU +RUVW 3LHWHU 6D[D -XGDLFD /RTXXQWXUb /HVVRQV IURP (DUO\
Jewish Inscriptions/HLGHQb%ULOO
9DQGHU+RUVWVKRZVDOOWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVWKDWDQFLHQW-HZLVKbHSLJUDSK\
offers to improve our knowledge about the period.

Italy
Cappelletti, Silvia. 7KH-HZLVK&RPPXQLW\RI5RPHb)URPWKH6HFRQG
Century BC to the Third Century CE/HLGHQ%ULOO
Investigates textual, epigraphic, and archaeological sources in order to
reconstruct the Jewish life in Rome in antiquity.

5XWJHUV /HRQDUG 7KH -HZV LQ /DWH $QFLHQW 5RPHb (YLGHQFH RI
Cultural Interaction in the Roman Diaspora/HLGHQ%ULOOb
Rutgers’s view emphasizes the interaction between Jews, Christians, and
pagans in late antiquity thanks to a comprehensive study of textual, epi-
graphic, and archaeological sources.

Simonsohn, Shlomo. 7KH-HZVRI,WDO\b$QWLTXLW\/HLGHQ%ULOO

A long-range analysis of the Jewish settlement in Rome between the
5HSXEOLFDQG*UHJRU\WKH*UHDW

North Africa
%LQGHU 6WHSKDQLH Tertullian, On Idolatry, and Mishnah Avodah
Zarah: Questioning the Parting of the Ways between Christians and
Jews/HLGHQb%ULOO
A very interesting work that attempts to understand the relationship
EHWZHHQ-HZVDQG&KULVWLDQVLQ1RUWK$IULFDFRPSDULQJ7HUWXOOLDQૼVOn
Idolatry and m Avoda Zara.

)UHGULNVHQ 3DXOD $XJXVWLQH DQG WKH -HZVb $ &KULVWLDQ 'HIHQVH RI

Jews and Judaism1HZb<RUNb'RXEOHGD\
A deep analysis on Augustine’s texts allows Fredriksen to reconstruct
and rethink Anti-Judaism and Augustinian positions on Jews.
92

92૦૦)857+(55($',1*

Stern, Karen. ,QVFULELQJ'HYRWLRQDQG'HDWKb$UFKDHRORJLFDO(YLGHQFH

for Jewish Populations of North Africa/HLGHQ%ULOO
An excellent investigation of archaeological and epigraphic Jewish evi-
GHQFHLQ1RUWK$IULFD

Gaul
%RGGHQV +RVDQJ (OL]DEHWK Establishing Boundaries Christian–Jewish
Relations in Early Council Texts and the Writings of Church Fathers.
/HLGHQ%ULOO
%RGGHQVb +RVDQJ H[DPLQHV WKH ZD\ LQ ZKLFK HDUO\ FRXQFLOV WULHG WR
shape Christian and Jewish identities. She also shows how councils
help to understand the relationship between Jews and Christians in late
DQWLTXLW\PDLQO\LQ*DXO

Wood, Ian, and Kathleen Mitchell, eds. The World of Gregory

of Tours./HLGHQb%ULOO
Although we only cited the excellent work of Emily Rose on the conver-
sion of the Jews of Clermont, the entire book offers hints to understand
the Merovingian world.

Spain
Drews, Wolfram. 7KH8QNQRZQ1HLJKERXUb7KH-HZLQWKH7KRXJKWRI
Isidore of Seville/HLGHQb%ULOO
An excellent analysis of the role of the Jew in the discourse of Isidore of
Seville and its implications.

*RQ]£OH]6DOLQHUR5D¼OLas conversiones forzosas de los judíos en

el reino visigodo5RPDb(VFXHOD(VSD³RODGH5RPDE
3UREDEO\WKHEHVWZRUNRQWKHVLWXDWLRQRIWKH-HZVLQODWHDQFLHQW6SDLQ

Egypt
*UXHQ(ULFK'LDVSRUDb-HZVDPLGVW*UHHNVDQG5RPDQV. Cambridge:
+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
$OWKRXJK *UXHQૼV ERRN H[SORUHV WKH -HZLVK FRPPXQLWLHV RI 5RPH
Alexandria, and the Roman province of Asia, we specially recommend
the chapter on the Jews of Alexandria.

Haas, Christopher. Alexandria in Late Antiquityb Topography and

Social Conflict%DOWLPRUHb-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
93

)857+(55($',1*૦૦93

Haas investigates the situation in Alexandria in late antiquity, remarking on

the interaction between religious communities. An entire chapter examines
the condition of the Jews in the city.

The Land of Israel

+H]VHU&DWKHULQHHGbThe Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in
Roman Palestine2[IRUGb2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
A fundamental compilation of chapters on different aspects of Jewish
GDLO\ OLIH LQ ODWH DQFLHQW 3DOHVWLQH +H]VHUૼV PHWKRGRORJLFDO FKDSWHU LV
essential.

Schwartz, Seth. ,PSHULDOLVPDQG-HZLVK6RFLHW\b%&(bWR&(

3ULQFHWRQb3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Schwartz’s book gives a new outlook on late ancient Jewish history of the
/DQG RI ,VUDHO (YHQ WKRXJK KLV FRQFOXVLRQV DUH SROHPLFDO UHDGLQJ WKH
book remains crucial.

Sivan, Hagith, Palestine in Late Antiquity.2[IRUGb2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\

3UHVV
A comprehensive and enjoyable book on Jewish and non-Jewish history of
3DOHVWLQHLQODWHDQWLTXLW\

Babylonia
*DIQL,VDLDK7KH-HZVRI%DE\ORQLDLQWKH7DOPXGLF(UDb$6RFLDODQG
Cultural History-HUXVDOHPb=DOPDQ6KD]DU&HQWHUIRU-HZLVK+LVWRU\
+HEUHZ
A fundamental book on the history of the Jews in Mesopotamia during
late antiquity.

Halivni, David. The Formation of the Babylonian Talmud.

1HZb<RUNb2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
$QDFWXDOL]HGDQGSROHPLFDOERRNFRQFHUQLQJWKHHGLWLRQZKR"ZKHQ"
KRZ"RIWKH%DE\ORQLDQ7DOPXG

Kalmin, Richard. Jewish Babylonia between Persia and Roman

3DOHVWLQHb'HFRGLQJWKH/LWHUDU\5HFRUG1HZb<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\
3UHVV
([DPLQHVWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH-HZVRI%DE\ORQLDDQDO\]LQJUDEELQLFOLWHUD-
WXUHDQGWU\LQJWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK&KULVWLDQDQG3HUVLDQ
cultures.
94

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%R\DULQ'DQLHO૿7KH&KULVWLDQ,QYHQWLRQRI-XGDLVPb7KH7KHRGRVLDQ
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'H%RQILOV*LRYDQQLGli schiavi dagli ebrei nella legislazione del IV
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;,,,b+RPHQDMHD'RPLQJR0Xñoz León,HGLWHGE\b&DUORV'HO9DOOH
5RGU¯JXH]૶0DGULG&6,&b
'¸QLW] 6DVNLD ૿+LVWRULRJUDSK\ DPRQJ %\]DQWLQH -HZV૷WKH &DVH
RI6HIHU<RVLSSRQ଀,Q-HZVLQ%\]DQWLXPb'LDOHFWLFVRI0LQRULW\DQG
Majority CulturesHGLWHGE\5REHUW%RQILOHWbDO.૶/HLGHQb%ULOO

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:DVKLQJWRQb&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\RI$PHULFD3UHVV
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the Foundations of Christianity, HGLWHG E\ $ODQ 'DYLHV ૶
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