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Livelihood Sustainability of Handloom Weavers: A study in Sualkuchi, Assam

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 LIVELIHOOD SUSTAINABILITY OF
HANDLOOM WEAVERS
(A study in Sualkuchi, Assam)

GARGI ANAND

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Bachelors of Arts in Social Sciences

Tata Institute of Social Sciences

Guwahati
2017
i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation, “Livelihood Sustainability of Handloom Weavers: A

Study in Sualkuchi, Assam” is the record of original work done by Gargi Anand under my
supervision. The results of the research presented in the dissertation have not previously
formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or certificate of this institute or any
other university.

DATED: Dr. Razdan Sarim Rahman

Assistant Professor

Tata Institute of Social Sciences

Guwahati Campus

ii
 DECLARATION

I, Gargi Anand, hereby declare that this dissertation titled, “Livelihood Sustainability of
Handloom Weavers: A study in Sualkuchi, Assam” is the outcome of my own study
undertaken under the guidance of Dr. Razdan Sarim Rahman, Assistant Professor, Tata
Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus. It has not formed the basis for the award of
any degree, diploma or certificate of this institute or any other institute or university. I have
duly acknowledged all the sources used by me in the preparation of this study.

DATED: GARGI ANAND

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research would not have been possible without the contribution of a significant number
of people.

First and foremost, I am forever grateful to my family, my parents, Uma Aiyar and Anand
Aiyar and my brother, Abhijit Anand, for having faith in me and giving knowledge and
learning the utmost priority at all stages.

I take this opportunity to thank my research guide Dr. Razdan Sarim Rahman for his
immense support and motivation in each step of the dissertation. He has shown his utmost
cooperation and patience. I am forever indebted to the kind words of encouragement at every
stage, which brought a new sense of belief in me.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards my respondents who took out time from
their busy schedules to participate in this research. A significant person without whom this
research would not have been possible is Anu Mandal, who dedicated her significant time
and efforts to introduce me to the respondents.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my friends and seniors, my support system, who
were present at all times to extend a helping hand and encourage me at every stage.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 HANDLOOM WEAVING IN ASSAM: A TRADITION ............................................................ 1
1.2 SUALKUCHI – THE SILK VILLAGE........................................................................................ 1
1.3 HANDLOOM WEAVING AS A LIVELIHOOD PROCESS...................................................... 2
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................................. 4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS APPROACH ......................................................................... 4
2.2 LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES IN ASSAM ................................................................................. 4
2.3 HANDLOOM WEAVING: PROBLEMS, PROSPECTS AND CHANGING TRENDS ............ 5
Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................................. 7
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 7
3.1 RATIONALE ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................. 7
3.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS........................................................................................................... 8
3.4 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 8
3.4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 8
3.4.2 SAMPLING PROCESS ......................................................................................................... 8
3.4.3 STUDY AREA ...................................................................................................................... 9
3.4.4 APPROACH TO THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 9
3.4.5 TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION....................................................................................... 9
3.4.6 ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................................... 11
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS.............................................................................................................. 11
4.1 LIVELIHOOD ASSETS ............................................................................................................. 11
4.1.1 HUMAN CAPITAL ............................................................................................................. 11
4.1.2 SOCIAL CAPITAL ............................................................................................................. 12
4.1.3 FINANCIAL CAPITAL ...................................................................................................... 12
4.2 VULNERABILITIES ................................................................................................................. 13
4.2.1 RISE IN INPUT COSTS...................................................................................................... 14
4.2.2 FINANCIAL INSTABILITY .............................................................................................. 15

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 4.2.3 THE SYSTEM OF ADVANCE .......................................................................................... 15
4.2.4 HEALTH PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 17
4.2.5 LACK OF DEMAND .......................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................................................... 19
CONCLUSION AND REFLECTIONS ................................................................................................ 19
REFERRENCES ................................................................................................................................... 20
ANNEXURE......................................................................................................................................... 22

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 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 HANDLOOM WEAVING IN ASSAM: A TRADITION

In Assam, the hand- woven Gamosa symbolises respect and honour when presented to a
guest on any occasion; In the tribal society of Tripura, no right or ritual is complete without
the worship of the Riha, a hand woven breast cover by the family elders; The beautiful motifs
of the Meitie Phanek, which is derived from the different aspects of nature, symbolises
happiness and prosperity in the lives of the Meities of Manipur. These hand woven textiles
play an indispensable part in the socio-cultural and off-late, the economic lives of the people
of North East India.

The Handloom Sector has a major contribution in the treasure of Indian craftsmanship since
Ancient times. The Weaving community in North East India consists of a wide range of
ethnic groups, each reflecting their exclusive weaving patterns, motifs and styles. Assam too,
has a rich tradition of handloom weaving. With the highest percentage of handloom weaving
household (Ministry of Textiles, 2010) amongst the north eastern states (44.58 per cent), the
households carry the tradition of the Golden Muga and Eri Silk. These techniques of
Handloom weaving are passed down from one generation to other. In these rural cottage
industries, the spinning, weaving and other processes are done by hand, making the labour
content in the weaving and pre- weaving processes predominant as compared to the power-
looms. Moreover, factors like social and cultural aspects, demographic profile, production,
employment, market structure, technology and skill, shocks, vulnerabilities are analysed for
understanding the questions of sustainability of handlooms. This sector has been a self-
sustaining traditional livelihood option for over 50 years.

Handloom weaving has an overwhelming presence in the socio-economic life of Assam since
time immemorial. The loom is a prized possession and has been a way of life in the state. In
fact, as per tradition, the skill to weave is the primary qualification of a young girl for her
eligibility for marriage. This perhaps explains Assam having the largest concentration of
handlooms and weavers in the country. (Phukan, 2012).

1.2 SUALKUCHI – THE SILK VILLAGE

Sualkuchi, the silk village of Assam, is a small town situated 35 kilometers from Guwahati
city in Kamrup (Rural) district, Assam. In the last 50 years, Sualkuchi has been able to create
a distinct identity all over the world in the field of commercial silk weaving – mainly the Eri
and Muga, the indigenous fabrics. As per the legend, Sualkuchi was established by Momai
Tamuli Barbarua (1603 – 1641), a great administrator of the Ahom Kingdom in order to fulfil
the clothing needs for the royalty. Seven weaver families from different regions were brought

1
together and gradually the ancient village grew into a community of silk-rearing and weaving
communities, amongst other occupations.

The weavers do not take any formal training for learning the production process as it is a
skill passed on to them from older family members and master weavers by assisting them and
being their helping hand since a young age. (Phukan, 2012). Throughout Assam, weaving is
considered predominantly a female occupation. However Sualkuchi stands as an exception.
The reason behind both male and female weavers practicing weaving in Sualkuchi is that in
the latter half of the 20th Century many traditional industries became extinct and the workers
joined the Handloom industry. The growing demand for silk after the Second World War led
the Government to encourage the communities to adopt silk weaving, which also happened to
be an indigenous activity.

Also, most of the weavers are migrants from various parts of Assam. Many of them belong to
tribes such as the Bodo, Rabha and Karbi tribes who are known for their exemplary skill in
weaving.

However, there has been a significant decline in the number of weavers in the area. There are
a number of reasons behind this. One of the reasons which have come in the hindsight in
various researches has been that weaving is no more a paying proposition. Lack of demand
and the changing market conditions have left a significant number of traditional weavers
stranded, adding to the reasons behind the significant decline. Amidst these changes remains
the question of sustainability of the handloom weavers and subsequently the loom owners,
who employ the weavers, or Buoni1, and have been doing so since generations.

1.3 HANDLOOM WEAVING AS A LIVELIHOOD PROCESS

The Handloom industry is largely household based and labour intensive, in the sense that it
employs all the family members in the production process. The skill is inter-generational in
nature where it is passed down by older family members and master weavers. The sector is
characterized by the existence of various types of weavers namely-

 Independent Weavers
 Weavers organized into co-operatives
 The wage weavers working under the master weavers (Niranjana & Vinayan, 2001)

Unlike land resources that root an individual to a given place, a weaver is limited only by his
skill and, being mobile, could shift from one production base to another. (Niranjana &
Vinayan, 2001). This factor makes space for a large number of migrant workers who mostly
belong to poor households. But off late, the decline in the number of looms in Sualkuchi has
put the weavers and their households in a vulnerable space, forcing them to go back to their
native places. This results in various livelihood strategies and coping mechanisms.

1
The Assamese word for - Weavers

2
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Livelihood strategies in Assam are largely a mix of agrarian and non-agrarian activities. The
rural-urban linkage influences livelihood in both positive and negative ways, with market
forces increasingly determining livelihood strategies. Factors like unsuitable weather
conditions for cultivation, competition from better/ cheap/ substitute products, changing
market structure and price fluctuation, the reluctant attitude of younger generation towards
rural livelihood activities, changing technology and skill, shocks and vulnerabilities are
making livelihoods harder. (Bhattacharjee, 2010). The livelihood sustainability of handloom
weaving largely depends upon diversification. The research intends to understand the major
driving forces – the underlying issues and challenges influencing such changes.

In order to understand weaving in terms of a livelihood process and the underlying issues and
challenges associated with handloom weaving, the researcher chose to explore Sualkuchi
through a descriptive study for the research. The researcher wishes to explore the distorted
state of handloom weaving in Sualkuchi in recent times and the alteration in the livelihood
strategies.

3
 Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature has been divided into 3 broad themes.

2.1 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS APPROACH

It was the turn of the century when the term ‘sustainability’ connoted a shift in the
developmental paradigm. The Advisory Panel on World Commission on Environment and
Development made Sustainable Livelihoods the central theme of its report. The IDS
Sustainable Livelihoods approach definition is as follows-

“A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources)
and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope
with and recover from stresses and shocks maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets,
while not undermining the natural resource base.”

A livelihood is environmentally sustainable when it maintains or enhances local and global

assets on which livelihoods depend, and from which livelihoods earn net profits. But a
livelihood is socially sustainable when it can cope with shocks and stresses recover from
them and sustain the future generations. Thus, the concepts of capabilities, equity and
sustainability are the core of sustainable livelihoods approach. (Chambers & Conway, 1991)

According to, “Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework For Analysis” by Ian Scoones,
which is an IDS Working Paper, there are a number of key questions to be asked in any
analysis of sustainable livelihoods, which are the combination of livelihood resources
(different types of capital- Human capital, Financial capital, Social capital and Natural
capital), which influence the livelihood strategies (in terms of agricultural
intensification/extensification, Livelihood diversification and Migration) and the role of
institutional processes in a particular context. “A livelihood pathway can be seen as the
result of a series of livelihood choices that have emerged over time. This may have been the
consequence of a set of conscious and planned choices or the result of the unintended
consequences of other actions.” (Scoones, 1998). The term ‘sustainable rural livelihoods’ was
adopted in this paper. However it also acknowledges how the urban and the rural are
intertwined.

2.2 LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES IN ASSAM

In the research paper, “A comparative Study of Livelihood Strategy in Rural and Urban
Assam”, Mahua Bhattacharjee talks about how sustainable livelihood in Assam is dependent
upon livelihood diversification as it compels household to become more vigilant and adapt to
the various changes occurring over time. The study is conducted under the sustainable

4
livelihood framework attempting to understand the coping and adaptive strategies for
livelihood in context of vulnerability. Agriculture remains the primary livelihood activity in
Assam making self-employment the dominant livelihood strategy in the state. However,
unsuitable weather conditions such as frequent floods make it unsuitable. Apart from this,
artisans have been hit across sectors by the wave of globalisation and changing market
conditions. The skills, which were an asset for them, have become of less use for them now
due to substitute as a result in changes market conditions. In such a situation, Age is seen to
be a contribution factor. The previous generation of artisans pull out of the process due to
inability to diversify or to migrate. The middle generation, who diversify into cultivation and
businesses, find it difficult to maintain the same and improve living conditions due to lack of
financial and social capital. Thus, indebtedness and poor living condition is a common
feature in rural Assam. Lack of institutional organisational structure and weak market
structure contribute to the active participation of middle men, adding to the depression of
livelihood diversification. (Bhattacharjee, 2010).

According to Nagendra Baro in his study “Rural Non-Agricultural Livelihoods: Expectations,

opportunities and Constraints (a study in Golaghat district of Assam)”, skill in a particular
domain is a determinant in the engagement in a non-farm activity. “It is observed that there
has to be sufficient demands for goods and services generated from all the skilled activities
as mentioned above. Only then the skill can be utilised for income earning activities” (Baro,
2014). Thus, possessing a particular set of skills and adequate production does not ensure
sustainable livelihood. Sufficient demand in the locality, networking and timely technological
upgradation also stands in the way of sustainability of livelihood.

2.3 HANDLOOM WEAVING: PROBLEMS, PROSPECTS AND

CHANGING TRENDS

In the research paper, “Handlooms for Livelihood in North East Region: Problems and
Prospects”, Ch. Victoria Devi explores the various constraints faced by people in North East
India affecting the scope of handloom sector and hindering economic growth in the region.
Social and cultural aspects, demographic profile, market structures, technology and skill have
been analysed in the research paper as contributing factors in the present condition of
handloom industry. In a vivid description of the social relevance of handlooms, the author
states the case of Sualkuchi silk cluster of Assam where changes in the handloom sector
resulted in conflict in 2013. Major incidents of violence were witnessed when local weavers
burnt down piles of textiles which were reportedly being brought in from other parts of India
and being sold off as Assam Silk. This clearly reflected the insecurities the local weavers of
Sualkuchi hold opposed to pan-Indian commercialised branding if Assam silk. This incident
in turn acted as an eye-opener for the State authorities, forcing them to bring in a number of
enforcement measures. This led to a revision of the Handloom (Reservation of Articles for
Production) Act, 1985 which reserved a number of articles for the production of handloom

5
and setting up of cooperative unions (Devi, 2013). The author also puts emphasis on weaving
being a predominantly ‘feminine’ activity in the North Eastern states. However, these women
in spite of being expert weavers lack the organisation to fight for equal socio-economic
rights. The author also calls for mobilisation for the formation of weaver unions, which may
enable them to avail the government schemes, credit and market linkages making the
livelihood activity more sustainable for the weavers.

Five categories of market functionaries of handloom fabric have been identified in,
“Handloom Weaving in Assam: Problems and Prospects” by Dr. Raju Phukan. These are
selling fabrics mainly to-

1. Directly to the customers

2. The private silk stores
3. The private peddlers and vendors
4. The sales centres of Cooperative societies
5. The sales centres of Government Agencies (such as ARTFED and ADMC).

Bringing the weavers out of the subsistence cycle and ensuring the quality of raw materials
are recognised as urgent needs to ensure livelihood sustainability of the handloom weavers.
These weavers lack education and participation in the market economy. With cheap Chinese
silk giving tough competition to the Indian silk, the demand for local silk has gone down
drastically.

A Delhi University publication, “Static or Dynamic- The Analysis of Handloom Industry of

Assam” lays out a number of problems faced by weavers in the Sualkuchi block, amongst
which labour shortage and financial instability are mentioned as major problems. According
to the research, the younger generation in Sualkuchi is focusing more on other occupations
and spending less time on the traditional occupation which is handloom weaving, in turn
leading to an acute weaver shortage in Assam. Also, most of the weavers are financially
unstable with negligible savings. This has resulted in indebtedness restricting economic
growth. (Aggarwal, et al., 2014)

6
 Chapter 3
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 RATIONALE

Livelihood strategies in Assam are largely a mix of agrarian and non-agrarian activities. The
rural-urban linkage influences livelihood in both positive and negative ways, with market
forces increasingly determining livelihood strategies. Factors like unsuitable weather
conditions for cultivation, competition from better/ cheap/ substitute products, changing
market structure and price fluctuation, the reluctant attitude of younger generation towards
rural livelihood activities, changing technology and skill, shocks and vulnerabilities are
making livelihoods harder. (Bhattacharjee, 2010).

Assam has the highest percentage of handloom weaving household amongst the north
eastern states (44.58 per cent). But when it comes to percentage of contribution of handlooms
to total household, Assam stands below the national average (30 per cent) with 21 per cent
(Ministry of Textiles, 2010). Thus, the livelihood sustainability of handloom weaving
depends largely upon diversification. The research intends to understand the major driving
forces – the underlying issues and challenges influencing such changes.

In order to understand weaving in terms of a livelihood process and the underlying issues and
challenges associated with handloom weaving, the researcher chose to explore Sualkuchi
through a descriptive study for the research. The research wishes to explore the distorted state
of handloom weaving in Sualkuchi in recent times and the alteration in the livelihood
strategies.

3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 To explain the livelihood processes, associated issues and challenges with handloom
weaving as a means of livelihood in Sualkuchi.
 To study the coping mechanisms adopted by the handloom weavers in the light of the
sustainable livelihoods framework.

7
3.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Following are the research questions set for the study:

 What is the process of handloom weaving including its production and marketing?
 What are the various issues and challenges associated with the livelihood process?
 What are the coping mechanisms associated with the handloom weavers in the context
of diversifying livelihood processes?
 What are the strategies adopted to deal with the issues and challenges such as
diversifying or changing livelihood?

3.4 METHODOLOGY

3.4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The entire process of conducting research ranging from stating the research problem to
linking it with the broader empirical study is referred to as the research design. It also
includes the knowledge about the form of data required to obtain the objectives, the method
of data collection, analysis and conclusion by answering the research question.

The research design chosen for this particular research was descriptive. A descriptive
research design involves observation and description of the subject, event or phenomena on
the basis of scientific observation. This research design was chosen to reflect upon the
existing issues and challenges which are affecting handloom weaving as a livelihood process
in Sualkuchi and understand the variations in the existing records and research conducted in
the area.

3.4.2 SAMPLING PROCESS

A multi – stage sampling technique was used for this study. This technique uses a
combination of more than one sampling methods. At each stage of the study, there was
purpose behind selecting the samples. In the first stage, the researcher sampled and selected
Sualkuchi as the exact field site based on the literature review and high concentration of
weaver households in the area. This was done through purposive sampling. The second stage
included identification and selection of 10 respondents in Sualkuchi. A purposive – cum –
convenient sampling method was adopted for this stage, which are both non-probability
sampling methods. In a non-probability sampling method, the researcher is unable to ensure
that each population element has a non-zero chance of being chosen as a part of the research.

8
This method is based on the subjective judgment of the researcher, which is one of its core
elements as well.

The types of respondents selected for this research were weavers who are currently engaged
in handloom weaving, consisting of two categories- Owners of looms in Sualkuchi; and wage
weavers under master weavers and Owners. Out of the total 10 respondents, data was
collected from 6 weavers and 4 Owners. With respect to the research objectives, respondents
were chosen from different categories in order to understand the perspectives cutting across
cultural, social and economic levels.

3.4.3 STUDY AREA

The study area for this research is Sualkuchi, which is situated on the north bank of river
Brahmaputra distanced 35kms from Guwahati in Kamrup (Rural) district of Assam. One of
the largest commercial weaving industries, Sualkuchi consists of both male (50.90%) and
female (49.10%) weavers, unlike other weaving clusters in Assam which is dominated by
women. (Phukan, 2012). The primary source of livelihood in the area is weaving. However, it
is diversifying into service sector.

3.4.4 APPROACH TO THE STUDY

The approach to this study was qualitative in nature. This approach is used to acquire insights
into a problem and develop ideas in a descriptive manner and thus, stands best suited for the
research design in the researcher’s opinion. The approach helps the researcher to understand
various perspectives and opinions which the weavers hold towards the livelihood process and
where they stand in the livelihood sustainability framework. Narrative inquiry was used as a
tool where detailed discussions with individual owners and groups of weavers were
conducted in order to understand the issues in depth.

3.4.5 TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

The researcher used a semi-structured interview guide to conduct interviews with

respondents. The guide consisted questions broadly under the crucial themes of socio-
economic conditions, household details, livelihood assets, livelihood process and issue and
challenges faced.

9
3.4.6 ANALYSIS

The analysis for the research was derived from field work accounts which were transcribed.
Relevant information from the transcriptions was collated under specific themes. Narrations
were analysed to develop the interpretation which have been organised into chapters and
concluded in the final chapter.

10
 Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

The findings have been divided into sub-headings in line with the analysis mode described in
the methodology. The findings incorporate insights from both weaver households as well as
wage-workers who have been engaged in handloom weaving at different levels over years.
The sampled respondents were interviewed on the lines of understanding the livelihood
activity as a process, livelihood vulnerabilities associated with it and coping in the context of
various problems which have been arising in the industry especially in the last 10 years. The
samples were selected in such a manner that there is a cross-section of weaver associated
with ownership as well as wage-earning. Along with each theme, the respondents’
perspectives have been analysed with the help of transcriptions followed by the researcher’s
interpretation as a part of the analysis process.

4.1 LIVELIHOOD ASSETS

Under the DFID framework for sustainable livelihoods, five categories are outlined as
livelihood assets which determine positive livelihood outcomes- Human capital, Social
capital, Natural capital, Physical capital and Financial Capital. (Krantz, 2001). As Scoones
says, “Identifying what livelihood resources (or combinations of ‘capitals’) are required for
different livelihood strategy combinations is a key step in the process of analysis.” (Scoones,
1998).

4.1.1 HUMAN CAPITAL

Human Capital includes the skills, knowledge and ability to good health and labour. For all
the 10 respondents, handloom weaving has been a traditional activity- the independent
weavers, owners and the wage weavers.

- “I was probably 6 when I started reeling Muga. We never had agricultural land or
livestock, but we own 2 looms at our home. We have been assisting our grandparents
and parents since childhood. Having never been to school, I am not capable to take
up any other occupation. This is all I know...” (Translated)

The respondent learnt the activity from the older generations. His family owns 2 looms but
since it is not enough to sustain their household, he works under the owner. The skill and
knowledge the respondent has acquired in handloom weaving is the human capital – an asset
which determines the livelihood strategies of the household.

11
 - “I am from Tangla in Darrang district. I migrated to Sualkuchi with my husband long
back. My husband and I are trained weavers since it has been a daily affair in our
homes since childhood. The only intension we had behind migrating here was to find
a job under a loom owner and weave to earn a living.” (Translated)

In this case, the respondent belongs to the Bodo tribe, known to be skilled weavers. The Pull
Factor behind their migration to Sualkuchi was the human capital which is their source of
income today.

4.1.2 SOCIAL CAPITAL

Social Capital includes the social claims, networks for resources upon which livelihood
strategies are drawn – associations, affiliations, social relations and claims. Four out of ten
respondents had ownership of looms and employ wage-weavers under them. The necessary
networks for aspects like availability of raw materials, market linkage and manufacturing are
established in nature. These networks are mainly looked after by the owners. These wage-
weavers are unaware of these networks.

- “We are unaware of where the yarn comes from. Perhaps form shops? We do not
know. The owner provides us with it and we just need to weave.” (Translated)

The respondent says she is unaware of the details of where the raw material comes from and
where the finished product is taken. The role of the weaver is limited to completing orders on
time. Knowledge about the design, colour combination and other specifications are taken care
of by the owners. Moreover, these weavers lack any form of association or organisation
amongst them in order to address any form of query in the working conditions. The weavers
remain unaware of the various components of the production process. This keeps them
confined to the weaving component.

4.1.3 FINANCIAL CAPITAL

The Capital base, which is essential for the pursuit of any livelihood strategy, is categorised
as FINANCIAL CAPITAL. This includes cash, savings, credit-debit, tools and equipments
and technology.

Handloom weaving is a traditional occupation in Sualkuchi. Therefore, all the respondents

are presently using age old looms from their home. No new capital is required to establish the
looms since the same structure and tools are used with a few modifications.

The workers suffer from financial instability. They work as handloom weavers on a sustained
basis.

12
 - “If one works without a delay, one piece of cloth can be finished within 3-4 days. For
beginners, it may take up to a week to finish the order. We get paid up to Rs.400 for a
chadar2 and up to Rs.1200 for mekhela3, making it Rs.1800 approximately for a
pair.” (Translated)

- “However, each pair of Mekhela Chadar is woven by two weavers separately. They
work simultaneously. They are paid separately as well. Since we have our family and
children to look after, we cannot work continuously for hours. Hence the work is
divided.” (Translated)

- “....I can complete order for 4 sets of mekhela chadar in a month.” (Translated)

The respondent gives an account of the division of labour and the division of wages based on
the same. She also tells the researcher about the restriction in terms of working hours and
how that plays a role in the determination of wages. The Mekhela Chadar, though
manufactured as a set, is woven by two separate weavers. The wages are determined on the
basis of the number or final products the weaver is able to present; and also the complication
of design they weave (Aggarwal, et al., 2014). The number of final products presented at the
end of the month determines the total monthly salary for the wage-weavers.

As for the owners, profits they earn are consumed to repay loans. These loans are mainly
used to pay of previous loans to recover from prior losses. This has resulted in their lack of
interest in the expansion of coping from the situation. The financial growth of the wage-
weavers as well as the owners is restricted.

4.2 VULNERABILITIES

The ability to cope with and recover from shocks and stresses is central to the theme of
sustainable livelihoods approach. The inability to cope with- short term adjustments in the
face of change and adapt to – longer term shifts in livelihoods, gives rise to a vulnerabilities
and stands in the way of sustainability of livelihoods. In this section, the researcher has
analysed and interpreted vulnerabilities faced by the weaver households. The various issues
and challenges which were shared by the respondents have been analysed by the researcher.

2
Lower part of traditional attire for women
3
Upper part of traditional attire for women

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4.2.1 RISE IN INPUT COSTS

All the 10 respondents presented the fact that there is a severe shortage in the availability of
raw material – the silk thread, especially the indigenous Eri and Muga silk.

-“Currently we buy the raw materials from the retail stores in Sualkuchi itself. There stores
bring their stock from Bangalore and other places outside the state. But for the Eri and Muga
products, it is very hard to find the raw materials. It is in upper Assam and the Garo hills that
silk-rearing is still prevalent. However, for weavers like us in Sualkuchi, who produce pure
silk, the prices are beyond our reach. Especially, finding pure silk thread is very difficult.
Today, Muga is almost extinct....” (Translated)

The respondent says that there is a dearth of availability of raw material for production. The
low production of the silk yarn has resulted in the high prices. Although there are number of
distributers in Sulakuchi who supply the threads, there has been a periodic rise in the prices.
The reeling and spinning of indigenous Eri and Muga is almost extinct, he says.

- “The rising prices of silk yarn directly affect our wages. When the owner is unable to
afford the xoota4, how can we expect our wages to rise? The prices of raw materials
keep rising but there is no rise when it comes to demand in the market for the finished
product! We are not aware of who decided these prices...But there should be a control
over this.” (Translated)

The respondent, a wage worker under the master weaver, gives an account of their plight. The
respondent is the sole earning member in the household, with 9 family members to sustain.
The balance between raw material supply and the demand is not even.

- “Forget about Muga and Eri, they are beyond our reach. The production is rare. Only
the big traders trade in Eri and Muga. We are small time weavers under loom
owners. The owners bring the yarn to us and we weave, that is it. We do not know
anything that goes on beyond that. Procuring pure silk yarn is tough because of the
high prices, hence the low wages...” (Translated)

The respondent expresses that the workers are hardly aware of the details of where and how
the raw material is procured. The owners bring the yarn to them and they weave the mekhela
and chadar as per the order and design. However, they are aware of the price fluctuations
since it reflects in their wages.

The acute shortage of yarn at reasonable prices has been observed as a persistent problem in
the handloom industry all over the country, especially in the NE states (Narzary, 2013).
Independent weavers face a crisis because they require raw materials in small quantities. As
per the activities of National Handloom Development Cooperation Limited (NHDC), the

4
Xoota – the local term (Assamese) for silk yarn which is the raw material referred to here.

14
delivery of yarn is in huge bulks. This is neither accessible nor feasible for the independent
weavers. Hence, the monopoly over the supply lies in the hands of retailers.

4.2.2 FINANCIAL INSTABILITY

Banamali Kalita has been weaving for 30 years. He is a second generation independent
weaver. At present, 6 wage weavers are employed under him. He owns 6 hand-looms, and
possesses immense knowledge about weaving since it has been a traditional activity.
Carrying forward his family’s legacy which is almost century old, he accepts that the income
from this activity is meagre in today’s date.

- “The amount of hard work which is involved in weaving is unimaginable. The returns
are not equivalent to the income generated. The profit generated is used to pay off
loans. The struggle for basic needs is a daily affair for the weavers of Sualkuchi. This
is a de-motivating factor which leads them to move to the city.” (Translated)

- “Our family owned 10 looms. Over the years we had to sell them off! The demand for
pure silk garments has decreased over the years. This has happened especially after
polyester and taasar have entered Sualkuchi in the last 10 years. Our looms were just
lying around. Hence we had to sell them off.” (Translated)

The respondent here states the plight of most of the second and third generation weavers in
Sualkuchi. Rising inflation and lack of demand traps the weavers in a vicious circle of debt
and resultant poverty. Lack of basic financial literacy aggravates the credit-related problems
for the weavers (both independent and Wage weavers). This has created an aversion towards
formal financing institutions and given rise to a number of informal credit systems. One such
system which the researcher came across during the course of the study has been the system
of ‘Advance’.

4.2.3 THE SYSTEM OF ADVANCE

As is herewith stated, the financial instability restricts the economic growth of the weavers.
Such a condition has given rise to an informal system of credit between the owners and the
weavers, which is known as an Advance.

It is an interest-free system where the owners need to pay an amount to the weavers in order
to employ them. This amount is a bond between the loom owners and weavers. At the end of
the period of employment, (determined by weavers) the amount has to be paid back to the
owner, however, without any interest. In some cases, this amount is cut from the daily wages

15
on a monthly basis. The main features of this system are that these are document free and no
interest is added to the amount.

- “These days you cannot employ a weaver without paying an Advance. For instance,
imagine I am a weaver. I borrowed a sum of Rs.40, 000 from my present employer.
However I am not in good terms with the owner and decide to quit the job there. Now
as I join another household, I need to clear my dues with the previous employer.
Moreover, I need a sum of Rs10, 000 to meet my daily expenses. In order to recover
from the previous loan, I as a weaver take a new loan as a term of joining from my
new employer...” (Translated)

- “This becomes a part of their lives. As for owners like us, this is all a result of a
weavers’ crisis which had lead to the emergence of such a system. We are bound to
pay the Advance or we would have close down our looms...” (Translated)

The respondent says the lack of manpower which has resulted in the emergence of such a
system. Sualkuchi is comprised of only the producers who are permanently settled here. The
weavers migrate from various parts of Assam and find it difficult to sustain themselves in an
unknown territory. The weavers hold the technical knowledge in the labour intensive
handloom industry. This makes them the core participants in the production process.
Although the owners are engaged in the production since long period, they are unaware of the
technical knowledge to run the loom. These Advance amounts range from Rs. 20000 to Rs.
80000, varying in different areas.

The amount is repaid to the owner only when the weaver quits the job at the loom. However
there have been cases where the weavers elope and never return back because they are unable
to repay the loan.

- “Many a times these weavers go home and never return back. We have also heard of
some cases where the owners have been murdered by a group of weavers. We need to
beware of such weavers...” (Translated)

The sense of fear is reflected in the words of this owner. However, for the weavers, the same
system is a matter of survival.

- “The Advance is taken when left with no choice. How do we survive if we do not take
Advance? We have children whom we have to send to school, house rents and other
basic necessities. Today in Sualkuchi every weaver takes an Advance and it is cut
from our daily wages. How do we survive on such a meagre income?” (Translated)

The weaver tells the researcher about the circumstances under which the system emerged and
how it helps the weavers sustain themselves in this age of high inflation.

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4.2.4 HEALTH PROBLEMS

Weavers experience health problems due to continuous strenuous physical work required in
weaving. Most of the weavers start weaving at a very young age. Years of such physical
activity results in back pain and pain in the feet.

- “We do not have a choice but to spend 7-8 hours a day weaving. I do not want my
children to meet the same fate. This also causes many health problems. Pain in the
abdomen area, chest and back are very common. There is a lot of struggle in
handloom weaving. It is not easy...” (Translated)

The respondent expresses her concern for her children. She says she does not want her
children to be involved in this activity and struggle like they did.

4.2.5 LACK OF DEMAND

The Handloom industry in Sualkuchi faces stiff competition from the Tassar, Polyester in
the same town itself. Apart from the Muga and Eri silk production, the Assamese paat
silk is also losing its demand as well as identity along with it. The variants of Assamese
silk produced in Sualkuchi are:

 Muga Silk is the yellow golden variant extracted from Antherae aassama, a
domesticated silk worm found in the region. The golden textile has been
compared to gold in Ancient literature. Its lustre increases with time. It is the
costliest silk variant which was indigenously produced in Sualkuchi.

 Pat Silk or Mulberry silk are exclusively extracted from silkworms which feed on
Mulberry leaves. Presently this is the only silk variant which is widely produced
in Sualkuchi.

 Eri Silk is a warm silk variant made from Philosamia ricini, which harbours on
the castor oil plant. It is also known as Endi silk, used to make shawls and rugs.

However, since 2010, the Banaras silk has entered the market in Sualkuchi. This
variant of silk is being sold in the markets in the name of Assam silk with traditional
Assamese motifs and designs. Similarly, duplicates of Muga silk are available in the
markets in the form of tassar silk.

- “Since 2010 the looms have decreased largely. Unlike before, the people these days
prefer the mixed material rather than pure silk. They prefer a Polyester mix for the
material since it is cheap and does not require high maintenance.” (Translated)

17
 - “Earlier in our times a bride used to receive 10pairs of mekhela chadar from her
family as a custom. But these days the younger generation prefer modern attires like
sari and salwar kameez. Also the price has increased over time. Hence the orders for
mekhela chadar have come down to 5 pairs. Choices have changed.” (Translated)

The respondent expresses his distress over the change in market demand and how it has
affected their livelihood. For the weavers in Sualkuchi, the cultural heritage associated with
traditional weaving is significant. The younger generation prefers comfortable fabric with
low maintenance. Therefore, a changing trend in the consumer choice is seen.

18
 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND REFLECTIONS

“In the past, as one would enter Sualkuchi, the rhythmic click clock of the looms in action,
“Jhang! Jhang!” would reverberate from every corner of every lane everywhere in the town.
But today it is as silent as a battlefield after a war...” (Translated)
- Pramod Kalita, 65,Owner of 5looms, Sualkuchi

This section attempts to summarise the entire study and present a concluding remark in order
to reflect upon the findings of the research. The researcher also provides the suggestions and
a way forward.

Handloom weaving as a livelihood activity possesses immense potential to provide as a

sustainable livelihood option. This research study has tried to look into the livelihood
sustainability of handloom weavers in Sualkuchi. A livelihood is sustainable when it can
cope with and recover from shocks and stresses and maintain and enhance the capabilities.
The Sustainable Livelihoods framework is an emerging approach to poverty reduction.
Various aspects of the approach such as livelihood assets or resources, vulnerabilities and
livelihood strategies were incorporated into the analysis of the findings.

The system of advance is one of the most significant findings for the study. This informal
credit system has emerged only in the last 10 years. The lack of manpower in Sualkuchi
handloom industry is causing a shortage of labour. This phenomenon is as old as the Advance
system. The study has brought out many contrasting viewpoints from both owners and wage-
weavers. The interest free system does not require the weavers to go through the hassles of
documentation which is necessary in the case of formal financial institutions. For the owners,
this system acts as a catalyst for ensuring manpower for continuation of production. This
system is one of the vulnerabilities hindering economic growth, pushing the weavers and
owners into a vicious circle of debts.

Low income and negligible savings restrict the economic growth of the handloom weavers.
The demand for pure silk has escalated severely. Mixed fabrics such as polyester and Taasar
silk have replaced these demands because of affordability and low maintenance, even though
the quality is inferior. Changing trends in the choices of the younger generation has caused
this shift of the demand in the market.

In the course of the study, the researcher also found out that the respondents were unaware of
any institutional mechanisms provided by the state. Articles provided under the NHRC and
Handloom Act 1985 states significant reservations and subsidies for the handloom weavers in

19
terms of availability of raw materials and credit. However, the ground reality remains
completely different.

Therefore, the researcher comes up with 3 main stakeholders in the sustainability paradigm of
handloom weavers-

The institutional processes and organisational structures provided by the state. The
study reveals that any kind of awareness about these mechanisms is unknown to the weavers
and owners. Secondly, it is the market- comprising of the customers who create the demand
in the market. The fluctuations in demand and supply of products are both determined by the
customers. Lastly, the final stakeholder influencing the sustainability paradigm is the weaver.
This research study comprehends the perceptions of the weavers regarding the issues and
challenged faced by them in the livelihood process.

The study provides an unpleasant picture of the handloom industry in Sualkuchi. Weaving is
ingrained in every child’s blood and given much importance. With skilled labour on a decline
and the younger generation with more lucrative options in hand, weaving is no more the
family tradition in this era of globalisation. The way forward to save the silk industry of
Sualkuchi from extinction would be for the state institutional mechanisms to ensure the
reservations and provisions are Participatory in nature. A bottom –to –top approach in policy
formation would ensure better inclusion of all categories of weavers and elimination of
middle-men. Secondly, proper orientation and incubation facilities for entrepreneurship and
marketing can be put forward to the younger generation from these weaving families in order
to give weaving its own significant market in today’s globalised world.

20
REFERRENCES
Aggarwal, A., Sharma, A., Tripathi, A., Wadhwan, A., Chongtham, E., Gupta, A., et al.
(2014). Static or Dynamic:The Analysis of Handloom Industry of Assam. DU Journal of
Undergraduate Research and Innovation , 1-19.

Baro, N. N. (2014). Rural Non-Agriculatural Livelihoods:Expectations,Opportunities and

Contraints(A study in Golaghar district in Assam. Hyderabad: Tata Institute of Social
Sciences.

Bhattacharjee, M. (2010). A Comparative Study of Livelihood Strategies in Rural and Urban

Assam. The Journal of Social Work , 387-415.

Chambers, R., & Conway, G. R. (1991). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts
for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296 .

Devi, C. V. (2013). Handlooms for Livelihood in North-East Region:Problems and

Prospects. Hyderabad: Journal of Rural Development.

Government of India. (2011). Census Report. Government of India.

Krantz, L. (2001). The Sustainable Livelihood Approach to Poverty Reduction- An

Introduction. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.

Ministry of Textiles. (2010). Handloom Census of India. Government of India.

Narzary, J. (2013). A study on the challenges faced by the handloom industry in BTAD,
Assam. Global Research Methodology Journal , 1-11.

Niranjana, S., & Vinayan, S. (2001). Report on Groth and Prospects of the Handloom
Industry. Dastkar, Andhra: Planning Commition of India.

Phukan, D. R. (2012). Handloom Weaving in Assam : Problems and Prospects. Global

Journal of Human Social Science , 19.

Scoones, I. (1998). Sustaiinable Rural Livelihoods : A Framework for Anallysis. IDS

Working Paper 72 .

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ANNEXURE

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR WEAVER RESPONDENTS

A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

S.NO ITEMS DETAILS

Serial Number
1 NAME

2 AGE

3 SEX male female others

4 NAME OF THE
COMMUNITY/ETHNICITY
5 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

6 SINCE HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN

LIVING HERE? (in years)
7 YEARS OF WORKNG IN THE
PROFESSION
8 OCCUPATIONAL STATUS Traditional Adopted

B. HOUSEHOLD INFORMATION

9. Number of earning members

10. Number of dependents

11. Respective occupational profiles (each family member)

C. LIVELIHOOD ASSETS

12. Nature of House accommodation

13. Land ownership

22
14. Livestock

15. Do you own BPL Card / Aadhaar Card?

16. Are you a member of any Self Help Group or Cooperative Society?

17. Which is the nearest market for:

Daily Essentials Others

D. LIVELIHOOD PROCESSES

18. Where do you procure the raw materials from?

19. What are the different components of production process in handloom weaving process?

20. How is it different from power loom weaving?

21. How are the prices determined for the finished products?

22. What are the Market Linkages available to you?

23. Are you satisfied with the working conditions in your workplace?

E. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

24. Is weaving enough to sustain your livelihood?

25. What is your knowledge about power-looms?

26. Which are the best seasons for productions and why?

27. How has the production of handloom in your generation changed compared to the previous
generations?

28. Are you aware of the various Government schemes for the handloom sector?

29. Do you see any lapses in the implementation of these schemes/ benefits?

30. What kind of support is required to make your livelihood more sustainable?

31. Do you have an alternate source of livelihood apart from weaving?

32. What led you to take up those alternate sources of livelihood?

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