Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • GST Merged - Merged - Organized

    Uploaded by

    Tarun Pratap Singh
    8 views20 pages

    Original Title

    GST Merged_merged_organized

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    8 views20 pages

    GST Merged - Merged - Organized

    Uploaded by

    Tarun Pratap Singh

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 20
    Science: Science comes from the Latin word ‘Scire’. It literally means ‘to know’. A fundamental part of our nature is our desire to know. A child wants to know everything around him. He asks. ‘What is this?’, ‘What is that?’ He wants to know ‘why’ and ‘how’ things happen. He acquires knowledge through the five gateways of knowledge. that ls, the senses of touch, sight, smell, hearing and taste. But all sorts of knowledge cannot be taken as science. Science is that knowledge which is logical, experimentally verifi- able and universally applicable. Natural Sciences: Science that deals with Nature and i phenomena Is called Natural Sciences, The natural science: popularly known as science, consists of the physical science (physics, chemistry, astronomy, etc.), mathematical science (mathematics, statistics, ete.), lifesciences (botany, zoology, ete and earth sciences (geology, geography, etc.). Natural science are concerned with events and facts of nature that can b objectively observed, tested, measured, Interpreted, generalise: and confirmed. Science and Technology: Science on the one hand is con= cerned with theories, principles and laws, while on the other hand with the application of the same in various situations. Strictly speaking the first one, the theory part. is pure science and the second one, the application part, is technology. There is a close connection between science and technology, between theory and its application. Sclence depends on technology for its equipment, apparatus and machines; technology is based on the theories of science. Both help one another to bring about scien- tific progress. Use of the term ‘Science’: Science has so changed its nature over the whole range of human history that it cannot be fully explained. In ancient times science was philosophy. In the middle ages the alchemists were busy trying to find out a way of turning things into gold. Their work was called alchemy. In the modem age since Galileo and Newton, it was called natural philosophy and the scientists were called natural philosophers. It is only since 1840 the terms, ‘science’ and ‘scientists’, have come to be used. SCIENTIFIC METHOD Method to Acquire Knowledge: One of the most important aspects of science is the method adopted for its functioning, The scientific method is applied in diverse studies in various degrees, There is no branch of knowledge where it is not applied at all. The method is suited according to what is desired to be inves- tigated, whether it is the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake like the study of light or whether it is to find out why people suffer from a certain disease and how it can he cured. Steps of Scientific Method: Broadly speaking, the steps of scientifge method are: (a) to observe, (b) to define the problem, (c) to develop a hypothesis, (d) to experiment and procure data, (e) to classify and arrange the data, (f) to interpret the data to confirm, or reject the hypothesis and (g] to generalise or to establish a law. ' (b) Problem: The problem has to be stated clearly so that the investigator may easily understand the nature and size of the problem, so as to make the relevant experiments and select the relevant data which may help In solving the problem. (c) HypothesIs: Hypothesis 1s a preliminary guess of expected solution of the problem posed. For example, to the problem "Why did we have good crops this year?", a simple answer, as a hypothesis, could be —"We had sufficient rainfall this year." The hypothesis may also Include other causes like the availability of | 3 good seeds, fertilizers, irrigation facilities etc. The hypothesis may be a mere intuition, or logical deductions from available facts. (d) Experiment: This is the most important part of the scientific method. This is the empiric part of the investigation. Empiric means related to: (a) observation, and (b) practical test (experiment) to procure relevant facts or data to arrive at a conclusion. The most important point is that throughout our observation and experiment we should work with an open mind, without any prejudice, bias or preconceived notion. (ec) Classification and arrangements of data for analysis: The experimental work provides quantitative data which must be classified and arranged in order. The data is the precise measurement or precise observation through suitable instru- ments, which can reach out to limits where man's sensory perception fail to reach. Precise measurement and observation place us on surer ground. The relevant data so collected require to be classified. grouped or arranged in an orderly pattern fora better understanding of the same. or for discovering the relation- ship between two sects of data, or for studying the variation between cause and effect relationship. This process is the analysis of the data. (f) Interpretation: Facts or data do not speak out. We have to interpret them. We have to reason out. We may use logic — the inductive or deductive method. We may use mathematics. We have to see what is similar, what is dissimilar, what is common to other known phenomenon and how the facts fit the hypothesis (our preliminary guess or assumption). The inter- pretation based on logic or facts or both may confirm or refute our hypothesis. Methods may vary according to experiments: Modern science owes Its flourishing state to the new scientific method which originated with Galileo, as he laid emphasis on experi- ments. It was taken up intensively by Newton who combined mathematics with experiments. But Einstein thought that It was not necessary that all explanation in sclence must be practically tested before it could be considered reliable, So it happened when the Theory of Relativity was propounded by him. The whole theory is deductive, based on logic and mathematics. The theory was later verifled experiincntally and was found sound. So there is the purely deductive and mathematical method parallel to experimental and empirical method. Between them there are al] grades of methods and techniques. So to think that there is only one scientific method will be entirely wrong. Science undergoes transformation as it advances step by step: so do the methods of science. Different branches of science cr differen’ problems require different approaches. But there are some basic principles which are common to all of these methods, All of them are objective and analytical. They are based on observation, meas- urement and logic. We work with an open mind: We have seen that in a scientific method we proceed methodically, step by step, in an orderly fashion. But the demand of the scientific method is that whatever we do, we do with an open mind without bias or dogma, without worrying whether our discovered facts would prove or refute our hypothesis. And we work with an inexhaustible energy to collect , and record the facts truthfully. This is the pursuit of scientifi | method in a scientific spirit. | Free inquiry: We have already seen the picture uf scientific spirit in the scientific method. The driving force behind science is this scientific spirit. It Is the spirit of free inquiry, objectivity and precision. The history of sclence in recent centuries bs the story of the triumph of scientific spirit or free inquiry over mere opinion, untested belief. prejudices, dogmas, magic, miracle and superstition. Before the onrushing waves of scientific inquiry. the walls of the fort of wrong beliefs have fallen down one by one. Wlustrating the great saying of the Upanishad, “T; : triumps, not untruth". pan ruth alone How men suffered for their scientific discoveries: In its early period of development, science had to fight its way against popular beliefs especially when they were decp-rooted in the social or religious systems. The strong authority of the Church condemned the Polish Investigator, Copernicus (1473-1545) for proposing that the earth was not the fixed centre of the universe. In fact, it revolved round the sun. On the contrary. the Church belleved that God creuted the earth as superior to all planets and stars and, therefore, it occupied the céntral position and the sun revolved rqund It. Copernicus, himself churchman, was afraid to publish his result. At last his work was brought out on the see dae he ad Theseth Canemione ecrered the wrath of the When the lighting rod was Invented by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the churclunen condemned his action as an im- plous attempt to clefeat the purpose of God. It was believed that lightning was sent by God to puntsh the sins of man. When Charles Darwin (1809-1882) propounded hls Theory of Evolution, which showed that man evolved from other creatures, the Church recelved a serious Jolt as It believed that man was the supreme purpose of God and every other creature was subservient to him. When the medical men first proposed to dissect corpses for medical study the churchmen raised a hue and ery for they had the finn conviction that life persisted In the body even after death. In those days nothing could be done against the wishes of the Church, th society € supreme authority in the Men won freedom to think and enquire: At every tum in he development of science there has been an intense conflict wtween the forces advancing the pace and the forces opposing hhe pace, between subjectivity and objectivity, between blind velief and tested knowledge. But a rapid succession of ncw iclentific findings and discoveries slowly broadened the outlook ind widened the vision of man. The scientific thinking started >enetrating and permeating each and every aspect of life. Man 10w started looking at things with an open mind. The scientific spintt relieved mankind of ignorance, superstition and fear. It reed man from Irrational beliefs and dogmatic fetters. When the society already started believing in the validity of scientific nethods and in the value of the results obtained by science. the church had to reconcile. In scientific and Intellectual matters nan was now free to observe, to think and to reason. He was free a make his own Judgment and decisions. It helps to understand oneself and one's own actions. Itis the sclentific spirit that can control strong feelings Hke anger. When angry. one must find out the different ways open for him tn ‘espond and their related consequences. It is then he must choose the best reasonable course of action. It Is through the sclentific spirlt and proper reasoning that the baseless fear among children — the fear of entering a dark room, the fear of ghosts, the fear of punishment, etc. — can be overcome. The training in scientific spirit should start early in life. The general sducation, the study of sclence, the methodical work and the wrents’ and teahcers’ sclentific approach in dealing with weryday problems help to inculcate the scientific spirit in the roung minds. ths great message of the Scientific Spirit is to! snow the right thing through the right method and do the right hing in the right way, = ne eos The need of Scientific Spirit to resolve our problems: But tis very unfortunate that we do not use our sclentifle splrit to esolve our national, social, religious. political or personal woblems. Just survey the scene and you will find that in many ‘ases the absence of scientific temper and dispassionate think- ng{s the cause of quarrels and clashes, mlsunderstandings and naladjustments, heated words and frayed tempers, Illogical irguments and biased opinions. The cause is the same whether hese things happen between parties, groups, people, neigh- sours, friends, members of a family or even between husband ind wife. When self interest dominates our thoughts, when ego ‘olours our vision, when fear and insecurity cloud our minds, when prejudices take deep root inside us, then we try to ag- But we shed blood in the name of religion. when all religions sroclaim that we all are the children of God and through love ind purity of heart we can reach Him, We fight in the name of anguage when language Is the gift of God to man alors: «. make xeople understand one another. We kill each other in the m-W:+ Mf ‘righteous war’ afler declaring by the beat of drum that we are ighting to make the world a safer place to live. This ls madness. Ne forget to sce the other side of the picturc. This Is a sacrifice of rational thinking and reason on the altar of vested interests. This is the negation of scientific spirit. What is Poverty: Poverty ls a soclo-economic phenomeno: inas difficult to give a precise definition. Poverty Is a condition i whi. people lack the means to satisfy their_ basic needs. Basi heeds may be defined as broadly as “those reflecting the prevail ing standard of living In the community’, or as narrowly as “thos: neceasary for survival’. The first definition has a relative mean ing because the average standard of Ilving of two countries. sa} { S A. and India, may not be the same. It would not be surprisin poverty line was drawn at per capita monthly expenditure of Rs. 107 tor rural and Rs. 122, for the urban areas at 1984-85 prices. As the prices have since gone up, the per capita monthly cxpenditure would also go up for buying the same quantity and 1 of food. I! has been estimated that in 1989-90, 16.9 crore peuple in rural areas and 4.2 crore people in urban area lived below the poverty line. In terms of percentage 28% of the rural sopulation and 19% of the urban population may be called poor ecording ta the food calory basis. By the latest count over 23.76 rore peuple accounting for nearly 30 percent of the population ‘ere still below the poverty line, Causes of poverty: The following are the main factors respon sible for the poverty ofa developing country: (1) Under utilizatior, of natural resources; (Ii) shortage of capital; (ill) technological ba: + wardness; (iv) low level of production; (v) unemployment and underemployment; (vi) fast growth of population: and (vii) sutquality in distribution of national income. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP): It was ‘ed in 1978-79 to alleviate rural poverty. The main objec- tives are to raise families of the identified group above poverty sine and t> create additional opportunities of self-employment. *t provides training programmes for land development, minor ngation animal husbandry, daigying, fisheries forestry and ture. During the Seventh lan it was planned to assist 52 lakh families. The major impact of the programme was that it benefited the poores: athesscley, Poorest and the most deprived sections int about Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM): It was launched on 15 August 1979. The main aim of the programme Is to equip rural youth with skills and technology to take up vocations and self-employment In agriculture, industry, services and business, The youths have to be in the age group of 18-35 from families with income less than Rs. 3,500 per year. During the Seventh Plan about 10 lakh rural youths were trained under this programme. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP): It was introduced in October 1980, It has three fold objectives of generating employment opportunities, creating community as- sets (like drinking water, wells, minor irrigation works, roads. schools etc.) and improving quality of life. In 1983, it was followed by Rural Landiess Employment Guarantee Programme 'RLEGP). The objective was to improve and expand employment opportunities, particularly for rural landless labourers, and te provide guarantec of employment to at least one member of ever¥ Tura! landless labour household up to 100 days In a year. Since 1 April, 1989, NREP, RLEGP have been merged into onc sing rural employment programme known as Jawahar Rozgar Yojar (JRY). It generates additional employment for unemployed ar under-employed persons in the rural areas and creates produ: tive community assets. Besides, there are Special Area Progran mes for the development of the drought-prone areas and dese and hill areas to eradicate poverty of the people living there an to mitigate the effects of unfavourable climate. Other Measures to Alleviate Povert launch attacks on many fronts to remove important measures are set out below: 1 Increase the growth rate of economy: If we develop agriculture industry, trade and commerce. the growth rate will nerease. Higher the growth rate higher will be the national ncome and per capita income. This will increase the standard f living and pull out people living below the poverty line. ¥: It is necessary to poverty. Some of the 3. Employment opportunities: We should adopt labour ‘tensive production programmes for absorbing more labour. ‘airy farming, fishery, poultry ete.. in rural areas and small se.le ustries in urban areas will encourage self employment and ben up more employment opportunities. 6. Fair payments to workers: The weaker section of the” society should be saved from exploitation and should be pald the minimum prescribed wages or what is due to them. 7. Provision for minimum needs: Free medical aid, drinking water, cheap plots etc., should be made available to the poor. Many consumer goods like food grains, kerosene, salt, cloth. Sugar, soap should be distributed among the poor at low prices through falr price shops. 8. Reducing economic inequality: Economic measures huuld be adopted to fill up the gap between the rich and the vor. Wealth, instead of being concentrated In a few hands. hould be distributed ainong all. 4. Literacy and education: Education or literacy has a great halivating power. It engenders the urge, desire or the will in the learts of the people to rise above poverty. Concept of Literacy: Literacy means the ability to read anc write. The concept of literacy with special reference to adult education has now been widened. Literacy. if it to be worthwhile must be functional. The programme of education tor adults has now three componeits:- literacy, functionality ard awareness, The literacy component comprises reading, wriling and numeracy: the functional component comprises imparting, of necessary skills to enable the adults to beconie mt efficient and productive in their work; the component of awareness comprises creation of consciousness in the adults about their socio-economic status, civil rights and duties and what they should do to improve their quality of life. Literacy and National Development: The development of a nation is closely linked with the level of literacy and education af its people. Without adult literacy and education there can be no rapid socia), cultural. economic or political progress. Literacy and a Happier Life: Literacy makes one aware ol one’s problems and how to solve them. For instance, our major problem now is the rapid growth of population. Forty years of Herculcan efforts to control the population growth have not given us the desired results, primarily because the majority of the illiterate people are not aware and convinced that a big family is ruinous for the future happiness of the familv as well as of the nation. TO MAKE ALL LITERATE Universal Elementary Education: Universalisation of elementary education has been one of the most important goals of education since Independence. Article 45 of the Indian Con- stitution directed the State to endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years of the commencement of the Constitution (1850) free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14 years. National Literacy Mission 1988: The National Literacy Mis- sion (NLM) was launched in 1988 to impart functional Nteracy to eight crore illiterate persons in 15-35 age group. three crore by 1990 and additional five crore by 1995. The Mission has given the following components of functional Mreracy; (1) achieving self-reliance in literacy and numeracy; (2) becoming aware of the causes of their ceprivation and moving towards amelioration of their condition: (3) acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general well-being; (4) imbibing the valucs of national Integration, conservation of the environment, observance of small familles, ete. Norms prescribed for funetiorial Werecy: In reeling, a ‘erson to be declared Uterate, should be able to read aloud a imple passage at a apoed of $0 words per minute. In writing, a person should be able to copy with understanding at a speed of 7 words per minute and write independently short letters, application and forms of day to day use. In arithmetic the person should be able to read and write 1 to 100 and to do simple calculations without fractions Involving addition, substraction upto 3 digits and multiplication and division by 2 digits. 1 o--e Strategy: Main features of the strategy are: (i) increasing motivation of the learner by taking up learner need-based programmes; (2) securing people participation through media and taking out of jathas; (3) Improving substantially ongoing MMes: unching mass movement by involving educa- fonal institutions, teachers, students, youth, milifary pérson- nél housewives-ex-servicemen, employers, (ade unions, retired persons, etc; (5) establishing Jana Shikshan Niiayams (JSN) for ‘post literacy and continuing education; (6) Making available | standard Jearning material; and (7) allocating fnances,~ ~ i Women Literacy: Literacy amongst women still remains jower than amongst men. It Is incumbent on us to further concentrate on women's literacy and education, It is only then we can bring a change in the status of women. A Central Scheme. Mahila Samakhya (Education for women's equality) has been launched in 10 districts of Gujarat, Karnataka and U.P. It will generate awareness among poor women about the need for education as a tool to Improve their status. Mahila Shiksha Kendras train women who can help other womey) to move from a state of passive acceptance of their life situation to active self determination. POPULATION EDUCATION World population growth: It took from the dawn of time to the year 1830 for the world to achieve a total population of one billion. By 1930, that is in 100 years, the figure had doubled ty’ 2 billion. By_1976, that Is in 46 years, the figure had again’ doubled to 4 billion. It is now projected to double. again to’. billion by the year 2020, that is in another 46 years. The projection figure is frightening. . Growth of population in India: Now we turn to India. Here: the speed at which the population is growing is indeed alarming and threatening. The table below shows decadewise how the population in India is growing: Year Population Percentage Birth Death Growth (in crore) increase rate . rate Rate per per ‘in’ 1000 1000 1 2 3 4 5 6 1911 _ 25.20 5.7 48.1 42.6 0.55 1921 - 25.12 ~0.3 - 49.2 47.2 0.20 193] 27.89 11.0 46.4 36.3 1.01 1941 31.85 | 14.2 45.2 31.2 1.40 1951 36.10 13.3 39.9 27.4 1.25 1961 43.91: 21.5 41.7 22.8 1.89 1971 54.79 24.8 41.2 19.2 2.20 | 1981 68.38 24.7 37.2 14.7 2.25 1991 84.39 23.50 32.7 11.5 2.12 How the population grew: Before 1921 the population was either fluctuating or remained more or less stable. But after 1921 the population began to grow rapidly and continuously without any break. From 1891 to 1921 the population rose barely by about 6%. But since then the percentage of increase is growing except in the last 2 decades. It may be seen from the above table that from 1931 to 1971 the population doubled in 40 years; but the figures from 1961 to 1991 indicate that the population has - come close to double in 30 years. And this is the case despite the efforts made to check the growth. If this trend continues India’s population will cross the hundred-crore mark by the turn of the century. The serlousness of the problem may be evident from the fact that the annual increase In India’s population has been as much as the entire population of the Australlan con- tinent. We have 15% of world’s population within 2.4% of the earth's area. The big difference between birth and death rates: The rapid growth of population in India is the ever-widening gap between the falling death rate and high birth rate. In a year there are too many births and lesser number of deaths. The comparative table above clearly indicates the slow decrease of the average birth rate and the sharp fall of the average death rate. As the gap is continually widening the population is rapidly increasing. In contrast, the advanced countries have very low birth and death rates (generally between 9 and 12) and their difference is very marginal. As a result it will take about 100 years in the U.S.A., about 200 years in France and Italy, and more than 1100 years in U.K. and Sweden for doubling-their population. Causes for the decline in death rate: The steady fall in death rate is explained in terms of growing medical and health services, control of epidemic diseases like plague, malaria etc., complete eradication of small pox, discoveries of antibiotics and other life saving drugs, improvement in sanitation and hygiene, improve- ment in Standard of living and overall economic conditions, supply of pure drinking water and better nutrition for children. Another contributory factor is better means of communication and food supplies,.which help to prevent loss of lives in times of flood or famine. These took a heavy toll of life in the past. -Causes of high birth rate: Factors responsible for high birth rate are: early marriage resulting in longer reproduction span;,

    You might also like