Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Effects of temperature on the performance of fuel cell hybrid electric

vehicles: A review
Zhen Song a, Yue Pan b, Huicui Chen a, *, Tong Zhang a
a
School of Automotive Studies, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China
b
Shanghai Hydrogen Propulsion Technology, Shanghai 201804, China

H I G H L I G H T S

• A comprehensive review of temperature effects on the performance of fuel cell vehicle.

• Temperature effects on the fuel cell and lithium-ion battery have been analyzed.
• Guidance for designing integrated energy management strategy is provided.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles powered by fuel cell and lithium-ion battery have been considered as an
Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles attractive and potential candidate in place of internal combustion vehicles with the advantage of high energy
Energy management strategy density and energy conversion efficiency, and have become a configuration of interest of many researchers in
Thermal management
recent years. Energy management and thermal management are critical issues for steady output power of fuel cell
Temperature
hybrid power system. However, most of the research on energy management and temperature control of fuel cell
hybrid electric vehicles is mutually independent. From the literatures, it is observed that existing energy man­
agement strategies without integration of fuel cell or battery’s temperature dimension are more or less incapable
to perform very well. This paper focuses on reviewing the temperature effects on energy management strategies
for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles. To do this, temperature effects on the performance of lithium-ion battery
and proton exchange membrane fuel cell are summarized respectively at first. Then, energy management in
combination with thermal management of hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles are
analyzed and summarized in detail. It is indicated that the solution of power distribution considering temper­
ature effects is a significant way to improve the efficiency and service life of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles
compared to the energy management strategy without considering temperature effects. Based on the above
analysis, future suggestions of EMS designing are prospected in order to achieve better performance for fuel cell
hybrid electric vehicles.

temperature [3], and it has great potential in vehicle applications [4].

PEMFC takes hydrogen as its fuel, and the consumed hydrogen can be
1. Introduction
produced with renewable energies, such as electrolysis and biomass
processes to produce near zero global emission electricity, which can
As a crucial measure to improve and protect the ecological envi­
protect the ecological environment eventually [5].
ronment, new energy vehicle is an important direction for the future
Due to the current developing level of fuel cell technology, FCVs
development technology of the automotive industry with the advantages
powered by PEMFC have some limitations with slow dynamic response
of low emissions. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have become a research
[6], being unable to recover braking energy [7], poor durability and
hotspot in the field of new energy vehicles because of high power density
reliability under dynamic operation conditions such as startup-
and zero emissions [1,2]. Among all types of fuel cells, proton exchange
shutdown, braking, acceleration, deceleration, etc. [8,9]. These limita­
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) has been proved to be one of the most
tions have paved the way for the emergence of fuel cell hybrid electric
promising energy sources due to its high efficiency and low operating

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: chenhuicui@tongji.edu.cn (H. Chen), tzhang@tongji.edu.cn (T. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117572
Received 3 April 2021; Received in revised form 1 August 2021; Accepted 6 August 2021
Available online 14 August 2021
0306-2619/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Song et al.
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
FCV Fuel cell vehicles
PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
FCHEV Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle
EMS Energy management strategy
PMP Pontryagin’s minimal principle
ECMS Equivalent consumption minimization strategy
TMS Thermal management system
OCV Open circuit voltage
SOC State of charge
EKF Extended Kalman filter
UKF Unscented Kalman filter
UPF Unscented particle filter
SOAP State of available power
DP Dynamic programming
FCS Fuel cell system
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
IETM Integrated energy and thermal management
EM Energy management
SETM Separated energy and thermal management
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
vehicles (FCHEVs) powered by PEMFC and auxiliary power source, such
as battery [10], super-capacitor [11] or the combination of both [12].
Among various kinds of power sources that have been used in FCHEVs,
lithium-ion battery has the advantages of higher discharge rate capa­
bility compared with other types of battery, for example, lead acid
batteries [13]. Therefore, lithium-ion battery and PEMFC exist to be the
most favorable ones owing to the advantages of high power density and
energy density. Furthermore, they can compensate for the shortcomings
of the two power sources operating separately, recovering energy during
braking and providing enough power during acceleration [14]. The
characteristics of high efficiency, high power density and environmental
friendliness have made FCHEV become the most potential development
direction for vehicles in the future.
For FCHEV, energy management strategy (EMS) plays an important
role in improving vehicle efficiency and reducing fuel consumption by
distributing appropriate power between fuel cell and lithium-ion battery
[15–17]. Numerous studies have been conducted on EMS to improve the
performance of FCHEVs. Li et al. [18] designed an adaptive EMS based
on Pontryagin’s Minimal Principle (PMP). An improved Markov based
velocity prediction was proposed to estimate the co-state. Simulation
results verified the effectiveness of the proposed EMS that it can improve
the fuel economy by reducing the fuel consumption by 4% compared
with the rule-based EMS. Moreover, the results also highlighted that the
strategy was close to the offline-PMP, indicating that the proposed EMS
was a near-optimal method. Liu et al. [19] designed a multi-objective
hierarchical EMS to reduce fuel consumption as well as enhance the
lifetime of fuel cell. The proposed EMS based on two control layers can
reduce the costs by comparing with charge depletion-charge sustaining
strategy and equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS).
Temperature is an important factor affecting the performance of
PEMFC and lithium-ion battery. Thermal management system (TMS)
attempts to keep the temperature of power sources at a predetermined
level. However, it will pose great challenges to the power sources when
the temperature is too high or too low. For lithium-ion battery, the effect
of temperature on the performance of battery has increasingly become
the research attention with the commercialization of electric vehicles in
recent years. A few of disadvantages such as inaccurate driving range at
low temperature and long charging time have appeared gradually [20].
Specifically speaking, the reduction of charging and discharging
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Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572
capacity of lithium-ion batteries will lead to the decrease of vehicle
dynamic performance and fuel economy performance in cold environ­
ment [21,22]. For PEMFC, serious cooling problem may occur at high
temperature. It is difficult to radiate heat at high current density when
PEMFC is under high power or harsh working conditions, resulting in
low efficiency [23,24].
The above analyses have shown the importance of good thermal
management and energy management to vehicle performance and the
problems were usually solved by optimizing the algorithms of thermal
management and energy management separately in most previous
research. Beyond this, another method is worthy consideration, that is,
the combination of energy management and thermal management. To
minimize the overall fuel consumption of vehicles, EMS needs to control
not only the chemical and mechanical power flow but also the thermal
power flow. The existing research on energy management usually dis­
tributes the power ignoring the influence of temperature on the power
distribution result, which is inconsistent with the actual operation of
vehicles. Actually, PEMFC and lithium-ion battery are multi-physical
systems where the power transfer and temperature are always interde­
pendent. Therefore, incorporating the influence of thermal management
into EMS designing is urgent and significant. In view of the research on
the energy management considering thermal management is relatively
lacking, this paper tends to fill this gap, which contributes to review not
only the existed EMSs without thermal management but also the inte­
grated EMSs that can implement the optimum matching of power of the
two power sources. It can be seen that EMSs combine power distribution
control and thermal management, allowing for both an optimized fuel
consumption and health preservation. The final conclusions can provide
the suggestions for developing EMS and are hopefully to be a meaningful
solution to improve the performance of vehicles.
The rest of this article is arranged as follows: Firstly, the influence of
temperature on the performance of lithium-ion battery and PEMFC are
analyzed respectively. Then, EMSs with considering temperature effects
and without considering temperature effects are analyzed and summa­
rized. Finally, on the basis of the above analysis, the trend of joint
optimization of thermal management and energy management control
strategies for FCHEVs is proposed and the summary of this paper is
given. The final conclusion can provide guidance for EMS designing and
have important value for improving the practicability and reliability of
FCHEVs.
2. Effects of temperature on the performance of lithium-ion
battery and PEMFC
2.1. Effects of temperature on the performance of lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery is a popular secondary battery in FCHEVs, which
not only provides power during the vehicle acceleration, but also re­
covers energy during vehicle braking. Temperature is a key factor
affecting the performance of lithium-ion battery. The operating tem­
perature of lithium-ion battery is generally from − 20 degrees Celsius to
60 degrees Celsius. However, the performance of lithium-ion battery
will decrease significantly when the temperature is sub-zero or higher
than 40 degrees Celsius, and the discharge capacity will decrease
accordingly. Therefore, the suitable operating temperature for lithium-
ion battery performance is usually between 0 degrees Celsius and 40
degrees Celsius. There is little difference between the operating tem­
perature of lithium-ion battery and the ambient temperature, so the
operating temperature will be affected greatly when the ambient tem­
perature changes during the actual operation. It may be seriously
damaged if the exposed temperature of the battery exceeds the specified
range, leading to the degradation of vehicle performance [25]. Hussein
et al. [26] tested lithium-ion batteries in the range of − 30 ◦ C (303.15 K)
to 50 ◦ C (323.15 K), and measured main parameters including capacity,
resistance, and open circuit voltage (OCV) of the battery. The results
showed that the parameters changed slightly when the temperature was
Z. Song et al. Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572

higher than the freezing point (273.15 K), however, they changed
significantly when temperature was lower than 0 ◦ C (273.15 K), which
was caused by the extreme non-linear behavior of the battery at very low
temperatures.
The effects of low temperature on lithium-ion batteries are man­
ifested in the following aspects: (a) The temperature is related to the
chemical reaction inside the batteries. It is well known that temperature
significantly affects the rate of chemical reaction from the Arrhenius
equation and the battery reaction increases exponentially with the in­
crease of battery cell temperature [27]. Therefore, the rate of chemical
reaction and charge transfer at low temperatures will be slow. (b) The
temperature is related to the material characteristics in the battery. The
ionic conductivity of electrodes and electrolytes varies with temperature
[21]. The properties of electrolytes change with the decrease of tem­
perature, such as the increase in viscosity and the decrease in ionic
conductivity. As a result, the internal resistance of the battery rapidly
increases and the output performance of the battery become worse at
low temperatures. (c) The temperature is related to the polarization of
the electrode. The anode of lithium-ion batteries is susceptible to po­
larization at low temperatures. The potential of graphite and other
carbon-based anodes is close to that of lithium metal. As a result, the
amount of lithium ions embedded in the anode will decrease during
charging process, which will result in decrease in battery capacity [28].
For a clearer view, the effects of temperature on lithium-ion battery are
summarized in Table 1.
Excessively high or low battery temperature during operation will
lead to the shorter battery life and lower performance. Using the model
to predict battery temperature during the development process is time
saving and cost saving. A good dynamic model can accurately reflect the
relationship between the battery voltage, current, power, the state of
charge (SOC) and the battery temperature, which is important to
accurately estimate the peak power of the battery [30]. There are
generally three methods to build dynamic models of lithium-ion battery,
namely electrochemical modeling, equivalent circuit model and neural
network model [31]. Amini et al. [32] established a coupled battery
model to predict the performance of the lithium-ion battery under
different temperatures. Results showed that the model was accurate
enough to simulate the transient thermal characteristics of the battery
cell and predicted values were with the error of less than 2.5 K against
the measured values for the FTP driving cycle and 1 K for the CITY-I USA
driving cycle. Tang et al. [33] proposed a migrated model with strong
robustness and high accuracy and Thevenin model was selected as the
base model for model migration. Experimental results showed that the
migrated model can make the error of long-term voltage prediction for
batteries within 20 mV under the conditions of temperature change up
to 40 ◦ C (313.15 K).
Table 1
Summary of temperature effects on lithium-ion battery [29].
Temperature Affected Phenomenon Results
Components
Too High Anode Dissolution of electrolyte Loss of capacity;
(cathodic oxidation/anodic Loss of power
reduction); capability
Dissolution of binder
Decrease of active surface Growth of
because of continuous impedance;
growth of Solid Electrolyte Loss of power
Interface capability
Cathode Migration of soluble species Loss of capacity
by firm formation
on anode
Electrolyte decomposition Loss of power
capability
Too Low Anode Deposition of metallic Loss of capacity
lithium/ formation of Solid Loss of power
Electrolyte Interface capability (loss of
lithium);
As an input variable for predicting power, SOC is a prerequisite for
accurate power estimation. Currently, there are many algorithms for
SOC estimation, such as extended Kalman filter (EKF), unscented Kal­
man filter (UKF) and unscented particle filter (UPF). EKF is a useful
statistical tool for extracting internal battery parameters [34], which is
one of the most commonly used methods for solving nonlinear system
state variable estimation problems [35,36]. UKF is a used to calculate
the statistics of a random variable propagating through a nonlinear
system by applying unscented transformations [37]. It is reduces the
effort by not requiring the generation of complicated Jacobian matrices
compared to the EKF [38]. As for UPF, it is demonstrated that UPF can
suppress disturbances in system parameters by considering the unifor­
mity of cells and the different balance control strategies [39]. In addi­
tion, some derivative algorithms are also available for research. For
example, Aung et al. [40] used the double polarization lithium-ion
battery model and proposed a new SOC estimation method based on
square root UKF using spherical transform. Although the above litera­
tures have introduced various methods for SOC estimation, some of
these estimation algorithms are derived at the constant temperature
regardless of how temperature affects the SOC [37–39]. To solve this
problem, some adaptive and robust observers have been applied to the
state estimation of lithium-ion batteries considering temperature. Li
et al.[41] established the battery model based on equivalent circuit and
SOC is estimated by an indirect nonlinear adaptive observer method.
Temperature was considered as a factor to identify parameters, how­
ever, it is used for initialization purpose only. In order to overcome the
disturbance caused by the temperature on model parameters, some
scholars estimate SOC more accurately from the aspect of temperature
compensation. Liu et al. [42] proposed a practical temperature
compensation model with a two-particle filter estimator for SOC esti­
mation of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. The model took
temperature and current as inputs, studied and described the relation­
ship between internal resistance, voltage and temperature comprehen­
sively. Experimental and simulation results indicated that the method
based on temperature compensation model and double particle filter
estimator can achieve accurate and robust SOC estimation.
Establishing an artificial neural network and a fuzzy control recog­
nizer to take temperature as an input is another adaptive and intelligent
method. Fleischer et al. [43] used temperature as the input to an
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system, which can be adjusted in real
time based on the current state parameters (SOC, temperature) of the
battery. Fig. 1 is an overview of the state of available power (SOAP).
Firstly, battery state parameters such as battery current, voltage and
temperature needed to be pre-processed. Then, SOC was estimated by
the OCV method-a full charge detector and a dynamic load observer.
Robust extended Kalman filtering (REKF) was utilized to recalibrate
SOC. The estimated SOC value and battery parameters were used as the
SOAP parameters to be input into the neuro-fuzzy control system to
realize the estimation of SOAP. Then it was embedded in the EMS to
carry out simulation of vehicle performance. Real-time operation of the
entire system was verified on the software-in-the-loop experimental
bench. The results showed that the network parameters can be well
adapted to the current state of batteries. This strong adaptability was
mainly attributed to the artificial neural network learning algorithm.
Analysis above shows that researchers have studied the temperature
effects on the performance of lithium-ion batteries through simulation
or experiment. The main methods of considering the influence of tem­
perature factors on the performance of lithium-ion batteries are as fol­
lows. (a) Establishing a dynamic thermal model of a lithium-ion battery
to predict the battery temperature and implement the control of the
battery temperature, which is the prerequisite for estimating parame­
ters. (b) Making Temperature compensation for the established lithium-
ion battery model. (c) Introducing temperature as an input parameter
into SOC estimation algorithm to implement the accurate estimation of
lithium-ion batteries power indirectly.

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Z. Song et al.
Fig. 1. Overall SOAP estimation with supporting algorithms [43], It combines following algorithms, open circuit voltage method, full charge detector /dynamic load
observer, and as key function the Ah-balancing method with reduced extended kalman filter algorithm.
2.2. Effects of temperature on the performance of PEMFC
PEMFC system is a multi-input and complex electrochemical reaction
system, and its efficient operation is the key factor for the widespread
use of FCHEVs [44]. Temperature is one of the main factors affecting the
output power and efficiency of a PEMFC system. Due to the temperature
characteristics of its internal components, such as catalyst, bipolar plate
etc., the operating temperature of PEMFC is usually about 80 degrees
Celsius, which is quite different from the ambient temperature. The
operating temperature is related to the heat loss caused by the current
output power of PEMFC. Therefore, with the change of driving condi­
tions, the output power of the PEMFC is different under different driving
conditions, which leads to the change of the operating temperature of
PEMFC. The performance of PEMFC can be improved at higher tem­
peratures because of higher gas diffusivity and membrane conductivity.
Fig. 2 [45] shows the performance of PEMFC under different current and
temperature conditions. It can be found that power output keeps
Fig. 2. Influence of fuel cell temperature on the performance of fuel cell. Under
low current condition, the voltage output keeps decrease with the increase of
working temperature. Under high current condition, higher working tempera­
ture makes the concentration losses reduced, resulting in higher voltage
output [45].
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Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572
increasing with the increase of temperature from 30 ◦ C (303.15 K) to
100 ◦ C (373.15 K), indicating that appropriate higher working tem­
perature brings higher performance.
However, if the temperature of fuel cell is too high, the saturated
vapor pressure will increase, the water content of the proton exchange
membrane will decrease, and the internal resistance of the membrane
will increase, resulting in worse performance of fuel cell. On the other
hand, if the temperature is too low, the electrochemical reaction rate of
the fuel cell will decrease, the saturated vapor pressure will decrease as
well, and the water in the cathode will be predominantly in a liquid
form. If there is too much water, it will increase the chance of flooding,
which may degrade the performance of fuel cell [46–50]. Furthermore,
PEMFC is difficult to be activated in sub-zero environments. The failure
is generally attributed to the ice generated in the fuel cell cathode
electrodes at sub-zero temperature, which leads to a reduction in elec­
trochemical surface area of catalyst, hindered transport of reactants, and
eventually loss of voltage and power. Researchers in literatures [51–54]
had done some work for the successful cold start of fuel cells. Given that
the focus of this paper is to introduce the influence of temperature on the
FCHEVs during power distribution process, thus, the power distribution
is based on the premise that the FCHEVs have been successfully started,
so there will be no more analysis of cold start problem in the following
sections. The effects of temperature on PEMFC are summarized in
Table 2.
From the above, we can see that the reasonable temperature range is
essential to meet the stable and effective output power of the vehicle
under various working conditions. It has great significance for
improving vehicle performance. Therefore, investigating the effects of
temperature on PEMFC is indispensable. Many scholars have studied the
effects of temperature on fuel cells by establishing a temperature-based
fuel cell model. Tiss et al. [55] established a nonlinear state space dy­
namic non-isothermal PEMFC model. They concluded that the load
resistance and operating temperature were the two main factors
affecting the performance of PEMFC by varying the gas temperature,
load resistance, and gas pressure parameters. Shan et al. [56] developed
a model considering temperature changes at the single-cell level to study
the response of temperature to dynamic loads. The study found that the
temperature gradient had significant effects on water and heat transport
in PEMFC. Temperature profiles with effects on the fuel cell
Z. Song et al. Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572

Table 2 water-cooling is a preferred method [58]. Huang et al. [59] used water-
Summary of temperature effects on PEMFC. cooling method to control temperature. The schematic of fuel cell sys­
Temperature Affected Phenomenon Results tem is shown in Fig. 3. Water passed through the fuel cell stack
Components absorbing the heat and it was pumped back to the PEMFC to repeat the
Too High Proton Increase of saturated Increase of internal cooling cycle. On this foundation, they proposed an adaptive thermal
exchange vapor pressure; resistance of the control strategy to regulate the stack temperature. The temperature
membrane Decrease of water membrane feedback error was constructed by using the barrier Lyapunov function.
content of the Dynamic inversion was applied to design the control input on the basis
membrane
Decrease of thermal Reduction in energy
of sets of adaptation laws and the Lyapunov function. The proposed
stability and proton conversion efficiency control strategy was validated in the start-up and frequent dynamic
conductivity scenarios, showing provable closed-loop stability. It is indicated that the
Too Low Catalyst Decrease of Reduction in designed method can regulate the temperature to the stable target value
electrochemical electrochemical
faster and the error with the target value is smaller than the traditional
reaction rate; surface area of
Decrease of saturated catalyst; PI control. Giménez et al. [60] designed a multi-loop PID control method
vapor pressure Increase of activation to regulate the temperature. This control method was carried out using a
loss and multi-objective optimization methodology, which contained stack tem­
concentration loss perature, temperature gradient and the control efforts. The designed
Ice generated in Reduction in
cathode electrodes at electrochemical
controller was validated in experiments. Results showed that the over­
sub-zero temperature surface area of shoot of stack temperature is only 1 K and a settling time is about 100 s.
catalyst; Kang et al. [61] developed a fuel cell system integrated with a one-
Loss of voltage and dimensional PEMFC stack, an air feeding system and a TMS using
power;
Matlab-Simulink. PI controller is employed to maintain the temperature
Slow start-up of the
vehicles difference between the inlet and outlet of PEMFC stack. The PEMFC
system model was extended to the FCHEV model by combining the
electric vehicle model embedded in Amesim. The dynamic performance
performance showed a high degree of dependence not only on static but simulation of FCHEV and PEMFC system under FTP-75 condition
also on dynamic behavior. However, this work was limited to the single- showed that the speed profile determined by the model was in good
cell level, and the fuel cell model was not extended to the stack level to agreement with the target speed profile of FTP-75 cycle within ±0.5%.
integrate with the system model to analyze the performance of PEMFC The temperature of PEMFC reached 70 ◦ C in 1000 s, and then remained
systems and components. Correa et al. [57] conducted a sensitivity constant through the control strategy of TMS. The overall efficiency of
analysis of fuel cell temperature uncertainty by establishing a dynamic PEMFC system under FTP-75 cycle was 41.94%.
model of the fuel cell system and proposed a set of uncertainty/sensi­ As we can see from the analysis above, the improvement of fuel cell
tivity analysis procedures for characterizing the output variables which performance is closely related to the effective control of temperature in
represent the operating performance of the power system. Finally, PEMFC system. The influence of temperature on water and reactants in
simulation results of model and analysis procedure were verified by the stack is a key issue to be considered in the optimal design of fuel cell
actual tests. The results showed that the cathode inlet temperature of the power supply system. This requires not only an accurate fuel cell model
stack was the most important sensor signal affecting the stack temper­ that takes into account temperature, but also an accurate temperature
ature, and the coolant inlet temperature of the stack had the greatest signal transmission of each operating unit. In most literatures, the
influence on the energy balance of the fuel cell, thus affecting the tem­ temperature control and energy control are operated independently. The
perature control of the stack. temperature of fuel cell is fixed in a certain range by thermal manage­
The temperature control of the fuel cell stack is mainly implemented ment and EMS distributed the power at this constant temperature
by TMS. TMS aims to distribute the heat evenly so as to achieve a without considering the influence of temperature on power source
completely uniform temperature field distribution of the stack and the performance during vehicle operation, which is not consistent with the
balance of heat absorption and release within the acceptable tempera­ vehicle’s operating state. Therefore, it is quite worthwhile to incorpo­
ture. The final goal is to achieve efficient operation of fuel cells and high rate thermal management into the EMS design to get close to the vehicle
overall energy utilization efficiency. For most stacks using in FCHEV, operation environment.

Fig. 3. Schematic of the fuel cell system [59], The system contains the thermal part which is yellow and purple, the electrical part which is green, and the air flow
part which is blue and orange.

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Z. Song et al.
3. EMSs for FCHEV with temperature control
3.1. Analyses of EMSs for FCHEVs with temperature control
For PEMFC hybrid power system, the goal of EMS is usually to find
the optimal power distribution trajectory between the fuel cell and
battery, ensuring the safe operation of fuel cells and lithium-ion batte­
ries and improving the fuel economy and durability of vehicles. At
present, there are two main types of EMSs, rule-based EMSs and
optimization-based EMSs. Rule-based EMSs are usually designed by
several deterministic rules or fuzzy rules proposed by experienced ex­
perts or optimal results, such as thermostat strategy, power following
strategy and fuzzy logic control strategy. The algorithm of rule-based
EMSs is easy to be implemented in the embedded system with re­
quirements of highly real-time and good robustness [15,62,63]. How­
ever, this kind of EMS cannot achieve the optimal energy distribution
because the rules always depend on experience of researchers.
Optimization-based EMS has the objective of minimizing the cost
function, such as dynamic programming (DP), ECMS and PMP. From the
perspective of optimal control theory, it can realize the optimal energy
distribution and improve fuel economy by minimizing the cost function.
However, heavy computation load and relatively poor real-time per­
formance is the main problem to apply the optimization-based EMSs to
the vehicle.
Recently, some studies have focused on the simultaneous optimiza­
tion of FCV’s EMS and powertrain design, and have also considered the
driving cycle features influence. Sorrentino et al. [64] proposed an in-
deep analysis of a heuristic control strategy to enhance model-based
design of FCHEVs. By adopting suitable normalization/denormaliza­
tion, the proposed strategy was proven to be highly specification inde­
pendent, thus being extendable to different vehicle configurations.
Furthermore, Sorrentino et al. [65] proposed a co-optimization pro­
cedure, aiming at determining the main powertrain design parameters
(i.e., nominal fuel cell system power and battery pack energy density), as
well as some key driving cycle-related information (i.e., power predic­
tion time horizon), so as to enable effective adaptation of the specifi­
cations independent control strategy to the current design. Zhou et al.
[66] proposed an adaptive EMS to consider the changeable driving
conditions, which contained a Markov driving pattern recognizer and a
multi-mode model predictive controller. Real-time Driving segment can
be classified into one of three predefined patterns. One set of pre-
optimized control parameters is selected according to the pattern iden­
tification results. Based on the specified control parameters, the desir­
able control decisions can be generated by the multi-objective model
predictive controller considering the velocity prediction results. Simu­
lation results indicated that the proposed strategy can automatically
adapt to the changing driving conditions. Wu et al. [67] proposed a
fuzzy EMS based on driving cycle effects, which was consisted of driving
cycle recognition and a fuzzy controller. Driving cycle was recognized
by learning vector quantization. The membership functions and rules of
fuzzy controller were optimized simultaneously by using particle swarm
optimization. The results showed that the proposed strategy can reduce
more fuel consumption than traditional fuzzy EMS.
In addition, operating conditions will also have a great impact on
EMS. Energetic performance of PEMFC depends on operating condi­
tions, such as temperature, ageing [68]. Ettihir et al. [69] proposed an
adaptive EMS based on PMP, which took the degradation of fuel cell
system (FCS) into consideration. Results showed that the proposed
adaptive management could meet the power demand while adapting to
change in ageing effect. Unluckily, it was not extended to track the
change of performances due to temperature effects. Bernard et al. [70]
established a real-time EMS derived from a non-causal optimization
algorithm based on optimal control theory. The EMS was validated by
hardware-in-the-loop experiments. It was found that fuel consumption
was reduced by at least 4% compared to the loss minimization strategy.
In this study, hardware-in-the-loop experiment was performed at an
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Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572
almost constant temperature of the stack, which cannot actually repre­
sent the actual operating conditions in the automotive environment.
Hong et al.[71] proposed an EMS based on dynamic power factor for
different driving cycles to consider the influence of recycling breaking
energy. Experimental validations showed that hydrogen consumption of
the proposed EMS had been reduced by 0.86 g and the efficiency of
overall system had been raised of 2% compared with ECMS. However,
they did not try to research the impact of temperature changes on the
results of energy distribution between fuel cell and battery. Zhou et al.
[72] proposed a DP method on FCHEVs. Work mode and power of FCS
was chosen as state variables in the DP model and a new fast and unified
solution method was also proposed. Results indicated that the proposed
method was better than basic DP and level-set DP due to the fact that it
had advantages in computing time and accuracy, although they had
almost the same hydrogen consumption. It is a pity that they do not take
the effect of temperature on the performance of fuel cell and battery into
consideration. Zhang [73] developed a hysteresis control strategy of
power management that made the active time evenly distributed over
the three fuel cell stacks and reduced the number of on-off switching.
The results indicated that the durability of the onboard fuel cells can be
enhanced due to the fact that the average power demand of driving cycle
is only a fraction of the maximum power that FCHEVs could provide,
and substantially improved durability can be used to reduce the over-
design of fuel cells, hence reduce the cost.
From the above statements, we can find that most existing EMSs do
not take into account temperature while designing EMS. In the actual
vehicle operating environments, the temperature is time-dependent and
the performance of power sources are closely related to the temperature.
Thus, the joint optimization of TMS and EMS will be a very meaningful
development direction. In fact, in the research of hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) powered by internal combustion engines and lithium-ion bat­
teries, scholars have proposed to combine the thermal management
technology with EMS to ensure the normal operation of vehicles and
optimize the fuel economy. Pham et al. [74] proposed an integrated
energy and thermal management (IETM) strategy that combined energy
management and thermal management to achieve global fuel con­
sumption optimization. ECMS was utilized to optimally distribute the
power between the internal combustion engine and the electric machine
as well as the heating/cooling power of the lithium-ion batteries. This
method used the state of function, which is the function of SOC and
temperature, to describe the capacity of the battery. They compared
three control strategies in terms of fuel consumption. Energy manage­
ment (EM) control strategy ignored the heating/cooling power of the
battery, and the battery temperature was only affected by the power loss
of the battery and the ambient temperature. In separated energy and
thermal management (SETM), battery temperature was maintained
within a predefined range only driven by thermal management. Results
showed that IETM’s fuel consumption was significantly lower than that
of SETM and EM by comparing the three strategies. IETM had a good
optimization effect on the global fuel economy. Shams-Zahraei et al.
[75] demonstrated the importance of temperature noise factor to the
optimal EMS of plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) through DP method,
and proposed an EMS integrated with engine thermal management. The
cost function was based on two state variables, battery charge and en­
gine internal temperature. They found that the optimal trajectory of the
SOC yielded optimal thermal management for the engine. The simula­
tion results showed that EMS considering temperature can reduce fuel
consumption effectively and improve vehicle efficiency significantly
compared with EMS without considering temperature. Namwook et al.
[76] proposed a PMP algorithm and concluded that Hamiltonian can be
modified if we take into account additional costs or states, for example,
temperature. Moreover, simulation results indicated that PMP with
constant constate can simplify the optimal control problem and get close
to the globally optimal solution under assumptions. Padovani et al. [77]
proposed an EMS for HEVs and PHEVs taking into account battery
temperature, which is considered as one of the prime factor affecting
Z. Song et al.
battery health. Battery temperature is added into the optimization cri­
terion as an additional cost and the optimization problem is solved by
using PMP. Simulation results showed that the EMS combined with
battery thermal management had better performance than the tradi­
tional methods. It avoid high current and lower battery temperature in
the high temperature scenario, which benefits for battery health.
Moreover, it can charge the battery and make the temperature rise.
Despite of some research on the IETM in HEVs and PHEVs, only a few
studies have considered temperature as a state variable in fuel con­
sumption control of FCHEVs to achieve the joint optimization of thermal
management and energy management. Kandidayeni et al. [78] devel­
oped an EMS based on DP and an EMS based on bounded load following
strategy for FCHEV, both of which consider the integration of temper­
ature dimension. In this study, the duty of cooling fan is controlled to
keep the temperature balance and the proposed two EMSs supply the
power through the determination of suitable trajectories of stack current
and cooling fan duty cycle. The results show that the integration of
temperature dimension into EMS can improve the fuel economy by 4.1%
and 5.3% in DP and bounded load following strategy respectively.
Munoz et al. [79] developed an on-line EMS controller using the neural
networks method aiming to apply the same EMS to various driving style
types. Neural networks were trained with the optimal power flux dis­
tribution between the fuel cell system and battery system to minimize
the total equivalent energy consumption. A dynamic model of PEMFC
taking into account temperature was used to carry out the optimization
process of each cycle, which reduced the computational cost of the
optimization. The dynamic models of the vehicle made up for the defi­
ciency of static model and had benefits for real-time control. Zheng et al.
[80] proposed an optimal control method based on PMP to define the
optimal plane to describe the relationship between SOC, battery tem­
perature and total fuel consumption by using battery temperature and
SOC as state variables. Fuel consumption difference between consid­
ering temperature effects and without considering temperature effects
was compared. The results showed that when considering temperature
effect, the power fluctuation amplitude of lithium-ion battery discharge
power was smaller, while the fuel cell system can provide as much
power as possible. It can be seen from Fig. 4 (b) that the fuel cell system
can provide more power, which meets the current mainstream idea of
FCHEVs that fuel cell is the main power source and lithium-ion battery is
the auxiliary power source. In addition, lithium-ion batteries consid­
ering temperature effects can recover more braking energy during
charging process (Fig. 4 (a)). When simulated under the conditions of
FTP72, NEDC 2000 and 1015, the fuel economy of FCHEV considering
temperature effects increased by 2.33%, 4.77% and 3.02%, respectively.
The optimal plane defined by the extended PMP control strategy was
also applicable to the simulation results of other control strategies. To
further optimize the PMP strategy, they made four assumptions about
the optimal control of PMP based on temperature and SOC to achieve the
Fig. 4. Simulation results over the FTP72 urban driving cycle for the case with consideration of the battery temperature effect and the case without consideration of
the battery temperature effect: (a) battery power (b) FCS net power [80].
7
Applied Energy 302 (2021) 117572
global optimal solution [81]. Since the DP strategy can also obtain the
global optimal solution, the simulation results based on the two-state
variable PMP strategy were compared with those of DP method. The
results can be summarized as follows: (a) FCHEV basically satisfies four
hypotheses and the proposed PMP-based strategy guarantees an
acceptable difference in global optimality. (b) Fuel consumption dif­
ference between the two strategies is less than 1.5%. (c) With the in­
crease of battery SOC, battery temperature range and driving cycle time
of the batteries, the time saving effect of PMP-based power management
strategy is more prominent. The process can also be applied to other
types of HEVs, such as engine/battery-driven hybrid electric vehicles.
Al-Zareer et al. [82] proposed a new battery cooling system for FCHEVs,
which can increase the vehicle driving mileage and improve the vehicle
safety by keeping batteries in optimal operating conditions. They opti­
mized the cooling plate design based on the uniformity of the battery
temperature and the maximum temperature of the battery. Then, the
best performance of the cooling plate was explored through high
strength charge-discharge cycle. The results showed that when the
hydrogen temperature was 10 ◦ C (283.15 K) and the inlet velocity was
0.01 m/s, the maximum temperature can be kept below 30.5 ◦ C
(303.65 K). Under this system, the minimum temperature difference of
the battery was less than 7 K. By comparison, the cooling performance of
the system was superior to that of the system based on liquid, air and
evaporative cooling. This characteristic also demonstrated the integra­
tion advantages of hybrid electric vehicle fuel systems and battery
cooling systems in high temperature environments.
In (a), Lithium-ion battery can recover more braking energy during
charging process when considering temperature effects. In (b), the fuel
cell system can provide more power when considering temperature
effects.
3.2. Summary
This section analyzes the EMSs with and without consideration of
temperature. Firstly, two kinds of EMSs are introduced, namely rule-
based and optimization based. And the advantages and disadvantages
of these two methods are compared. The analysis results show that most
scholars usually consider the dynamic characteristics of power sources
when designing EMS, but the temperature effects are always simplified.
As a key factor affecting power output characteristic of the vehicle
during actual operation conditions, temperature must be considered as
an important input factor to the EMS. Furthermore, EMSs considering
temperature in HEVs are analyzed in this section, and we can find that
the fuel economy and durability were improved significantly when
considering the temperature of internal combustion engine or battery.
As for FCHEV, temperature, which can influence the power output and
lifetime of the power sources, is necessary to be integrated into the EMS
to get better economy and durability.
Z. Song et al.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, a brief review of effects of temperature on the perfor­
mance of FCHEVs based on the existing literatures is presented. Tem­
perature effects on the lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells are described
separately at first, giving evidence to the fact that temperature is an
indispensable factor of the vehicle in the actual application scenario. For
lithium-ion batteries, the active lithium will deposit at low tempera­
tures, resulting in a significant reduction in the energy and power ca­
pabilities of batteries that cannot provide a reliable range during vehicle
driving. In addition, side reactions will occur inside the batteries at high
temperatures, resulting in rapid self-discharge, which leads to safety
problems. For fuel cells, low temperature will cause start-up difficulties
and high temperature will lead to the reduction of stack efficiency and
low output power.
Despite of the fact that temperature has an effect on the performance
of power sources, temperature effects have not been paid enough
attention in terms of EMS designing. Therefore, EMSs considering tem­
perature and without considering temperature are reviewed in order to
reflect the difference between these two kinds of strategies. Research on
HEVs and PHEVs powered by internal combustion engines and batteries
develops the EMSs incorporating thermal management to control the
output power. The trade-off between fuel consumption and temperature
constraint is solved by using optimization algorithm, which has positive
effect on the vehicle performance compared to the EMS without incor­
porating thermal management. Literatures on adding the temperature
dimension to the EMS designing process for FCHEVs can reduce the fuel
consumption, indicating that this method has the potential to improve
the efficiency of vehicle.
The objective of this paper is not only a review on the literatures but
also to facilitate the development of an effective and practical EMS that
integrated with temperature dimension for the FCHEV applications. The
followings are suggestions for the development of EMS:
(1) In order to improve the rationality of power distribution and
temperature control during operation, combine the mechanism
model of fuel cell or battery under the influence of temperature
with the optimization function of EMS.
(2) Basing on the influence of temperature on the power sources,
optimize the EMS with the multi-objective of hydrogen con­
sumption and the lifespan of power source systematically.
(3) Developing the integrated control strategy of fuel cell thermal
management, battery thermal management and energy manage­
ment while considering the reliability of powertrain components.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This research is sponsored by the National key Research and
Development Program of China (No. 2017YFB0103102), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No.21805210).
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