Biology Reviewer

animals
- Earth the only planets to support life
- The animal kingdom compromises 9 to 10 million species and with at least 4 million
currently identified.
- Cell - tissue - organ - organ system - organism
- Animals are multicellular organism
- Animal are heterotrophs, they eat other organism
- Plants are autotrophs they make food
- Herbivores - Plant eating animals
- Carnivores - Flesh eating animals
- Omnivores - Eat both flesh and plants
- The human body is made up of 200 differentiated cells
- Tissue - Group of similar cell performing common function
- Histology - Study of both animal and plant cells
- Microtome - Instrument used to cut tissues
- 4 types of tissues found in animals
- Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous tissues
- Integumentary - Protects against injury, provides structure and support
- Muscular - Move limbs, trunks, and substances through the body
- Skeletal - Protects and support the body and organs, interacts with skeletal muscle
- Circulatory - Transport gases, nutrients and wastes
- Nervous - Controls sensory and motor functions, maintain homeostasis
- Digestive - extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
- Respiratory - Moves air in and out of lungs
- Excretory - Removes wastes from the bloods, regulates body fluids
- Endocrine - regulates body temp, metabolism, development and reproduction.
- Reproductive - Produces gamete and offspring
- Immune - Defends the body against pathogens and disease
- Integument - an outer covering protecting an animal
- Reptiles have scales, birds have feathers, while mammals have hair
and nails.
- Hydrostatic - supported by the liquid in their bodies
- Exoskeleton - have hard external covering
- Endoskeleton - particularly vertebrates are supported by hard framework
- Most animal have firm framework called skeleton
- Skeletal muscle - Voluntary can be controlled consciously
- Work in pairs, antagonistic pairs - A muscle that can pull in one direction
and another muscle to return to its original position.
- Extensor - Causes muscle to straighten extensor
- Flexor - causes muscles to bend
- Smooth muscle - Move food along digestive system
- Cardiac muscle - Pump the heart, never stop working
- Nutrition - the food intake and the process of food conversion
- Ingestion - Intake of food into the body
- Digestion - mechanical and chemical breakdown of food molecules
 - Physical digestion - Involves the mechanical breakdown of
food (chewing)
- Chemical Digestion - breaks down macromolecules into
soluble molecules
- Bile - Complex fluid that digest fats and fat soluble vitamins
into the smaller intestines
- Assimilation - transportation of nutrients to provide fuel and essential
raw materials that the body needs
- Absorption - Process where the digested food materials are
converted to new protoplasm
- Elimination - Passing of materials that were not absorbed in the large
intestine out of the body
- Feces - Solid wastes form
- Defecation and egestion - process of removing undigested matter
from the body
- Roughage - undigested food
- Open circulatory - fluid pump through open ended vessels, no
distinction between blood and interstitial fluid
- Closed circulatory - which blood is confined, seperated from
interstitial fluids
- Lymphatic system - Network of lymph nodes
- Spleen - largest organ of the lymphatic system
- Immune response - coordinated process enacted by the immune
system
- Respiration - how the body gets oxygen and gets rid of carbon
dioxide
- Breathing - act of taking oxygen into the lung and releasing carbon
dioxide out of the lung
- Cutaneous respiration - uses entire skin to exchange gases
- Nervous system - regulating most activities by sending nerve impulse
- Endocrine system - produce hormones that control bodily activities
- Hormones - Made in glands
- Endocrine glands - secrete hormones
- There are 40 kinds of hormones
- Positive feedback - high level of hormones stimulate the output of
even more hormone
- Negative feedback - Hormones are regulated through negative
feedback mechanisms
- Stimuli - constant changes taking place around you
- Homeostasis - process of maintenance of the internal environment of
the body
- Excretion - the removal of the metabolic waste in our body.

Plant
- Essential for any ecosystem
Plant reproduction
- Aexual reproduction in plants
 - Formation of offspring without the fusion of gametes
- Identical offspring from a single parent plant
Natural vegetative reproduction
- Involves reproduction through vegetative plant structure, Accomplished
through gamete production and ferilization
- Non vascular plants Includes gemmae and spores
- Vascular plants include roots, stems, and leaves
- Stem - Most commonly modified vegetative organ
- Runners - also called stolon means branch, grows horizontally
- Rhizomes - underground stem,allows plant to form a network and produce their
kinds
- Bulbs - underground storage structures
- Suckers - also called sprout, vigorous growth coming from the roots or lower main
stem
Artificial propagation methods
- Asexual method with help from humans
- Old methods - Cutting, layering, and grafting
- Modern method - Tissue culture
- Cutting - plant part which is severed from parent plant to regenerate itself
- Stem cutting, leaf cutting, root cutting
- Layering - Stem still attached to their parent plants may form roots. The rooted stem
becomes new plant
- Grafting - Involves attaching a piece of stem from one plant to another plant
- Stock - root bearing host
- Scion - grated part
- Tissue culture - Growth of plant tissues in an artificial culture media.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
- Happens in sexual organs of flowering plants
- Fusion of sex cells from parent plants
- Angiosperms - reproducing sexualy through their flowers
- Alternation of generation - diploid sporophytes generation produce haploid
gametophyte generation
- Male gametophyte - pollen grain
- Female gametophyte - Embryo sac
- Sepals - leaf like green structure, protects the bud (calyx)
- Petals - Makes flower attractive (corolla)
Male parts
- Stamens - Long, filamentous structure
- Anther - Contains the pollen grains
Female parts
- Carpel - contains ovary
- Style - slender stalk (stem)
- Stigma - Sticky tip (where pollen will enter)
Flowers - Angiosperms reproductive structures
Hermaphrodites - flowers have male and female structure
Monoecious - have male and female part in separate flowers
Pollination - transfer of pollen grains from stamen to stigma
Can be transported by agents - Wind, water, and animals
 Nectar - Sugary amino acid rich liquid substance
Self-pollination - Same plant, process when pollen is carried from stamen to the
stigma
Cross pollination - Pollen is carried to the stigma of another plant
Fruit - Mature ovary with seeds
- Protects the seed from damage against external factors
- Aid in seed dispersal
Seed dispersal and germination
- Seed - Reproductive structure in which plant embryo and food are contained
- Tesla - seed coat a strong tissue that protects the seed
- Seed dispersal - spread of seeds away from the parent plant
- Increase probability of survival
- Prevent overcrowding
- Prevent competition for basic needs
- Methods
- Wind, animal, water, and explosion
A seed will germinate if it has enough water, oxygen and warmth
Water - for metabolism
Oxygen - Respiration
Warmth - activate plant enzymes
- Germination - process in which a new plant grows from a seed

Animal reproduction
Asexual reproduction in animals
- Occurs with single parents
- Commonly found among protists, and cnidarians
- Advantages: can reproduce many offspring in a short time without finding a
mate
- Disadvantage: Lack of variation
Fission - process of mitosis
Binary fission - cell divides itself into two identical parts with same DNA
Multiple fission - cell divides into many cells by mitosis
Budding - occurs in multicellular organisms (invertebrates)
- An outgrowth arises from the body of the parent
Fragmentation - The parent organism can be divided into many pieces, process of
reproducing by regenerating
Parthenogenesis - natural form of sexual reproduction, embryos development does not
require fertilization

Sexual reproduction in animals

- Animals reproduce through a process involving sex cells by the parents
Testes - Produces sperm cell
Ovaries - Produces egg cells through gametogenesis
- Cells in which went meiosis to form gametes
Hermaphrodites - Having both female and male sex organs
1. Clownfish
2. Opisthobranchia
3. Pulmonata
 4. Thalassoma
5. Lysmata
Fundamental three steps
1. Gametogenesis - production of gametes
2. Spawning or mating - bringin gametes together (having sexual activity)
3. Fertilization - Fusion of gametes

Hermaphroditism - process of sex reversal

Protogyny - Female to male
Protandry - Male to female

Types of reproduction
Informal fertilization - Sexual reproduction occurs outside of the body of
External fertilization - Sperm fertilizes egg cell outside of the female body
Oviparous organism
Internal ferilization - fertilization takes place inside the body of the female
Copulation - physical union that aids the delivery of the sperm

Viviparous, Placental mamals - Gives brith, develops the young inside the mothers
body
Oviparous - Lays egg

Producing genetically modified organisms

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) - carries genetic information (templates)
Genes - Coded instruction in the body, each cell in our body contains 350000 genes
Genotype - Collection of genes responsible for genetic traits, inherited from parents
Phenotype - the observable expression of the results of genes combined with the
environmental influence

Central Dogma of molecular biology

- Flow of genetic information to proteins
- DNA (transcription)
- mRNA (translation)

Selective breeding
- Process of using plants and animals with desirable traits to reproduce offsprings with
specific trait
Hybridization
- Process of crossing organisms with different variations of same trait to create an
organism with the best trait
- Takes a long period of time for result to be observed
Genetic engineering
- Manipulating and recombining the dna molecules of different species
- Transferring specific gen to another organism
- 1970 first genetically engineered bacteria were designed
Recombinant DNA technology
- Combining two dna sequence from different sources
 - Molecular cloning - Cutting the desired gene into a vector
- Vector - DNA molecule used as a vehicle to carry a foreign gene

Genetically Modified plants

Pest resistant crops - make crops resistant to insect and pest without the use of harmful
chemicals

Herbicide resistant crops - designed crop plants that are unaffected by glyphosate
using certain bacteria

Plants with more nutritional value - Production of golden rice, a gene from daffodil
flower which is added to the rice to address the nutritional deficiencies with vitamins A.

Potential risks
1. They are potential harmful to other organism
2. They can elicit resistance
3. They can affect the gene flow

Genetically modified animals

Transgenic animals - Used in searching for a cure for cystic fibrosis, cancer and blood
diseases
Gene pharming - uses transgenic animals to produce pharmaceutical
product
Cloning - Possible but success rate is low and also the clones' viability.
- Done To avoid experimenting on existing animals in the wild
- 1997 cloning of the first sheep
Xenotransplantation - use of animal organs instead of humans in transplant patients.