The Body Systems

 The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels, arteries and
veins. khg
 The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow the
body to break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and
pancreas also play a role in the digestive system because they produce digestive juices.
 The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the blood.
These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily functions,
such as metabolism, growth and sexual function.
 The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens
that may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes
(including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.
 The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also
plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a
clear fluid that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The
lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues and returns it to
the blood.
 The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and
involuntary actions (like breathing) and sends signals to different parts of the body. The
central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system
consists of nerves that connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system.
 The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, blood
flow and other bodily functions. There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is
connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is found
inside organs and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is
found in the heart and helps pump blood.
 The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system
includes the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female reproductive system
 consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During
conception, a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that
implants and grows in the uterus.
 Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206 bones that are
connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move, but
it's also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth
are also part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.
 The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a
process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.
 The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is
produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys,
two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the
kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder and exits the body through the urethra.
 The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from the
outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Our
skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration. In
addition to skin, the integumentary system includes hair and nails.

Vital organs

Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart, kidneys,
liver and lungs.

 The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to other
organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for
our thoughts, feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.
 The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.
 The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The kidneys
take urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances to make urine.
 The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals, breakdown of
drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.
 The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transferring it
to our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide,
which we exhale.
 The Circulatory System: An Amazing Circuit That Keeps Our Bodies Going

The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a vast network of organs and
blood vessels that acts both as a delivery and waste removal system for the body. Nutrients,
oxygen and hormones are delivered to every cell and as these necessities are provided, waste
products such as carbon dioxide are removed, according to the nonprofit Nemours Children's
Health System.

Not only does the circulatory system keep our cells healthy, but it also keeps us alive. The heart
constantly receives signals from the rest of the body that direct how hard it needs to pump to
properly supply the body with what it needs, according to Nemours. For example, when asleep,
the body sends electrical signals to the heart that tell it to slow down. When participating in
heavy exercise, the heart receives the message to pump harder to deliver extra oxygen to the

muscles.

How the circulatory system works

The heart lies at the center of the circulatory system and pumps blood through the rest of the
network. This hollow muscle is made up of four chambers: The left and right atriums make up
the two chambers at the top and the left and right ventricles form the two chambers at the
bottom, according to the University of Michigan. The chambers are separated by one-way valves
to ensure that blood flows in the correct direction.

The rest of the circulatory system is made up of two independent networks that work together:
The pulmonary and systemic systems.

The pulmonary system is responsible for providing fresh oxygen to the blood and removing
carbon dioxide, according to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
Oxygen-poor blood arrives from veins leading to the right atrium of the heart. The blood is then
pumped through the right ventricle, then through the pulmonary artery, which splits off into two
and divides into increasingly smaller arteries and capillaries before entering the lungs. The tiny
capillaries form a network within the lungs that facilitate the exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen. From the lungs, the oxygen-rich blood flows back toward the heart.
Next, the systemic system of arteries, veins and capillaries takes over. Arteries and veins are not
the same, although they are both types of blood vessels. Arteries carry oxygen- and nutrient-rich
blood from the heart to all parts of your body, according to the National Cancer Institute. Veins
carry the oxygen- and nutrient-poor blood back to the heart. The capillaries are the smallest type
of blood vessel, and provide the bridge between the arteries and veins.

As the oxygen-rich blood arrives from the lungs, it enters the left atrium and then travels through
to the left ventricle before being pumped throughout the body, according to NCBI. The blood
gets pumped through the aorta artery (the largest artery in the body) before entering the smaller
arteries that carry the blood to every part of the body. As the blood delivers nutrients and oxygen
to each cell, carbon dioxide and other waste products are picked up as the blood flows through
the capillaries and into the veins.

The contraction and relaxation of the heart – the heartbeat – is controlled by the sinus node,
which is a cluster of cells situated at the top of the right atrium. The sinus node sends electrical
signals through the electrical conduction system of the heart that direct the muscle to contract or
relax. 

The heartbeat is divided into two phases: the systole and diastole phases. In the first, the
ventricles contract and push blood out into the pulmonary artery or the aorta. At the same time,
the valves separating the atria and ventricles snap shut to prevent blood from flowing backwards.
In the diastole phase, the valves connecting to the atrium open, and the ventricles relax and fill
with blood. The sinus node controls the pace of these two phases. 

Adult humans have a total of about five to six quarts (a little less than five to six liters) of blood
pumping through their bodies, according to Arkansas Heart Hospital. On average, the heart
pumps about 100,000 times per day, pushing about 2,000 gallons (7,570 liters) of blood through
a total of 60,000 miles (96,560 kilometers) of blood vessels. It only takes about 20 seconds for
blood to travel through the entire circulatory system.

Circulatory system diseases

Heart disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women in the United States,
claiming 610,000 people per year, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 
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Heart disease is a broad term that covers a wide range of diseases and disorders,
including stroke (the blockage of blood to the brain), heart attack (the flow of blood to the heart
is blocked), hypertension (high blood pressure causing the heart to work harder), arteriosclerosis
(the arteries become thick and stiff) and aneurysm (a damaged blood vessel that can lead to
internal bleeding).

Risk factors for heart disease include age, sex, family history, poor diet, smoking and stress, as
well as high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels, according to the Mayo Clinic. There
are many ways that heart disease can be prevented, including keeping other health conditions
under control, maintaining a healthy diet, participating in regular physical activity and keeping
stress levels at a minimum.
 Digestive System

Description of the digestive system

Also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the digestive system begins at the mouth, includes
the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (also known as the colon) and rectum,
and ends at the anus. The entire system — from mouth to anus — is about 30 feet (9 meters)
long, according to the American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE). 

Digestion begins with the mouth. Even the smell of food can generate saliva, which is secreted
by the salivary glands in the mouth, contains an enzyme, salivary amylase, which breaks down
starch. Teeth, which are part of the skeletal system, play a key role in digestion. In carnivores,
teeth are designed for killing and breaking down meat. Herbivores’ teeth are made for grinding
plants and other food to ease them through the digestion process. 

Swallowing pushes chewed food into the esophagus, where it passes through the oropharynx and
hypopharynx. At this point, food takes the form of a small round mass and digestion becomes
involuntary. A series of muscular contractions, called peristalsis, transports food through the rest
of the system. The esophagus empties into the stomach, according to the National Institutes of
Health (NIH). 

The stomach’s gastric juice, which is primarily a mix of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, starts
breaking down proteins and killing potentially harmful bacteria, according to ASGE. After an
hour or two of this process, a thick semi-liquid paste, called chyme, forms.

At this point the pyloric sphincter valve opens and chyme enters the duodenum, where it mixes
with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and acidic bile from the gall bladder, according to
the Cleveland Clinic. The next stop for the chyme is the small intestine, a 20-foot (6-meter) tube-
shaped organ, where the majority of the absorption of nutrients occurs. The nutrients move into
the bloodstream and are transported to the liver. 

The liver creates glycogen from sugars and carbohydrates to give the body energy and converts
dietary proteins into new proteins needed by the blood system. The liver also breaks down
unwanted chemicals, such as alcohol, which is detoxified and passed from the body as waste, the
Cleveland Clinic noted.
Whatever material is left goes into the large intestine. The function of the large intestine, which
is about 5 feet long (1.5 meters), is primarily for storage and fermentation of indigestible matter.
Also called the colon, it has four parts: the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending
colon and the sigmoid colon. This is where water from the chyme is absorbed back into the body
and feces are formed primarily from water (75 percent), dietary fiber and other waste products,
according to the Cleveland Clinic. Feces are stored here until they are eliminated from the body
through defecation.

Diseases of the digestive system

Many symptoms can signal problems with the GI tract, including: abdominal pain, blood in the
stool, bloating, constipation, diarrhea, heartburn, incontinence, nausea and vomiting and
difficulty swallowing, according to the NIH.

Among the most widely known diseases of the digestive system is colon cancer. According to
the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 51,783 Americans died from colon cancer in 2011 (the
most recent year for available data). Excluding skin cancers, colon and rectal cancer, or
colorectal cancer, is the third most common cancer diagnosed in both men and women in the
United States, according to the American Cancer Society.

Polyp growth and irregular cells, which may or may not be cancerous, are the most common
development paths for colorectal cancers (also referred to as CRC), and can be detected during a
routine colonoscopy, according to Dr. John Marks, a gastroenterologist affiliated with the Main
Line Health health care system.

“The best news is that, if caught early enough, they can also be removed during the colonoscopy
— eliminating the possibility that they grow further and become cancer,” Marks said. 

For those patients whose cancer has already spread, there are various minimally invasive surgical
options that have extremely good prognoses. It is recommended that asymptomatic patients
without a family history begin getting tested regularly between the ages 45 and 50, according to
Marks. “Symptoms which may suggest that you need a colonoscopy at an earlier age include
rectal bleeding and stool/bowel habit changes which last for more than a few days.”
While CRC gets a great deal of attention, many diseases and conditions of the digestive system
— including irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis, GERD (acid reflux) and Crohn’s disease —
can be chronic and are difficult to diagnose and treat, according to Dr. Larry Good, a
gastroenterologist affiliated with South Nassau Communities Hospital. “With many of these
diseases, blood work and colonoscopies all looks normal, so there is an absence of red flags.” 

Many of the diseases of the digestive system are tied to the foods we eat, and a number of
sufferers can reduce their symptoms by restricting their diets, Good said. “Of course no one
wants to hear that they can’t eat certain foods, but many times, eliminating acidic things from the
diet, such as tomatoes, onions, and red wine, can have an impact,” Good said. 

There are a number of tests to detect digestive tract ailments. A colonoscopy is the examination
of the inside of the colon using a long, flexible, fiber-optic viewing instrument called a
colonoscope, according the American Gastroenterological Association. Other testing procedures
include upper GI endoscopy, capsule endoscopy, endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic ultrasound.
 Endocrine System
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones, which are specialized
proteins that regulate bodily functions. The endocrine system serves as the body's internal
chemical signaling system, sending messages in the form of hormones to organs throughout the
body via the circulatory system. Metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction, sleep and mood are all examples of body functions that are regulated by
hormones.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTION
The endocrine system is made up of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes, according to Johns Hopkins
Medicine. These glands produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream for use elsewhere in
the body. Although hormones circulate throughout the entire body, different types of hormones
target different organs and tissues. 
Here's a summary of what each gland does: 

Gland Function

Located on the tops of the kidneys, these glands produce steroid

Adrenal glands hormones such as corticosterone, which helps regulate the body's
stress response and maintain homeostasis.

The pituitary gland is a small bean-shaped gland at the base of the

brain. It controls the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and
Pituitary gland
testicles by secreting hormones that signal those glands to also
produce hormones.

The hypothalamus is a small gland in the brain located near the

pituitary gland. It collects information from virtually all other areas
Hypothalamus of the central nervous system, and in response it releases hormones
that tell the pituitary gland which hormones to send out to other
glands.

The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck. It

Thyroid gland
controls the metabolic activity of all cells.

Parathyroid These four small glands are located behind the thyroid, like spots on
 Gland Function

glands a butterfly's wings. They monitor and regulate calcium levels.

The pancreas is a long, flat organ that sits just behind the stomach. It
produces insulin, which allows muscles and tissues to absorb sugar in
Pancreas the bloodstream, and glucagon, which releases sugars from fat to
raise blood sugar levels. The pancreas also secretes digestive
enzymes called pancreatic juice.

Human females are typically born with two ovaries — female gonads
that stem from the uterus. They are the primary female reproductive
Ovaries
organs, producing reproductive hormones called estrogen and
progesterone, and some lesser hormones called relaxin and inhibin.

Testes, or testicles, are the male reproductive organs, which are

contained in sacs of skin called the scrotum. They produce hormones
Testes
called androgens, which control the male reproductive system. The
most well-known androgen is testosterone.

The endocrine system gets some help from other organs, such as the kidneys, liver and heart,
which have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the main function of the kidneys is to
filter the blood, but the kidneys also  produce hormones that assist in the production of red blood
cells, and they metabolize, or process, several other hormones for use in other parts of the body 
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISEASES
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Endocrine system diseases or disorders occur as a result of hormone imbalance or when the body
does not respond to hormones as it should. Stress, illness, infection or changes in blood
composition can all influence hormone levels and in turn cause endocrine disorders, according to
the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 
Here's a summary of some of the most common endocrine diseases: 
 Diabetes: The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a
condition in which either the pancreas does not produce enough insulin — the hormone
that regulates blood sugar — or the body's cells don't respond to insulin properly.
Diabetes is typically treated with pills or insulin injections. 
 Reproductive hormone disorders: Reproductive hormone imbalances can affect
fertility and may have long-term effects on metabolic, cardiovascular and bone health.
For example, polycystic ovary syndrome in females is associated with hormone
imbalances that cause a variety of symptoms, such as irregular periods, acne and fertility
loss, according to the University of British Columbia. And in men, low testosterone
results in low energy, reduced strength and libido, and increases the risk for low bone
density.
 Hypothyroidism: Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce
enough thyroid hormone to meet the body's needs. Insufficient thyroid hormone can
cause many of the body's functions to slow or shut down completely. The disease is
treated by surgically removing the damaged part of the gland. 
 Thyroid cancer: Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in
the thyroid begin to change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor. From
1990 to 2013, the global incidence of thyroid cancer increased by 20%, according to a
2020 review published in the journal Nature Reviews Endocrinology. The American
Cancer Society predicts that there will be about 44,280 new cases of thyroid cancer in
2021 and around 2,200 deaths from thyroid cancer in the United States alone.
 Hypoglycemia: Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs
when blood glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of
treatment for diabetes when too much insulin is taken. The condition can also occur in
people not undergoing treatment for diabetes, but such an occurrence is rare
 Immune System
The role of the immune system — a collection of structures and processes within the body — is
to protect against disease or other potentially damaging foreign bodies. When functioning
properly, the immune system identifies a variety of threats, including viruses, bacteria and
parasites, and distinguishes them from the body's own healthy tissue
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Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function
By Kim Ann Zimmermann October 17, 2018
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T-cells attacking a cancer cell. (Image credit: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-
54269p1.html">Andrea Danti</a> | <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/">Shutterstock</a>)
The role of the immune system — a collection of structures and processes within the body — is
to protect against disease or other potentially damaging foreign bodies. When functioning
properly, the immune system identifies a variety of threats, including viruses, bacteria and
parasites, and distinguishes them from the body's own healthy tissue, according to Merck
Manuals.
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Innate vs. adaptive immunity
The immune system can be broadly sorted into categories: innate immunity and adaptive
immunity.
Innate immunity is the immune system you're born with, and mainly consists of barriers on and
in the body that keep foreign threats out, according to the National Library of Medicine (NLM).
Components of innate immunity include skin, stomach acid, enzymes found in tears and skin
oils, mucus and the cough reflex. There are also chemical components of innate immunity,
including substances called interferon and interleukin-1
Innate immunity is non-specific, meaning it doesn't protect against any specific threats.
Adaptive, or acquired, immunity targets specific threats to the body, according to the NLM.
Adaptive immunity is more complex than innate immunity, according to The Biology Project at
The University of Arizona. In adaptive immunity, the threat must be processed and recognized
by the body, and then the immune system creates antibodies specifically designed to the threat.
After the threat is neutralized, the adaptive immune system "remembers" it, which makes future
responses to the same germ more efficient.
Major components
Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that produce and store cells that fight infection and
disease and are part of the lymphatic system — which consists of bone marrow, spleen, thymus
and lymph nodes, according to "A Practical Guide To Clinical Medicine" from the University of
California San Diego (UCSD). Lymph nodes also contain lymph, the clear fluid that carries those
cells to different parts of the body. When the body is fighting infection, lymph nodes can become
enlarged and feel sore.
Spleen: The largest lymphatic organ in the body, which is on your left side, under your ribs and
above your stomach, contains white blood cells that fight infection or disease. According to
the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the spleen also helps control the amount of blood in the
body and disposes of old or damaged blood cells.
Bone marrow: The yellow tissue in the center of the bones produces white blood cells. This
spongy tissue inside some bones, such as the hip and thigh bones, contains immature cells, called
stem cells, according to the NIH. Stem cells, especially embryonic stem cells, which are derived
from eggs fertilized in vitro (outside of the body), are prized for their flexibility in being able to
morph into any human cell. 
Lymphocytes: These small white blood cells play a large role in defending the body against
disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. The two types of lymphocytes are B-cells, which make
antibodies that attack bacteria and toxins, and T-cells, which help destroy infected or cancerous
cells. Killer T-cells are a subgroup of T-cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses and
other pathogens or are otherwise damaged. Helper T-cells help determine which immune
responses the body makes to a particular pathogen.
Thymus: This small organ is where T-cells mature. This often-overlooked part of the immune
system, which is situated beneath the breastbone (and is shaped like a thyme leaf, hence the
name), can trigger or maintain the production of antibodies that can result in muscle weakness,
the Mayo Clinic said. Interestingly, the thymus is somewhat large in infants, grows until puberty,
then starts to slowly shrink and become replaced by fat with age, according to the National
Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. 
Leukocytes: These disease-fighting white blood cells identify and eliminate pathogens and are
the second arm of the innate immune system. A high white blood cell count is referred to as
leukocytosis, according to the Mayo Clinic. The innate leukocytes include phagocytes
(macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells), mast cells, eosinophils and basophils. 
Diseases of the immune system
If immune system-related diseases are defined very broadly, then allergic diseases such as
allergic rhinitis, asthma and eczema are very common. However, these actually represent a
hyper-response to external allergens, according to Dr. Matthew Lau, chief, department of allergy
and immunology at Kaiser Permanente Hawaii. Asthma and allergies also involve the immune
system. A normally harmless material, such as grass pollen, food particles, mold or pet dander, is
mistaken for a severe threat and attacked.
Other dysregulation of the immune system includes autoimmune diseases such
as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.
"Finally, some less common disease related to deficient immune system conditions are antibody
deficiencies and cell mediated conditions that may show up congenitally," Lau told Live Science.
Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and
cancer, according to the NIH.
Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is not as strong as normal, resulting in
recurring and life-threatening infections, according to the University of Rochester Medical
Center.  In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe
combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or through the use of
immunosuppressive medication.
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On the opposite end of the spectrum, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system
attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign bodies, according to the University of Rochester
Medical Center. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid
arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1 and systemic lupus erythematosus. Another disease considered
to be an autoimmune disorder is myasthenia gravis (pronounced my-us-THEE-nee-uh GRAY-
vis).
Diagnosis and treatment of immune system diseases
Even though symptoms of immune diseases vary, fever and fatigue are common signs that the
immune system is not functioning properly, the Mayo Clinic noted. 
Most of the time, immune deficiencies are diagnosed with blood tests that either measure the
level of immune elements or their functional activity, Lau said. 
Allergic conditions may be evaluated using either blood tests or allergy skin testing to identify
what allergens trigger symptoms.
In overactive or autoimmune conditions, medications that reduce the immune response, such as
corticosteroids or other immune suppressive agents, can be very helpful.
"In some immune deficiency conditions, the treatment may be replacement of missing or
deficiency elements," Lau said. "This may be infusions of antibodies to fight infections."
Treatment may also include monoclonal antibodies, Lau said. A monoclonal antibody is a type of
protein made in a lab that can bind to substances in the body. They can be used to regulate parts
of the immune response that are causing inflammation, Lau said. According to the National
Cancer Institute, monoclonal antibodies are being used to treat cancer. They can carry drugs,
toxins or radioactive substances directly to cancer cells.
 Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste
and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport
lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.
The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are similar to the veins and
capillaries of the circulatory system. The vessels are connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph
is filtered. The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.
Description of the lymphatic system
There are hundreds of lymph nodes in the human body. They are located deep inside the body,
such as around the lungs and heart, or closer to the surface, such as under the arm or groin,
according to the American Cancer Society. The lymph nodes are found from the head to around
the knee area. 

The spleen, which is located on the left side of the body just above the kidney, is the largest
lymphatic organ, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). "The spleen . . .
acts as a blood filter; it controls the amount of red blood cells and blood storage in the body, and
helps to fight infection," said Jordan Knowlton, an advanced registered nurse practitioner at the
University of Florida Health Shands Hospital. 
If the spleen detects potentially dangerous bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms in the
blood, it — along with the lymph nodes — creates white blood cells called lymphocytes, which
act as defenders against invaders. The lymphocytes produce antibodies to kill the foreign
microorganisms and stop infections from spreading. Humans can live without a spleen, although
people who have lost their spleen to disease or injury are more prone to infections
The thymus is located in the chest just above the heart, according to Merck Manual. This small
organ stores immature lymphocytes (specialized white blood cells) and prepares them to become
active T cells, which help destroy infected or cancerous cells. 
Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells found in the pharynx. According to the American
Academy of Otolaryngology, they are the body's "first line of defense as part of the immune
system. They sample bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the mouth or nose." They
sometimes become infected, and although tonsillectomies occur much less frequently today than
they did in the 1950s, it is still among the most common operations performed and typically
follows frequent throat infections.
Lymph is a clear and colorless fluid; the word "lymph" comes from the Latin word lympha,
which means "connected to water,"
Plasma leaves the body's cells once it has delivered its nutrients and removed debris. Most of this
fluid returns to the venous circulation through tiny blood vessels called venules and continues as
venous blood. The remainder becomes lymph, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Unlike blood, which flows throughout the body in a continue loop, lymph flows in only one
direction — upward toward the neck. Lymphatic vessels connect to two subclavian veins, which
are located on either sides of the neck near the collarbones, and the fluid re-enters the circulatory
system, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system
Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system are typically treated by immunologists. Vascular
surgeons, dermatologists, oncologists and physiatrists also get involved in treatment of various
lymphatic ailments. There are also lymphedema therapists who specialize in the manual drainage
of the lymphatic system.
The most common diseases of the lymphatic system are enlargement of the lymph nodes (also
known as lymphadenopathy), swelling due to lymph node blockage (also known
as lymphedema) and cancers involving the lymphatic system, according to Dr. James Hamrick,
chief of medical oncology and hematology at Kaiser Permanente in Atlanta.
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When bacteria are recognized in the lymph fluid, the lymph nodes make more infection-fighting
white blood cells, which can cause swelling. The swollen nodes can sometimes be felt in the
neck, underarms and groin, according to the NLM.
Lymphadenopathy is usually caused by infection, inflammation, or cancer. Infections that cause
lymphadenopathy include bacterial infections such as strep throat, locally infected skin wounds,
or viral infections such as mononucleosis or HIV infection, Hamrick stated. "The enlargement of
the lymph nodes may be localized to the area of infection, as in strep throat, or more generalized
as in HIV infection. In some areas of the body the enlarged lymph nodes are palpable, while
others are to deep to feel and can be seen on CT scan or MRI."
Inflammatory or autoimmune conditions occur when a person's immune system is active, and
can result in enlargement of lymph nodes. This can happen in lupus, according to Hamrick. 
Lymphoma:
This refers to cancer of the lymph nodes. It occurs when lymphocytes grow and multiply
uncontrollably. There are a number of different types of lymphoma, according to Dr. Jeffrey P.
Sharman, director of research at Willamette Valley Cancer Institute and medical director of
hematology research for the U.S. Oncology Network.
"The first 'branch point' is the difference between Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin
lymphoma (NHL)," Sharman said. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more common of the two,
according to the Lymphoma Research Foundation. 
The most common types of NHL are follicular, which accounts for about 30 percent of all NHL
cases; diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), which comprises 40 to 50 percent of NHL
cases; and Burkitt's lymphoma, which accounts for 5 percent of NHL cases. "The remainder of
cases makes up the bewildering complexity of NHL," Sharman said.
"Though there can be a significant range within an individual category, the clinical approach to
each category is unique and the expectations of patient outcome varies by category," Sharman
said.
When a person has had surgery and/or radiation to remove a cancer, the lymphatic flow back to
the heart and can result in swelling or lymphedema, Hamrick noted. This most commonly
occurs in women who have had surgery to remove a breast cancer. Part of the operation to
remove the breast cancer involves removing lymph nodes in the armpit. 
The more lymph nodes removed the higher the risk of chronic bothersome swelling and pain due
to lymphedema in the arm, Hamrick explained. "Fortunately, modern surgical techniques are
allowing for fewer lymph nodes to be removed, and thus fewer cases of severe lymphedema for
breast cancer survivors."
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Some interesting research has been done on why people possibly get lymphoma. For example,
VU University Medical Center in Amsterdam researched a nationwide Dutch pathology registry
between 1990 and 2016. From the research, they estimated that the risk of developing anaplastic
large cell lymphoma in the breast after getting implants is 1 in 35,000 at age 50, 1 in 12,000 at
age 70, and 1 in 7,000 at age 75. The study was published in the Jan. 4, 2018 issue of the journal
JAMA Oncology.
Castleman disease:
This disease refers to a group of inflammatory disorders that cause lymph node enlargement and
can result in multiple-organ dysfunction, according to the Castleman Disease Cooperative
Network. While not specifically a cancer, it is a similar to a lymphoma and is often treated with
chemotherapy. It can be unicentric (one lymph node) or multicentric, involving multiple lymph
nodes. 
Lymphangiomatosis:
This disease involves multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels, according to
the Lymphangiomatosis & Gorham's Disease Alliance. It is thought to be the result of a genetic
mutation. 
Tonsil stones are another problem that can happen to the lymphatic system. Small bits of debris
catches on the tonsils and white blood cells attack the debris and leave behind hard a hard
biofilm that breaths oxygen. They are not smooth like regular stones, though. "Instead, they look
like prunes, with crevices where bacteria can accumulate," said Chetan Kaher, a dentist in
London. Usually, tonsil stones fall away and get swallowed, but sometimes they need to be
manually removed.
 Muscular System
While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than assist in lifting heavy
objects. The 650 muscles in the body not only support movement — controlling walking,
talking, sitting, standing, eating and other daily functions that people consciously perform — but
also help to maintain posture and circulate blood and other substances throughout the body,
among other functions.
Muscles are often associated with activities of the legs, arms and other appendages, but muscles
also produce more subtle movements, such as facial expressions, eye movements and respiration,
according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Three types of muscles
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The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth and
cardiac, according to the NIH.
Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body and control every
action that a person consciously performs. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones
across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other, according
to The Merck Manual.
Visceral, or smooth, muscle is found inside organs such as the stomach and intestines, as well as
in blood vessels. It is called a smooth muscle because, unlike skeletal muscle, it does not have
the banded appearance of skeletal or cardiac muscle. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral
muscles contract to move substances through the organ, according to The Merck Manual. 
Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as
involuntary muscle, as it cannot be controlled by the conscious mind.
Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body, according to The Merck Manual. The heart's natural pacemaker is made of
cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to contract. Like visceral muscles, cardiac
muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the
rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract.
Muscle shapes
Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction, according to the NIH. The
deltoids, or shoulder muscles, have a triangular shape. The serratus muscle, which originates on
the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side of the chest, and runs along the entire anterior
length of the scapula (shoulder blades), has a distinctive sawlike shape. The rhomboid major,
which attaches the scapula to the spinal column, is a diamond shape.
Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region (the
buttocks) contains three muscles differentiated by size: the gluteus maximus (large), gluteus
medius (medium) and gluteus minimus (smallest), the NIH noted.
The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the abdominal
region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles, according to the NIH. The muscles whose
fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to
right) are the transverse abdominis and the ones running at an angle are the obliques. As any
exercise enthusiast knows, obliques are among the hardest muscles to develop to achieve "six-
pack" abs.
Muscles also can be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist
and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that allows you to roll your wrist over to face palm up.
Adductor muscles in the legs adduct, or pull together, the limbs, according to the NIH.
Diseases of the muscular system
There is no single type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and disorders. Rheumatologists,
orthopedists and neurologists may all treat conditions that affect the muscles, according to the
American Medical Association.
There are a number of common neuromuscular disorders, according to Dr. Robert Schabbing,
chief of neurology at Kaiser Permanente in Denver.
Common primary muscle disorders include inflammatory myopathies, including polymyositis,
which is characterized by inflammation and progressive weakening of the skeletal muscles;
dermatomyositis, which is polymyositis accompanied by a skin rash; and inclusion body
myositis, which is characterized by progressive muscle weakness and wasting. Other common
disorders are muscular dystrophies and metabolic muscle disorders, he said. Muscular dystrophy
affects muscle fibers. Metabolic muscle disorders interfere with chemical reactions involved in
drawing energy from food.Neuromuscular junction disorders impair the transmission of nerve
signals to muscles, Schabbing noted.
The most common neuromuscular junction disorder is myasthenia gravis, which is characterized
by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal muscles. Schabbing said. "There are many types
of peripheral neuropathies that can be secondary to other medical conditions, such as diabetes, or
due to a variety of other causes, including toxins, inflammation and hereditary causes," he said.
Motor neuron disorders affect the nerve cells that supply muscles, Schabbing said. The most
recognizable motor neuron disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS, commonly known as
Lou Gehrig's
disease.
 Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical
wiring
Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health, the central nervous
system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of
sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that connect to one another and to the
central nervous system.
Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary,
component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous system
regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing, that work
without conscious effort, according to Merck Manuals. The somatic system consists of nerves
that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.
Description of the nervous system
Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and branch out to
every other part of the body, according to the University of Michigan Medical School. 
Neurons send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals
known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses, the NIH noted. There are
over 100 trillion neural connections in the average human brain, though the number and location
can vary. For example, a new study published January 2018 in the journal Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences found that out of the 160 participants studied, the brains of highly
creative people have more connections among three specific regions of the brain than less
creative thinkers.
"You have these three different systems that are all located in different parts of the brain, but
they are all co-activated at once," said lead study author Roger Beaty, a postdoctoral fellow
studying cognitive neuroscience at Harvard University. "People who are better able to co-
activate them [came] up with more-creative responses."
A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication process typically takes
only a fraction of a millisecond. Signals travel along an alpha motor neuron in the spinal cord
268 mph (431 km/h); the fastest transmission in the human body, according to Discover
magazine.
Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send feedback to the
central nervous system about the body's surrounding environment, according to the American
Psychological Association. Motor neurons, located in the central nervous system or in peripheral
ganglia, transmit signals to activate the muscles or glands. [Here's What You'd Look Like as Just
a Nervous System]
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Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," are specialized cells that support, protect or
nourish nerve cells, according to the Oregon Institute of Health and Science University. 
The brain's connections and thinking ability grew over thousands of years of evolution. For
example, a virus bound its genetic code to the genome of four-limbed animals, and the code can
still be found in humans' brains today, according to two papers published in the January 2018
journal Cell. This code packages up genetic information and sends it from nerve cells to other
nearby nerve cells, a very important process in the brain. [An Ancient Virus May Be Responsible
for Human Consciousness]
Diseases of the nervous system
"Of all the diseases of the nervous system, the most common difficulty that people have is pain,
and much of that is nerve-related," according to Dr. Shai Gozani, founder and CEO of
NeuroMetrix, a medical device company. "There are 100 million people who live with chronic
pain."
According to the Mayo Clinic, patients with nerve disorders experience functional difficulties,
which result in conditions such as:
 Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause seizures 
 Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects movement
 Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is attacked by the
body's immune system
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor
neuron disease which weakens the muscles and progressively hampers physical function
 Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells in the
brain to degenerate
 Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts mental
functions, particularly memory. 
Mayo Clinic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular disorders such
as:
 Stroke, which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to the brain is
obstructed;
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which are mini-type strokes that last a shorter period of
time but mimic stroke symptoms; and
 Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is specifically bleeding in the space between your brain
and the surrounding membrane that can be the result of a trauma or rupturing of a weak
blood vessel; 
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Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can also affect the
nervous system, the NIH noted.
Treatments vary from anti-inflammatory medications and pain medications such as opiates, to
implanted nerve stimulators and wearable devices, Gozani said. "Many people also turn to herbal
and holistic methods to reduce pain, such as acupuncture." 
 Reproductive System
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs — in both males and
females — that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the reproductive
system is among the most important systems in the entire body.
How reproductive systems work
The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are produced,
and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to both the urinary and
reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum,
where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm
production. 
The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia minora, labia
majora and Bartholin's glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The major internal organs of
the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus — which act as the receptacle for
semen — and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus
through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to
hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg — or more in the case of multiple births — is released and
sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated during
menstruation.
Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg. While the
fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then
becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in
which the embryo forms) and morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the
fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates, and contractions of the
uterus propel it through the birth canal. 
Variations in the reproductive system
Around 49.5 percent of the world's population is female, so there are slightly more men on the
planet than women, according to World Bank. A person's sex is determined by what reproductive
system the person has, but it isn't always so simple. Some humans are born with parts of both
male and female reproductive systems or incomplete reproductive organs of one sex or the other.
Those with both male and female reproductive parts are considered intersex. Sometimes children
are labeled as male or female, depending on how complete or functional one sexual reproductive
system is over the other. Then, the other organs are removed.
Today, many parents are opting to leave both sets of reproductive organs intact with the intent of
letting the child decide to keep or remove the various parts when they are older. A baby is born
atypical genitalia in one in about 1,500 to 2,000 births, according to Intersex Society of North
America. 
Females that are born without all of their reproductive system are labeled as having Mayer
Rokitansky Kuster Hauser Syndrome. This occurs in one in 5,000 female births, according to
the Center for Young Women’s Health. 
Diseases of the female reproductive system
Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In females,
cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs, according to
the American Cancer Society. 
Many experts have seen what they refer to as the "Angelina Jolie" effect, where women are
taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they
have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease. "With better genetic testing
and screening, we have seen a number of women who are being more proactive about their
reproductive health," said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology
at Arizona Oncology. 
Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross noted,
because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. "There is no standard
screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it early." 
Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal
cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer Institute. 
There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular changes
in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the
presence of infection with high-risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical cancer, according
to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening misses more
cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on approximately 8.6 million
women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold improvement in the cancer detection
rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.
Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when they turn 21
and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plus-HPV test, or co-testing,
is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are negative repeated every five years,
regardless of whether they have received HPV vaccination. "However, there is compelling
scientific evidence that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer
than every five-year co-testing," Dubin noted.
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While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually
transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States — male and
female — will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience any symptoms.
In a small portion of women, it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts; in men, it can
cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to the NIH.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea
and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the
immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one of
the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of the
reproductive system occurs with a woman's monthly menstrual period, according to Dr. Sheryl
Ross, OB/GYN and Women's Health Specialist at Providence Saint John’s Health Center.
"Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days and disrupt
your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially," Ross noted. Diagnosis is made by
the patient's medical history and a pelvic exam. The best treatment includes medications that
block the effects of prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill
also works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.
Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection, which
is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with over-the-counter
medications, according to WebMD. 
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus — the
endometrium — ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue
lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to the Mayo
Clinic. 
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive organs,
including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and
chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. "Any of
these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include
chronic pelvic pain and infertility," Ross said
Diseases of the male reproductive system
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Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most common, but
men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the American Cancer
Society. 
Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other health
conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery, radiation therapy,
watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland Clinic. 
Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a long-term
basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological disorders
such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.
Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to the
Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half of all men
experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.
Defining and treating infertility
Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected intercourse.
It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of circumstances, according to
the Mayo Clinic.
In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia) or too few
sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach the
egg. Causes range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to tumors. Lifestyle
factors, such as drug and alcohol use, can also play role. In rare cases, infertility in men is caused
by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis, according to the Mayo Clinic.
In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the body's
ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.
Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues are treated
by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males, urologists handle many disorders of their
reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable to
conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.
 Respiratory Diseases
The human respiratory system is a network of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. Its primary organs are the lungs, which carry out this exchange of
gases as we breathe. 
The lungs work with the circulatory system to pump oxygen-rich blood to all cells in the body.
The blood then collects carbon dioxide and other waste products and transports them back to the
lungs, where the waste products are pumped out of the body when we exhale, according to
the American Lung Association.
The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. After only about five minutes without oxygen,
brain cells begin dying, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke,
which can lead to brain damage and ultimately death. 
In humans, the average breathing, or respiratory rate, mostly depends on age. A newborn's
normal breathing rate is about 40 to 60 times each minute and may slow to 30 to 40 times per
minute when the baby is sleeping, according to Stanford Children's Health. The average resting
respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 16 breaths per minute, and up to 40 to 60 breaths per minute
during exercise
PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
There are many components to the respiratory system. They include:
 Nose 
 Mouth 
 Throat (pharynx) 
 Voice box (larynx) 
 Windpipe (trachea) 
 Large airways (bronchi) 
 Small airways (bronchioles) 
 Lungs
 Diaphragm
As we breathe, oxygen enters the nose or mouth and passes the sinuses, which are hollow spaces
in the skull that help regulate the temperature and humidity of the air we breathe. 
From the sinuses, air passes through the trachea, also called the windpipe, and into the bronchial
tubes, which are the two tubes that carry air into each lung (each one is called a bronchus). The
bronchial tubes are lined with tiny hairs called cilia that move back and forth, carrying mucus up
and out. Mucus is a sticky fluid that collects dust, germs and other matter that has invaded the
lungs and is what we expel when we sneeze and cough. 
The bronchial tubes split up again to carry air into the lobes of each lung. The right lung has
three lobes while the left lung has only two, to accommodate room for the heart, according to
the American Lung Association. The lobes are filled with small, spongy sacs called alveoli,
which is where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs. 

The alveolar walls are extremely thin (about 0.2 micrometers) and are composed of a single layer
of tissues called epithelial cells and tiny blood vessels called pulmonary capillaries. Blood in the
capillaries picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide. The oxygenated blood then makes its
way to the pulmonary veins. These four veins, two from each lung, carry oxygen-rich blood to
the left side of the heart, where it is pumped to all parts of the body. The carbon dioxide the
blood left behind moves into the alveoli and gets expelled in our exhaled breath.
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The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls breathing and
separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. When air gets taken in, the diaphragm
tightens and moves downward, making more space for the lungs to fill with air and expand,
according to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. During exhalation, the diaphragm
expands and compresses the lungs, forcing air out.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISEASES
Diseases and conditions of the respiratory system fall into two categories: Infections, such
as influenza, bacterial pneumonia and enterovirus respiratory virus, and chronic diseases, such as
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). 
Viral infections
Not much can be done for viral infections but to let them run their course, according to Dr. Neal
Chaisson, who practices pulmonary medicine at the Cleveland Clinic. "Antibiotics are not
effective in treating viruses and the best thing to do is just rest," he said. 
For most healthy individuals, the most common respiratory ailment they may face is an infection,
said Dr. Matthew Exline, a pulmonologist and critical care expert at The Ohio State University
Wexner Medical Center. A cough is the first symptom, possibly accompanied by a fever. 
Related:The gross science of a cough and a sneeze
"However, a cough can be a sign of chronic respiratory conditions such as asthma, chronic
bronchitis or emphysema," he said. "In chronic lung disease, most respiratory diseases present
with shortness of breath, initially with exertion, such as walking a significant distance or
climbing several flights of stairs."
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the lung airways that causes coughing, wheezing, chest
tightness or shortness of breath, according to Tonya Winders, president of the Allergy & Asthma
Network. These signs and symptoms may be worse when a person is exposed to their triggers,
which can include air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes, cleaning solvents, infections,
pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and medications. Exercise can also induce asthma.
More than 25 million people (or 1 in 13 adults and 1 in 12 children) in the United States have
asthma, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
For some people, asthma is a mild irritation, but for others it can be a life-threatening condition,
according to the Mayo Clinic. Asthma cannot be cured, but its symptoms can be managed. Early
identification and treatment can prevent long-term damage and stop asthma from getting worse
over time.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
COPD is a chronic and progressive disease in which the air flow in and out of the lungs
decreases, making it harder to breathe. COPD is a combination of chronic bronchitis
(inflammation of the bronchial tubes) and emphysema (damaged alveoli), according to the Mayo
Clinic. Smoking is the leading cause of COPD. 
Over time, the airways of people with COPD become inflamed and thicken, making it harder to
get rid of waste carbon dioxide, according to the American Lung Association. As the disease
progresses, patients experience a shortness of breath, and it can limit activity. More than 16
million Americans are affected by COPD, according to the CDC. COPD has no cure, but it can
be treated.
Lung cancer 
Lung cancer is often associated with smoking, but the disease can affect nonsmokers as well. It is
the second most common cancer for both men and women, outranked by prostate and breast
cancers, respectively. 
The American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates that in 2021, there will be about 235,760 new
cases of lung cancer (119,100 in men and 116,660 in women) and around 131,880 deaths from
lung cancer (69,410 in men and 62,470 in women) in the United States. However, the number of
lung cancer deaths has been on a downward slope in recent years due to advances in treatment
and early detection.Most people diagnosed with lung cancer are older than 65, and the average
age of people diagnosed with lung cancer is 70, according to ACS. 
There are two different types of lung cancer, which is cancer that originates in the lungs as
opposed to cancer that spreads to the lungs –– small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung
cancer, according to the Mayo Clinic. Small cell lung cancer is most commonly found in heavy
smokers, and is less common than non-small cell lung cancer. 
The main symptoms for lung cancer are shortness of breath, pain, coughing up blood, and fluid
in the lungs. A doctor diagnoses lung cancer by performing imaging tests, such as a CT scan;
testing coughed-up sputum; and a lung biopsy.
Treatment is based on the extent of the lung cancer, and whether it has spread to other parts of
the body. Treatments range from surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy, through to
palliative care.
 Skeletal System
The human skeletal system is not quite as simple as the popular children's song suggests. The
"head bone" (actually made up of 22 separate bones) is not connected to the "neck bone," but
rather to a series of small bones that go all the way down the back. And the "toe bone" is actually
made up of several bones that connect to another set of bones that provide structure for the foot.
In total, the human skeleton consists of a whopping 206 bones.
Development and structure of the skeleton
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Infants are born with about 300 separate bones, according to Nemours, a nonprofit children's
health provider. As a child grows, some of those bones fuse together until growth stops, typically
by the age of 25, leaving the skeleton with 206 bones
Our bones are separated into two categories based on the purpose and location of the bones: The
axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton, according to the SEER program of the National
Cancer Institute.

The axial skeleton contains 80 bones, including the skull, spine and rib cage. It forms the central
structure of the skeleton, with the function of protecting the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs.

The remaining 126 bones make up the appendicular skeleton; they include the arms, legs,
shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle. The lower portion of the appendicular skeleton protects the
major organs associated with digestion and reproduction and provides stability when a person is
walking or running. The upper portion allows for a greater range of motion when lifting and
carrying objects.

Bones are further classified by their shape: long, short, flat, irregular or sesamoid, according to
SEER.

Long bones are found in the arms, legs, fingers and toes. These bones are longer than they are
wide and are cylindrical. They move when the muscles around them contract, and they are the
most mobile parts of the skeleton.
Short bones are found in the wrists and ankles and are about equal in their length, width and
thickness.
Flat bones make up the skull, shoulder blades, sternum and ribs. These curved, thin bones protect
internal organs and provide an anchor for muscles.
Irregular bones are those in the spinal cord and face, which, because of their unique dimension,
don't fit in any of the other shape categories.
Sesamoid bones are found in the hands, wrists, feet, ears and knees. These small, round bones
are embedded in tendons and protect them from the great pressure and force they encounter.
There are some variations between male and female skeletons. For example, the female pelvis is
typically more broad, thin, and round than the male pelvis, according to the National Museum of
Natural History. [Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]
What's inside your bones?

All about your body's skeleton, the framework of bones that keeps you together. (Image credit:
Ross Toro, Livescience contributor)
Three main types of material make up every bone in your body: compact bone, spongy bone and
bone marrow, according to the School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University.
Approximately 80% of every bone is compact bone, which is the hardest and strongest type of
bone and is what allows the body to support its weight. Compact bone makes up the outer layers
of the bone and protects the inner parts of the bones where many vital functions occur, such as
bone marrow production. Compact bone consists primarily of cells called osteocytes.
Microscopic passages in between the cells to allow nerves and blood vessels to pass through.
About 20% of each bone is spongy bone, which is filled with large holes and passages. Most
often found toward the ends of individual bones, the spongy bone material is filled with bone
marrow, nerves and blood vessels. 
Two types of bone marrow fill the pores in spongy bone. Approximately half is red bone
marrow, which is found mainly within flat bones such as shoulder blades and ribs. This is where
all red and white blood cells and platelets (cells that help a cut stop bleeding) are made. Infant's
bones contain all red bone marrow to produce enough blood cells to keep up with the youngsters'
growth. 
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The other half of marrow is yellow bone marrow, which is found in long bones, such as thigh
bones, and consists primarily of fat. Blood vessels run through both types of bone marrow to
deliver nutrients and remove waste from the bones.
There are four main types of cells within bones: Osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts and lining
cells, according to the NCBI.
Osteoblasts are cells that create new or repair existing bone material as the bones grow or break.
The cells create a flexible material called osteoid and then fortify it with minerals to harden and
strengthen it. When osteoblasts successfully finish their job, they retire to become osteocytes or
lining cells.
Osteocytes, found in the compact bone, are responsible for exchanging minerals and
communicating with other cells in the vicinity. They are formed from old osteoblasts that have
gotten stuck in the center of bones.
Osteoclasts break down existing bone material and reabsorb it. These cells often work with
osteoblasts to heal and reshape bone after a break (the osteoclasts break down the extra callus
formed by the healing process) to make room for new blood vessels and nerves and to make
bones thicker and stronger.
Lining cells are flat bone cells that completely cover the outside surface of bones. Their primary
function is controlling the movement of minerals, cells and other materials into and out of the
bones.
Diseases of the skeletal system
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As with any part of the human body, bones are susceptible to injury and disease.
Some of the most common diseases that can affect the skeletal system include:
 Osteoporosis is a disease that causes the density and strength of bones to decrease
because bone loss occurs faster than bone growth. It can be caused by genetics or
unhealthy lifestyle habits (such as lack of calcium or vitamin D, and heavy smoking or
drinking with little exercise).
 Leukemia is a type of cancer that starts in the bone marrow and the lymphatic system,
according to the Mayo Clinic. Several types of leukemia affect various blood cells and
other systems of the body.
 Osteoarthritis is a disease that causes the breakdown of the cartilage that protects the ends
of bones in joints. This lack of cartilage leads to bone-on-bone rubbing, which can cause
significant pain, damage to the bones and connective tissues, inflammation of the
surrounding tissue and restricted motion, according to the Mayo Clinic. 
 Skin
Skin is more than a fleshy surface for pimples, tattoos and wrinkles. Skin is the body's largest
organ, and along with hair, nails, glands and nerves, is part of the integumentary system,
according to Oregon State University. This system acts as a protective barrier between the
outside and the inside of the body.

In adults, skin accounts for about 16 percent of total body weight and covers a surface area of
approximately 22 square feet (2 square meters).

There are different thicknesses and textures of skin on different parts of the body. For example,
skin is paper-thin underneath the eyes, but is thick on the soles of the feet and palms of the hand,
according to the Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library.
Three layers of tissue
Human skin is composed of three layers of tissue: the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis
Epidermis
The epidermis is the top, visible layer of skin and it's constantly being renewed as dead skin cells
are shed on a daily basis. The main functions of the epidermis include:
 Making new skin cells. New skin cells form at the bottom of the epidermis. As these
newer cells form, it takes them about one month to reach the top layer of the epidermis.
The new cells will replace the old cells found on the skin surface, which are dead and
continuously flake off.
 Giving skin its color. The epidermis contains melanocytes, which are cells that produce
melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color. Melanin is also responsible for suntans and
freckles.
 Protecting skin. Keratin, a protein made by cells found in the epidermis, gives skin its
toughness and strength, and protects skin from drying out.
Dermis
The dermis is the middle layer of skin, found underneath the epidermis. It is the thickest layer of
skin and contains nerves and blood vessels. It is also home to the sweat glands, oil glands
and hair follicles. The dermis gives skin its flexibility and strength, according to the Johns
Hopkins Medicine Health Library. It is made up mostly of a protein called collagen that makes
skin stretchy and strong.
According to the National Library of Medicine, the roles of the dermis include:
  Sensing pain and touch. Nerve endings in the dermis contain receptors that transmit
sensations, such as pain, pressure, touch, itchiness and temperature to the brain.
 Producing sweat and oils. Sweat glands help to cool the body, and sebaceous glands
make the oils that keep skin soft and moist.
 Growing hair. Hair follicles found in the dermis grow the hair on your head, face and
body. That hair also helps to control body temperature and protect the body from injury.
 Bringing blood to the skin. Blood vessels found in the dermis nourish the skin and help
control body temperature. When skin becomes too hot, blood vessels enlarge to release
heat from the skin's surface, while cold constricts blood vessels so they retain body heat.
 Fighting infection. Lymphatic vessels, which drain fluid from the tissues and are an
important part of the immune system, are housed in the dermis.  They help ward off
infections and other harmful substances.
Hypodermis
The hypodermis — also called subcutaneous fat — is the deepest layer of skin. This layer is
made up mostly of fatty tissue, which helps to insulate the body from heat and cold. The
hypodermis also serves as an energy storage area for fat. This fat provides padding to cushion
internal organs as well as muscle and bones, and protects the body from injuries, according to the
Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library.
Common skin conditions
Dermatologists are physicians who specialize in treating diseases, disorders and injuries of the
skin, hair and nails. They treat common conditions such as acne and warts; chronic skin
conditions such as eczema and psoriasis; and more serious diseases like skin cancer, according to
the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD).
Warts and moles
Warts are benign (noncancerous) growths on the skin caused by the human papillomavirus
(HPV), according to the AAD. They often occur on the hands and soles. Sometimes, tiny black
dots will be visible in a wart.
"These are blocked blood vessels, which are a common occurrence with a papilloma viral
infection," said Dr. Charles E. Crutchfield, a clinical professor of dermatology at the University
of Minnesota Medical School, and medical director of Crutchfield Dermatology.
The best treatment for warts is to cause a mild irritation of these skin growths — usually by
freezing them, applying a chemical such as salicylic acid or using lasers — so the immune
system can recognize the viral infection and get rid of it. 
Moles are another type of common growth on the skin. They're most often brown or black, but
some can be red or skin-colored, and they may appear flat or raised. If a mole starts changing in
size, color or shape, or if it bleeds and doesn't heal on its own in three weeks, it should be
evaluated to make sure it's not turning into skin cancer, Crutchfield said.
Acne and eczema
Acne, a disorder of the hair and oil glands, is among the most common skin conditions treated by
dermatologists, Crutchfield told Live Science.
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Acne occurs when hair follicles become plugged with oil and dead skin cells, according to the
Mayo Clinic. The condition presents itself as red bumps and pimples on the face, chest and back,
Crutchfield said. Treatments for acne include vitamin A products (retinols prevent plugging of
hair follicles), salicylic acid (to unplug pores), benzoyl peroxides (to decrease bacteria) and
antibiotics (to reduce inflammation).
Eczema looks like patches of red, itchy, bumpy skin, and the most common type is known as
atopic dermatitis. The condition can occur anywhere on the skin. Sometimes, it flares up on its
own, and at other times, it is caused by a specific trigger, such as a skin irritant like poison ivy,
or exposure to an allergen, according to Crutchfield.
Eczema is best treated with topical anti-inflammatory creams and ointments, which can reduce
itching and redness. For mild symptoms, over-the-counter medications work well, but a
prescription-strength cortisone product may be needed for more severe cases.
Skin cancer
Skin cancer is an abnormal growth of skin cells, and the most common type is basal cell
carcinoma, Crutchfield said. More than 4 million cases of basal cell carcinoma are diagnosed in
the United States each year, according to the Skin Cancer Foundation. This type of cancer is skin
colored, pink or has a slight pearly white color to it, and usually appears on sun-exposed areas of
the face, ears or neck, according to the Mayo Clinic. It rarely spreads to other parts of the body,
but it can be very problematic if it's not treated, Crutchfield cautioned.
The second most common type of skin cancer is squamous cell carcinoma. It may appear as a
pink or white bump, a rough, scaly patch or a sore that won't heal, according to the AAD.  
The most serious skin cancer is melanoma, which looks like a dark, changing, bleeding skin spot,
Crutchfield said. This cancer begins in the skin's pigment-producing cells, and although it is the
rarest form of skin cancer, it causes the majority of skin cancer deaths.
 Urinary System
The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and eliminates urine, the
fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering wastes and extra water
from blood. Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin tubes called ureters and fills the
bladder. When the bladder is full, a person urinates through the urethra to eliminate the waste.
The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other problems, including
blockages and injuries. These can be treated by a urologist or another health care professional
who specializes in the renal system.
Description of the urinary system
The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of
chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about 27 to 68 fluid ounces (800 to 2,000
milliliters) per day based on typical daily fluid intake of 68 ounces (2 liters), National Institutes
of Health (NIH). Other factors in urinary system function include fluid lost through perspiring
and breathing. In addition, certain types of medications, such as diuretics that are sometimes
used to treat high blood pressure, can also affect the amount of urine a person produces and
eliminates. Some beverages, such as coffee and alcohol, can also cause increased urination in
some people.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped organs that are
located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys remove urea — waste
product formed by the breakdown of proteins — from the blood through small filtering units
called nephrons, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of
small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together
with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and
down the renal tubules of the kidney.
From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. The ureters
are about 8 to 10 inches long (20 to 25 centimeters), according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Muscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from the kidneys,
according to the NIH. A backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. Small amounts of urine
are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15 seconds.
The bladder is a hollow, balloon-shaped organ that is located in the pelvis. It is held in place by
ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones, according to the Kidney & Urology
Foundation of America. The bladder stores urine until the brain signals the bladder that the
person is ready to empty it. A normal, healthy bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (almost half a
liter) of urine comfortably for two to five hours.
To prevent leakage, circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening of the
bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The only difference
between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra, according to Merck
Manuals. In females, the urethra is about 1.5 to 2 inches long (3.8 to 5.1 cm) and sits between the
clitoris and the vagina. In males, it is about 8 inches (20 cm) long, runs the length of the penis
and opens at the end of the penis. The male urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen
during ejaculation.
Diseases of the urinary system
Different specialists treat urinary system ailments. Nephrologists treat kidney diseases, while
urologists treat problems with the urinary tract, including the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters,
bladder and urethra, according to the American Urological Association (AUA). Urologists also
treat the male reproductive organs, while gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders
in females, including yeast infections. Nephrologists and urologists often work with
endocrinologists or oncologists, depending on the disease.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract; they can affect the
urethra, bladder or even the kidneys. While UTIs are more common in women, they can occur in
men. UTIs are typically treated with antibiotics, according to Dr. Oscar Aguirre, a
urogynecologist in Denver. In the United States, about 8.1 million people have a urinary tract
infection each year, according to the American Urological Association.  
Incontinence is another common disease of the urinary system. "The most common bladder
problems I see in my practice in women are frequent urges to urinate and leakage of urine," said
S. Adam Ramin, urologic surgeon and founder of Urology Cancer Specialists in Los Angeles.
"The most common bladder problems in men are frequent urination at nights and incomplete
bladder emptying. This is usually due to an enlarged prostate causing obstruction of bladder
emptying."
Problems can come in the form of a pelvic prolapse, which can result in leakage and can be the
result of a vaginal delivery. Then there is the overactive bladder, "which we see a lot and is not
related to having children or trauma," Aguirre said. A third condition involves overflow, in
which the bladder does not completely empty.
"Holding your urine for a short period of time, usually up to one hour, is typically okay," said
Ramin. "However protracted and repeated holding of urine may cause over-expansion of bladder
capacity, transmission of excess pressure into the kidneys, and the inability to completely empty
the bladder. These problems in turn may lead to UTI [urinary tract infection], cystitis and
deterioration of kidney function."
Some common treatments involve medications, physical therapy and pelvic mesh surgery,
Aguirre noted. Vaginal laser surgery is also becoming a viable treatment option, he explained.
"In another 10 to 15 years, vaginal laser surgery will be another common option for the treatment
of urinary conditions."

Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder condition,
primarily in women, that causes bladder pressure and pain and, sometimes, pelvic pain to
varying degrees, according to the Mayo Clinic. It can cause bladder scarring, and can make the
bladder less elastic. While the cause isn't known, many people with the condition also have a
defect in their epithelium, the protective lining of the bladder.
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Prostatitis is a swelling of the prostate gland and, therefore, can only occur in men. Often caused
by advanced age, symptoms include urinary urgency and frequency, pelvic pain and pain during
urination, the Mayo Clinic noted.
Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary tract.
Kidney stones form when chemicals in the urine become concentrated enough to form a solid
mass, according to the Cleveland Clinic. They can cause pain in the back and sides, as well as
blood in the urine. Many kidney stones can be treated with minimally invasive therapy, such as
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, which disintegrates the kidney stones with shock waves.
Kidney failure, also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease, can be a temporary (often
acute) condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the kidneys to
filter waste from the blood. Other conditions, such as diabetes and hypertension, can cause
chronic kidney disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. Acute cases may be caused by trauma or
other damage, and may improve over time with treatment. However, renal disease may lead to
chronic kidney failure, which may require dialysis treatments or even a kidney transplant.
Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 75,000 Americans each year and is more frequent in men
and the elderly according. It is predicted that 81,190 new cases of bladder cancer (about 62,380
in men and 18,810 in women) and bout 17,240 deaths from bladder cancer (about 12,520 in men
and 4,720 in women) will occur in 2018, according to American Cancer Society. The symptoms,
including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination, mimic
other diseases or disorders of the urinary system.
Anatomy of Parts of the Body