Tunnelling and

Underground Space
Technology
incorporating Trenchless
Technology Research
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171
www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

On the influence of face pressure, grouting pressure and TBM

design in soft ground tunnelling
Thomas Kasper, Günther Meschke *

Institute for Structural Mechanics, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany

Received 3 January 2005; received in revised form 13 June 2005; accepted 20 June 2005
Available online 24 August 2005

Abstract

A three-dimensional finite element simulation model, which includes all relevant shield tunnelling components and allows for the
modelling of the step-by-step construction process of the tunnel advance is used to analyse the influence of TBM operation param-
eters and design parameters for a shallow tunnel advance in homogeneous, soft, cohesive soil below the ground water table. The
numerical sensitivity studies presented in this paper focus on the face support pressure, the grouting pressure, the trailer weight
and the length, weight and taper of the shield machine. The simulation results are evaluated with respect to the settlements of
the ground surface, the shield movement and the loading of the tunnel lining. The evaluation of the sensitivity analyses helps to
obtain a more detailed insight into the influence of selected parameters relevant for the design and steering of TBM tunnel advances.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Shield tunnelling; Numerical simulation; TBM design; Finite element method; Settlements; Parametric studies; Sensitivities; Soft soil

1. Introduction Finno and Clough (1985) have analysed the effect of

During the past decades, an increased use of numer-
ical models for the prognosis of the ground behaviour,
the surface settlements and the loading and deformation
of the lining of shield-driven tunnels can be observed.
Starting from two-dimensional approaches, see e.g. Fin-
no and Clough (1985), Bernat and Cambou (1998) and
Abu-Farsakh and Voyiadjis (1999), several advanced
three-dimensional models have been developed in recent
years, e.g. by Mansour (1996), Abu-Krisha (1998), van
Dijk and Kaalberg (1998), Komiya et al. (1999), Dias
et al. (2000) and Melis et al. (2002). However, relatively
few elaborate and systematic parametric studies that
evaluate the influence of the various parameters in-
volved in shield tunnelling have been published so far.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 234 3229051; fax: +49 234
3214149.
E-mail addresses: t.kasper@sd.rub.de (T. Kasper), g.meschke@
sd.rub.de (G. Meschke).
the face support pressure of an EPB shield and the influ-
ence of the soil stratification on the ground deforma-
tions by means of two-dimensional analyses. Using a
similar two-dimensional model for tunnel advances in
soft soil, Abu-Farsakh and Tumay (1999) have per-
formed parametric studies to determine the effect of
the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, the overconsoli-
dation ratio, the face pressure and the cover depth on
the ground deformations and the excess pore pressures
in the soil. Lee and Rowe (1989) have used a two-dimen-
sional finite element model to study the influence of the
anisotropy of natural soils on the ground behaviour.
The three-dimensional model developed by Mansour
(1996) was used to investigate the effect of the face pres-
sure, the grouting pressure and the constitutive model-
ling of the soil on the soil stresses and ground
deformations. Abu-Krisha (1998) improved this model
to take into account the influence of the ground water.
He analysed the influence of the soil properties and
the cover depth on the ground and lining behaviour by

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2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tust.2005.06.006
 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171
means of simplified two-dimensional simulations and
the influence of the face and grouting pressure on the ex-
cess pore pressures by means of three-dimensional
analyses.
A three-dimensional finite element model for shield
tunnelling in soft, water saturated soil, which takes into
account all relevant components and realistically models
the step-by-step construction process, is proposed in
Kasper and Meschke (2004). Due to the fact that all
components are included in the model, the effect of dif-
ferent parameters can be investigated not only with re-
spect to the stresses, pore pressures and deformations
of the soil, but also with respect to the TBM movement
and the deformation and loading of the tunnel lining
taking the rather complex interactions between the dif-
ferent tunnelling components into account. In this pa-
per, the influence of the face and grouting pressure
and the TBM design is evaluated with respect to various
important tunnelling design criteria such as the surface
settlements, the shield movement and the loading of
the tunnel lining. Further details are contained in Kas-
per (2004).
2. Finite element simulation model
The components of the finite element model and the
simulation procedure are described in detail in Kasper
and Meschke (2004). Therefore, only a short overview
is given here. The water saturated soil, the hydraulic
jacks, the tail void grout and the tunnel lining are repre-
sented by respective finite elements and the shield ma-
chine is modelled as an undeformable contact body
with a tapered shield skin (Fig. 1). The segmentation
of the tunnel lining is not considered in the model.
The back-up trailer is taken into account by point loads
on the tunnel lining, which follow the advancing shield
machine. According to tunnelling practice, the TBM ad-
Fig. 1. Test simulation of a curved shield tunnel advance with a radius of 200 m.
161
vance is modelled in each simulation step by length
changes of the elements, which represent the jacks be-
tween the pressure bulkhead of the TBM and the tunnel
lining. Taking into account the face support pressure in
the excavation chamber, the weight of the TBM and the
frictional contact to the soil along the shield skin, the
interaction of the TBM with the soil, the jacks and the
tunnel lining is realistically modelled. After each TBM
advance, the excavation at the cutting face, the tail void
grouting and the erection of a new lining ring during
standstill are taken into account by rezoning the finite
element mesh at the cutting face, introducing new ele-
ments for the grout and the tunnel lining, connecting
the jack elements to the new lining elements and com-
puting one or more time steps with updated boundary
conditions for the grouting pressure, the face support
pressure and updated positions of the trailer loads.
The grouting pressure is modelled by pore pressure
boundary conditions on the grout element nodes at the
shield tail according to the assumed grouting pressure
with a variation of 10 kN/m2/m over the height. Consid-
ering the time-dependent stiffness and permeability of
the material, the initial pressurised fluid state of the
grout and its hardening during hydration are taken into
account. The applied coupled two-field finite element
formulation for the soil and the grout also takes into ac-
count the fluid interaction between the grout and the soil
and the dissipation of the grouting pressure behind the
TBM.
The automation of the simulation by means of a com-
plementary program TSIM3D, which is linked to the fi-
nite element program, forms the basis for user-friendly
simulations of arbitrarily long, straight or curved tunnel
advances and for extensive parametric studies. Fig. 1
shows the result of a test simulation of a curved tunnel
advance with a radius of 200 m. The implemented auto-
matic steering of the individual jack thrusts leads to a
deviation from the prescribed driving path of max.
162 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171
21 cm. In order to achieve the desired driving path in the
simulations more precisely, the steering algorithm for
the jack thrusts should be further improved.
3. Parametric studies
In Kasper and Meschke (2004) the model was used
for the simulation of a shallow, straight-line tunnel
advance in homogeneous, overconsolidated, soft, cohe-
sive soil. The material behaviour of the soil is mod-
elled by an elasto-plastic Cam-Clay model. The
material parameters of the soil have been assumed
as k =
0.05 (compression index), j =
0.01 (swelling
index), m = 0.35 (Poisson ratio) and M = 1.0 (slope of
the Critical State Line). The preconsolidation pressure
is assumed to have a value of
125 kN/m2 at the
ground surface and is assumed to increase with

6 kN/m2 per metre depth. This results in an over-
consolidation ratio of 2.9 at the level of the tunnel
axis. The permeability of the soil is chosen as
1 · 10
7 m/s and the saturated bulk density of the soil
is chosen as 18 kN/m3. The ground water table is as-
sumed to be at the ground surface. The tunnel has a
diameter of D = 6.3 m and a cover depth of 1.5D. It is
assumed to be driven with a hydroshield TBM. The
weight of the shield machine is supposed to be distrib-
uted such that the centre of gravity of the machine is
situated at one third of the shield length measured
Fig. 2. Assumed loading scheme to represent the back-up trailer.
Fig. 4. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring section for different face pressures.
from the cutting edge. The back-up trailer is assumed
to have a total weight of 3980 kN and a total length
of 72 m. Fig. 2 shows the assumed loading scheme
to represent the back-up trailer in the model. After
48 m tunnel advance, additional time steps are com-
puted to take into account the long-term consolida-
tion. For this tunnel advance, the influence of the
face support pressure, the grouting pressure, the trailer
weight and the length, weight and taper of the shield
machine is now studied by means of comparative sim-
ulations with different values of the analysed parame-
ters. The finite element mesh used for the following
parametric studies is shown in Fig. 3. It consists of
20-node elements for the soil and the grout with qua-
dratic approximations of the displacements and linear
approximations of the pore water pressure, 20-node
quadratic displacement elements for the lining and 2-
node truss elements for the hydraulic jacks. The figure
also shows the defined monitoring section for the eval-
uation of the simulation results.
Fig. 3. Finite element mesh and location of the chosen monitoring
section for the evaluation of the simulation results.
 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171 163

3.1. Face pressure sures. If a slurry pressure of ps = 230 kN/m2 is

The slurry pressure ps in the excavation chamber is
assumed to vary linearly over the height according to
the assumed bulk density of the slurry of 13 kN/m3.
Three different slurry pressures are analysed. The respec-
tive reference values in the tunnel axis are shown in
Fig. 4. A perfectly impermeable filter cake at the cutting
face is assumed in all presented analyses.
According to Fig. 4(a), the simulations predict smal-
ler settlements ahead of the TBM for higher face pres-
applied, a slight temporary heave of the ground surface
of approximately 4 mm can be observed. Moreover, an
increase of the face pressure leads to smaller final settle-
ments. Fig. 4(b) shows the relationship between the face
pressure and the computed maximum settlement in
point A. Higher face pressures lead to a smaller stress re-
lease in the soil at the cutting face. As a consequence, a
slight increase of the lining pressure can be observed
(Fig. 5(a)). According to the increased lining pressure,
the ring normal force also slightly increases (Fig. 5(b)).

Fig. 5. (a) Computed lining pressure in the monitoring section at time t = 1; (b) normal force in the monitoring section at t = 1; (c) bending
moment in the monitoring section at t = 1 and (d) uplift of the tunnel lining in the monitoring section for different face pressures.

Fig. 6. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring section for different grouting pressures.
164 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171

Fig. 7. Computed excess pore pressures in the soil at the end of the tunnel advance for different grouting pressures. Excess pore pressures at the shield
tail explicitly indicated by numbers.

Fig. 8. (a) Computed lining pressure in the monitoring section at time t = 1; (b) normal force in the monitoring section at t = 1, (c) bending
moment in the monitoring section at t = 1 and (d) uplift of the tunnel lining in the monitoring section for different grouting pressures.

Fig. 9. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring section for different trailer weights (trailer loads also considered during the
consolidation phase).
 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171 165

of the lining: The computed sum of the jack forces dur-

ing the TBM advance is 6.3 MN for ps = 110 kN/m2,
8.5 MN for ps = 170 kN/m2 and 10.8 MN for
ps = 230 kN/m2. The influence of the face pressure on
the uplift of the tunnel lining behind the TBM is negligi-
ble (Fig. 5(d)).

3.2. Grouting pressure

Three different values of the grouting pressure pg are

Fig. 10. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring
section for different trailer weights, if the trailer loads are removed at
the beginning of the consolidation phase.
Since the difference between the lining pressure at the
crown and at the invert on the one hand and the lining
pressure at the springline on the other hand decreases,
the bending moment in the cross-section of the lining de-
creases (Fig. 5(c)). The slurry pressure in the excavation
chamber has a significant influence on the axial loading
investigated. The respective reference values corre-
sponding to the level of the tunnel axis are shown in
Fig. 6(a). An increase of the grouting pressure induces
a decrease of the computed surface settlements behind
the TBM (Fig. 6(a)). The maximum surface settlements
are also decreasing with increasing grouting pressure
(Fig. 6(b)). Fig. 7 shows that higher grouting pressures
cause higher excess pore pressures in the vicinity of the
tunnel. Their dissipation during the consolidation phase
leads to larger consolidation settlements (Fig. 6(a)). In
the case of pg = 120 kN/m2 only pore pressures below
the normal ground water pressure can be observed
around the grouted tail void. Combined with the de-
creased pore pressures below the tunnel due to the buoy-
ancy induced uplift of the tunnel tube, this leads to a
slight long-term decrease of the surface settlements
(see Fig. 6(a)). Higher grouting pressures induce a

Fig. 11. (a) Computed lining pressure in the monitoring section at time t = 1, (b) normal force in the monitoring section at t = 1, (c) bending
moment in the monitoring section at t = 1 and (d) uplift of the tunnel lining in the monitoring section for different trailer weights (trailer loads active
also during the consolidation phase).
166 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171

smaller stress release of the soil around the tail void and
therefore cause an increase of the lining pressure
(Fig. 8(a)). Accordingly, the ring normal force increases
(Fig. 8(b)) while a slight decrease of the bending mo-
ment can be observed (Fig. 8(c)). An increase of the gro-
uting pressure leads to an increase of the uplift of the
tunnel tube behind the TBM, see Fig. 8(d).
3.3. Trailer weight
To determine the influence of different trailer weights,
the loads representing the back-up trailer are all uni-
formly scaled. The assumed total weights of the trailer
Gtr are shown in Fig. 9(a). Although the influence of
the trailer weight on the surface settlements is relatively
small, it cannot be neglected completely (Fig. 9(a)). If
the trailer loads are removed at the beginning of the con-
solidation phase (Fig. 10), the settlements in this phase
are identical. It can be concluded that the trailer loads
only cause a temporary, elastic contribution to the sur-
face settlements since they are transferred to the soil
via the stiff tunnel lining and therefore do not cause
any plastic deformations in the soil. According to
Fig. 11, the influence of the trailer weight on the lining
pressure, the ring force and the bending moment in
the monitoring section at time t = 1 is negligible. It
must be noted, however, that at the end of the simulated
TBM advance the monitoring section is located between
two trailer loads (trailer axles). Fig. 12 shows that lo-
cally the trailer loads have an influence on the deforma-
tion and the stresses of the lining. The trailer loads
counteract the buoyancy of the tunnel tube. Therefore,
an increase of the trailer weight results in a decrease of
the uplift of the lining (Fig. 11(d)).
3.4. Length of the TBM
Three shield machines with different lengths are
investigated. In order to eliminate the influence of the
taper of the shield skin, the machines are modelled with-
out a taper. The TBM weights have been adapted to
their lengths: For the TBM with a length of 4.7 m a
weight of 4000 kN is assumed. The 6.2 m long TBM is
assumed to have a weight of 5050 kN, and the 7.7 m

Fig. 12. (a) Computed normal force and (b) bending moment in the lining cross-section 21 m behind the TBM (loaded by a trailer load) and 27 m
behind the TBM (between two trailer loads), in the case Gtr = 5970 kN.

Fig. 13. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring section for different lengths of the TBM.
 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171 167

long TBM has a weight of 6100 kN. For each machine,
the centre of gravity is assumed to be at one third of the
TBM length measured from the cutting edge.
The stress changes and deformations of the soil due
to the frictional interaction with the shield skin are
increasing with increasing length of the TBM. As a con-
sequence, larger settlements are predicted for longer
TBMÕs (Fig. 13(a)). According to Fig. 13(b), a nonlinear
relationship between the length of the TBM and the
maximum settlement is determined. In the overconsoli-
dated soil assumed in the analyses, the increasing soften-
ing at the springline for longer TBMÕs leads to a notable
decrease of the lining pressure in this area, while the
change of the lining pressure at the crown and at the in-
vert is less significant (Fig. 14(a)). Accordingly, a de-
crease of the ring normal force and a relatively large
increase of the bending moment is observed (Fig. 14(b)
and (c)). A smaller uplift of the tunnel lining is predicted
with increasing length of the TBM, see Fig. 14(d). The
computed increase of the shield skin frictional force is

Fig. 14. (a) Computed lining pressure in the monitoring section at time t = 1; (b) normal force in the monitoring section at t = 1; (c) bending
moment in the monitoring section at t = 1 and (d) uplift of the tunnel lining in the monitoring section for different lengths of the TBM.

Fig. 15. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring section for different TBM weights.
168 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171

associated with an increase of the jack forces, which rep-
resent the axial loading of the tunnel lining: The sum of
the computed jack forces is 9.0 MN for a TBM length of
4.7 m, 10.0 MN for a TBM length of 6.2 m and 10.8 MN
for a TBM length of 7.7 m.
3.5. Weight of the TBM
As expected, an increase of the TBM weight leads to
larger surface settlements (Fig. 15). The increased verti-
cal loading induces larger compaction and shear defor-
mations of the soil along the invert of the shield skin.
To counteract the stronger tendency of the TBM to drift
down during the advance, the machine has to be driven
with a significantly larger tilt angle (Fig. 16(b)). Further-
more, the computed vertical deviations from the pre-
scribed driving path in Fig. 16(a) show that the
steering algorithm for the jack thrusts still underesti-
mates the necessary increase of the tilt angle. The intense
settlement of the soil around the TBM for larger weights
of the TBM is followed by a larger unloading heave (cp.
the increased uplift of the tunnel tube in Fig. 17(d) and

Fig. 16. Computed TBM movement during the tunnel advance for different TBM weights: (a) vertical deviation and (b) tilt angle.

Fig. 17. (a) Computed lining pressure in the monitoring section at time t = 1; (b) normal force in the monitoring section at t = 1; (c) bending
moment in the monitoring section at t = 1 and (d) uplift of the tunnel lining in the monitoring section for different TBM weights.
 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171 169

the larger decrease of the settlements at some distance
behind the TBM in Fig. 15(a)).
Fig. 17(a) shows that an increase of the TBM weight
causes only a small increase of the lining pressure at the
invert. Accordingly, relatively small changes can be ob-
served for the ring normal force (Fig. 17(b)) and the
bending moment slightly increases (Fig. 17(c)). It was
further noticed from the simulation results that the
influence of the TBM weight on the shield skin frictional
force and consequently on the sum of the jack forces is
negligible.
3.6. Taper of the shield skin
As shown in Fig. 18, an increase of the taper of the
shield skin causes a considerable increase of the com-
puted surface settlements. In tunnelling practice, a ta-
pered shield skin is used to enable a good steering
behaviour of the TBM in particular for curved driving
paths. However, the simulation results indicate that
the taper has a negative influence on the surface settle-
ments. Further investigations could reveal to what ex-
tent a taper of the shield skin is necessary for the
realisation of curved driving paths in soft and stiff soils.
Fig. 19 shows that for a larger taper a larger tilt angle of
the TBM is necessary to keep the prescribed driving
path. A larger taper causes a larger stress release in
the soil. Hence, a decrease of the lining pressure
(Fig. 20(a)) and a decrease of the ring force
(Fig. 20(b)) are predicted in the simulations. Because
the difference between the lining pressure at the spring-
line and the lining pressure at the crown and invert
slightly decreases, a small decrease of the bending mo-
ment can be observed (Fig. 20(c)). According to
Fig. 20(d), a smaller uplift of the tunnel tube is predicted
for a larger taper. The larger stress release in the soil is
associated with a smaller shield skin friction. It leads to
a slight decrease of the jack forces: For the three TBMÕs
with a taper of 3, 6 and 9 cm, the predicted sums of the
jack forces are 8.8, 8.5 and 8.4 MN, respectively.

Fig. 18. Computed surface settlements in point A of the monitoring section for different tapers of the shield skin.

Fig. 19. Computed TBM movement during the tunnel advance for different tapers of the shield skin: (a) vertical deviation and (b) tilt angle.
170 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171
Fig. 20. (a) Computed lining pressure in the monitoring section at time t = 1; (b) normal force in the monitoring section at t = 1; (c) bending
moment in the monitoring section at t = 1 and (d) uplift of the tunnel lining in the monitoring section for different tapers of the shield skin.
4. Conclusions
For a shield-driven tunnel advance in homogeneous,
overconsolidated, soft, cohesive soil below the ground
water table, the influence of the face support pressure,
the grouting pressure and the TBM design has been ana-
lysed by means of numerical sensitivity studies based on
an advanced three-dimensional simulation model for
shield tunnelling. The results of the presented analyses
demonstrate the complexity of the various interactions
involved in shield tunnelling. The findings of the studies
are as follows:
 For the face pressure, the grouting pressure, the
length and the taper of the TBM a strong influence
on the surface settlements has been detected. The
influence of the TBM weight is less significant. It
was shown that the trailer loads only cause a small,
temporary (elastic) contribution to the settlements.
 While the influence of the face pressure, the grouting
pressure, the trailer weight and the length of the TBM
on the necessary tilt of the TBM during the advance
is negligible, the influence of the taper of the shield
skin cannot be neglected and the influence of the
TBM weight is considerable.
 Among the analysed parameters, the grouting pres-
sure and the length of the shield machine have been
identified as relevant factors concerning the radial
loading, the normal force and the bending moment
in the cross-section of the tunnel lining. The face pres-
sure, the taper of the shield skin and the TBM weight
are of less importance. The trailer loads only have a
local influence on the stresses in the lining. The face
pressure and the TBM length have the most impor-
tant influence on the sum of the jack forces and, con-
sequently, on the axial normal force in the tunnel
lining, while the influence of the grouting pressure,
the trailer weight, the TBM weight and the taper of
the shield skin is small enough to be neglected.
Although the decrease of the settlements with increas-
ing face pressure or grouting pressure are usually ac-
cepted phenomena, all the results refer to the
investigated situation and cannot be applied generally
without further considerations. For instance, the influ-
ence of various parameters is expected to depend
strongly on the soil behaviour. Therefore, more general
statements can be derived only after further detailed
studies.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port of this work by the German National Science
Foundation (DFG) under contract ME 1848/4.
 T. Kasper, G. Meschke / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 21 (2006) 160–171
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