654321brahms Op.100 Pacing Scenarios

Society for Music Theory
Pacing Scenarios: How Harmonic Rhythm and Melodic Pacing Influence Our Experience of
Musical Climax
Author(s): Austin T. Patty
Source: Music Theory Spectrum, Vol. 31, No. 2 (Fall 2009), pp. 325-367
Published by: {oupl} on behalf of the Society for Music Theory
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MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:16 PM Page 325
Pacing Scenarios: How Harmonic Rhythm and Melodic Pacing

Influence Our Experience of Musical Climax
austin t. patty
This paper reconsiders the commonly held assumption that acceleration to a fast rate of harmonic
or melodic change creates tension, particularly at points of climax, and that deceleration helps cre-
ate relaxation afterward. Challenges to this assumption are presented: deceleration just before a
climax causes tension to mount; acceleration just after a climax conveys a sense that tension is re-
leased. I propose a set of pacing scenarios, each of which pairs acceleration or deceleration with in-
tensification preceding, or abatement following a climax. Excerpts from late nineteenth-century
works illustrate the energetic and kinetic qualities of each pacing scenario. Normative and non-
normative successions of pacing scenarios are defined and their formal roles within the first move-
ment of Brahms’s A Major Violin Sonata are explored.
Keywords: pacing, climax, harmonic rhythm, motives, deceleration, nineteenth-century music,

form, Brahms
n discussions of musical climax, writers tend to as- intensity; while descending pitches, softer dynamics, slower
I sume that melodies and harmonic progressions con-

tribute to musical climaxes by speeding up and then
slowing down. Acceleration, they assert, causes tension to
rates of motion, and so on, lead toward relaxation, repose,
and cessation” (1989, 209). Thus, acceleration, a change to a
“faster rate of motion,” is one means of increasing the level of
build toward a climax, and deceleration causes tension to dis- intensity, and deceleration, a change to a “slower rate of mo-
sipate following a climax. For instance, Leonard B. Meyer, tion,” is a means of decreasing intensity and producing a
discussing climaxes, writes that “gradually rising pitches, in- sense of relaxation.1
creasingly loud dynamics, faster rates of motion, and a growth The assumption that acceleration to a fast pace heightens
in the number of textural strands heighten excitement and tension and that deceleration to a slow pace lessens tension
1 A number of authors clearly express this notion that a fast pace creates
I am most grateful to David Headlam for his helpful comments on an increased tension and a slow pace creates decreased tension. For in-
early draft of this paper. I also wish to thank the two anonymous read- stance, Joseph P. Swain (2002, 98), writing on the topic of harmonic
ers for their valuable recommendations, which inspired extensive revi- rhythm, writes that “motion creates musical tension, and the faster the
sions. Previous versions of this paper were read at meetings of the motion (the more changes per unit of time) the greater the tension.”
Music Theory Society of New York State in 2007 and the Society for Wallace Berry (1975, 9) states that, when rhythmic units of any kind
Music Theory in 2007. Some of its material is based on the author’s undergo “progressive or recessive shortening or lengthening (accelera-
dissertation (Patty 2006). tion, deceleration),” they are “expressing intensification and release.”
325 on Sat, 12 Sep 2015 16:28:24 UTC

This content downloaded from 160.75.2.183
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:16 PM Page 326
326 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)
64 fortissimo in measures 56–61). Meanwhile, the chord pro-

gression decelerates from a pace of one chord per 2 beats
(in measures 52–54) as the dominant of B major is ex-
example 1. A rhythmic succession involving acceleration panded for six bars in measures 55–60. During the expan-
followed by deceleration sion of the dominant, the surface-level alternation between
the six-four and seventh chords above the F pedal tone
maintains the pace of one chord per 2 beats until a deceler-
makes a good deal of sense if we isolate rhythmic effects and
ation occurs in measures 59–60, where no chord change oc-
keep other musical parameters, such as dynamic level and
curs for 8 beats. After the climax arrives in measure 61, the
melodic register, constant. For instance, try clapping the
chord progression accelerates to one chord per measure
rhythm in Example 1 at a consistent dynamic level. As you
(4 beats). Thus, the pace of harmonic change is slowest just
clap, you probably feel tension increase through the arrival of
before the climax, both at the surface and within a slightly
the quarter-note in measure 3 and decrease after that point.
deeper-level harmonic progression. The effect of decelera-
In fact, you may find it difficult to avoid adding a crescendo
tion, however, is not the restoration of a calmer, less intense
in measure 2 and a diminuendo in measure 3 in response to
state; nor does it detract from the intensification due to the
this sense of intensification and relaxation.2
melodic ascent and the crescendo. Instead, the deceleration
The assumption that acceleration produces tension and
causes tension to build. It magnifies our anticipation of the
deceleration produces relaxation encounters serious diffi-
upcoming climax.
culties, however, when we leave the controlled environment
Passages such as Example 2 indicate that tension is asso-
of the laboratory, where rhythm can be isolated from other
ciated with deceleration and resistance as well as with accel-
musical parameters, and hear how accelerations and decel-
eration and activity. In fact, the notion of psychological ten-
erations interact with changes in other musical parameters
sion may be linked to physical tension, the strain that results
within real-life musical examples. For instance, decelera-
from an object being stretched beyond its normal length. In
tion precedes the final and most prominent climax in
Example 2, tension results from the fact that chords are
Isolde’s “Transfiguration” from Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde,
stretched beyond their expected durations and thus delay the
Act 3, Scene 3 (provided in Example 2). In this context de-
arrival of the climax.
celeration does not cause tension to decrease, but to increase.
Leading up to the climax in measure 61, the uppermost
climaxes, musical parameters that contribute to
notes in the orchestra ascend (the relevant notes are circled
them, and interaction between parameters
in the example) and there is a crescendo (from pianissimo to
It is well known that many musical parameters are capa-
ble of contributing to the patterns of escalating and dimin-
2 The sense of tension and relaxation in performing this passage is prob- ishing tension that form a climax, but there is little discus-
ably due in large part to the greater energy, both mental and kinetic,
sion of how these parameters interact with one another.
needed to execute the quick succession of eighth-notes as compared to,
say, the slower succession of dotted halves. Perhaps a listener can share
Descriptions of musical climax give the misleading impres-
this sense because more mental energy is needed to attend to the claps sion that each contributing musical parameter has a simple
as they speed up and because the kinetic energy exerted by the per- and direct influence on our perceptions of climaxes. Several
former may be experienced vicariously. authors use an “intensity curve” such as the one shown as
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:16 PM Page 327
pacing scenarios: how harmonic rhythm and melodic pacing influence our experience of musical climax 327
52

rau - schen, soll ich ath - men, soll ich lau - schen? Soll ich

4 6 4 6 6 4 6
2 2 5 3 4
B: V IV V IV Gr V
55

24

schlür - fen, un - ter tau - chen? Süss in Düf - ten mich ver - hau - chen? In dem

24

cresc.

24

7 6 7 6 7 6
3 4 5 4 5 4
2

58
4 44

wo - gen - den Schwall, in dem to - nen - den Schall, in des Welt -
2
4

4
4
ff

2 4

4 4

64 7
53

3

common tone 7
V IV 6 5
example 2. Wagner, Tristan und Isolde, Isolde’s Transfiguration, measures 52–63
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 328
capable of contributing to an intensity curve “establish con-

tinuums . . . of tension and repose—that is, louder/softer,
faster/slower, thicker/thinner, higher/lower” (209). The table
shown as Example 4 reproduces Meyer’s list of continuums
(column 1), identifies the musical parameter associated with
each continuum (column 2), and notes the kinds of change
thought to represent intensification and abatement within
Intensification Climax Abatement each parameter (column 3). For instance, the louder/softer
Intensity/Tension: increases peaks decreases
continuum is the parameter of dynamic level, within which
crescendos are intensifications and diminuendos are abate-
example 3. The intensity curve ments. Similarly, the faster/slower continuum is the parame-
ter of pace, within which accelerations are intensifications
Example 3 to model climaxes.3 The model consists of three and decelerations are abatements.5
phases: intensification, during which tension increases; climax, To the extent that authors address the topic of interaction
when tension reaches a peak; and abatement, during which between musical parameters, it seems that intensifications
tension diminishes, producing a sense of relaxation.4 The within individual parameters, including acceleration within
intensification and abatement phases of the intensity curve are the parameter of pace, sum together to form the intensifica-
the result of intensification and abatement in individual tion within an intensity curve. Both Meyer and Kofi Agawu
musical parameters. Meyer states that musical parameters devote attention to musical climaxes and to the parameters
that contribute to them but do not address the issue of inter-
3 This pattern of growth and decline has been known by a variety of
action between musical parameters. Meyer lists parameters
names. Berry (1975) uses the term “intensity curve” (see his discussion that support an interpretation of an intensity curve while
of the term on page 4, for instance); “dynamic curve” is used by Ratner other parameters go unmentioned.6 Agawu points to either
(1966, 314–15) and subsequently by Meyer (1989, 311); Childs (1977,
195) uses “narrative curve” to describe an archetypal pattern in the
“western European intellectual and cultural tradition” of increasing in- 5 As I shall discuss later, pace is a multidimensional parameter. Pace is
tensity, climax, and then resolution or relaxation, and Agawu (1984, the rate of harmonic, melodic, or some other kind of change; therefore,
163–66) adopts the term “narrative curve” from Childs. multiple paces can be articulated simultaneously. This is true of other
Other terms arise in the work of the early twentieth-century theo- parameters as well. For instance, when there are two or more melodies,
rists whose perspectives are described in Rothfarb (2002). Theorists registral ascents and descents can coexist.
such as August Halm, Ernst Kurth, Hans Mersmann, Arnold Schering, We could easily add other parameters to the table in Example 4. For
and Kurt Westphal all conceive of music as possessing energy that is instance, we could add a “level of dissonance” parameter, in which in-
manifest in processes of tension and release. For instance, Kurth uses creasing dissonance is intensification and decreasing dissonance (in-
the concept of Kraftwelle, or force-wave, in his analysis of form in creasing consonance) is abatement.
Bruckner. Local waves accumulate energy until a Gipfelwelle (an “apex 6 For instance, consider Meyer’s discussion of climaxes in Isolde’s
wave”) discharges the accumulated tension. Similarly, Westphal con- “Transfiguration” from Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, Act 3, Scene 3,
ceives of form in terms of a Verlaufskurve, a “processive curve,” to which which he uses to illustrate intensity curves in Style and Music (1989,
many processes of dynamic escalation and attenuation may contribute. 311–25). He identifies three main climaxes, in measures 1, 44, and 61,
4 The intensification phase of the intensity curve can subdivide into examined in Example 2. Acceleration contributes to the intensification
smaller, nested instances of the curve. leading to the first of these climaxes but not to the latter two climaxes.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 329
Continuums of Parameters Changes in Intensity:

Tension/Repose Intensification Abatement
Louder/Softer Dynamic level Crescendo Decrescendo
Faster/Slower Pace Acceleration Deceleration
Thicker/Thinner Textural Density Growing increasingly Growing increasingly

dense sparse
Higher/Lower Melodic register Melodic ascent Melodic descent
example 4. Some continuums of tension and repose, the musical parameters associated with them, and their
potential contributions to intensity curves
acceleration or deceleration in support of intensification pre- within other parameters, is “compensatory”: the deceleration,
ceding a climax but provides no discussion of the seeming as a kind of abatement, counteracts the intensification.8 This
contradiction in this stance.7 Wallace Berry, on the other suggests a kind of arithmetic in which abatement in a musi-
hand, is quite explicit about how parameters interact. For cal parameter serves as a negative intensification that, when
him, deceleration that occurs during a trend of intensification added to intensification in another parameter, diminishes the
effect of that intensification.
Contrary to Berry’s viewpoint, however, deceleration
The deceleration into the third and most prominent climax goes with- does not detract from intensification due to other parame-
out comment because Meyer’s focus is on the parameters in which in- ters; rather, deceleration during the intensification phase of
tensification occurs. For Meyer, deceleration can support a reading of an intensity curve contributes to the mounting tension. In
abatement, but not of intensification. Example 2, we found that changes within several musical
7 For instance, in discussing the opening of the first movement of
parameters—including an ascent in melodic register, an
Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in F Minor, op. 2, no. 1, Agawu (1982, 64)
notes the “stretto effect” that results as the two-bar units of measures
1-4 are compressed into one-bar units in measures 5 and 6 and that 8 The word “counteractive,” which Berry (1975, 4) uses in introducing
leads to a climax in measure 7. The “easing of the tempo” after the cli- his concept of compensatory parameters, seems to capture his meaning
max creates a “release of tension.” In the second movement of op. 2, no. better than does the term “compensatory.” A good illustration of “com-
1, however, Agawu notes that the melody decelerates due to rhythmic plementary” and “compensatory” relationships between parameters is
augmentation: sixteenth-notes in measure 4 give way to eighth notes in his analysis of the fourteenth variation from Beethoven’s Thirty-three
measure 5, and then to quarter-notes in measure 6. “The quarter-note Variations on a Waltz of Diabelli, Op. 120, measures 1–8 (1975, 313–15).
motion serves to prolong the tension before and during the highpoint,” Berry first notes acceleration at two levels of harmonic rhythm, and
he writes (66). Thus, Agawu finds that either acceleration or decelera- then he identifies several complementary parameters and two compen-
tion may contribute to the tension at a climax. satory parameters.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 330
increase in dynamic level, and deceleration in the pace of Intensification Abatement

harmonic change—combine to produce intensification into
the climax, and in this context deceleration becomes a source Acceleration Surge Tumble
of intensification, precisely the opposite effect from a decel-
Deceleration Struggle Settle
eration heard in isolation. Later, we will also find that accel-
eration in the context of the abatement phase of an intensity
curve does not counteract the abatement; heard as a release example 5. The four main pacing scenarios. Acceleration
of tension, the acceleration promotes a sense of relaxation. and deceleration combine with patterns of intensification
We need an alternative to Berry’s view of “compensatory” and abatement and thereby convey a variety of energetic
musical parameters, particularly when pace is involved.9 or kinetic qualities.
i. pacing scenarios
I will refer to a particular combination of a change in pace
I propose that we free acceleration and deceleration from
with a change in intensity as a “pacing scenario.” The labels
any a priori associations with intensification or abatement. In
provided in the table (surge, struggle, tumble, and settle) are
what follows, “intensification” and “abatement” will refer to
meant as rough characterizations of the effects of the pacing
phases within an intensity curve, not to changes within a single
scenarios.
parameter. Deceleration, as well as acceleration, may occur in
The two pacing scenarios in the left column involve in-
combination with intensification; acceleration, as well as decel-
tensification and occur prior to a climax. In a “surge” sce-
eration, may occur in combination with abatement. In the table
nario, acceleration combines with intensification. Here the
shown as Example 5, pace changes (acceleration or decelera-
music seems to exhibit an overwhelming surge of energy as
tion) combine with intensity changes (intensification or
the pace and the intensity both increase toward the climax.
abatement) to produce the four scenarios within the table.10
In a “struggle” scenario, by contrast, deceleration combines
with intensification into the climax. As deceleration within a
9 The focus here is on pace and its interactions with other parameters, struggle scenario delays the arrival of the climax, it seems as
but a similar problem arises in the case of melodic register. If other pa- if effort is expended against opposition that hinders the
rameters are held constant, a melody that ascends and then descends music’s progress toward the climax.
will create intensification and abatement, as we might expect; however, In Emotion and Meaning, Meyer (1956, 14–35) takes up
if a melodic descent is accompanied by a crescendo, the melodic de- John Dewey’s idea that a person is likely to respond emotion-
scent does not detract from intensification due to the crescendo. ally or to look for meaning in situations in which an antici-
Instead, the melodic descent participates in the intensification.
pated event is not forthcoming (Dewey 1939). Meyer suggests
Sometimes such an intensifying melodic descent happens within an
upper-voice melody, but it is especially common in bass lines that par- that in music, expressive meaning derives from moments
ticipate in stepwise expanding wedge patterns, in which the uppermost
voice ascends while the bass descends (as in Example 2). In these situa-
tions it is also remarkable that the simultaneous registral ascent and de- before abatement occurs. At other times intensification leads to a the-
scent do not cancel each other’s effects. matic statement and abatement comes at the end of that statement. In
10 As I use the terms, intensification and abatement do not always sur- this situation an intensity curve may extend over a large section of a
round a singular climactic moment. Sometimes the climax is repeated musical work.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 331
when an established pattern gives rise to an expectation for a Intensification results from a crescendo and from registral
particular continuation but the pattern is interrupted and the ascents, perhaps most prominent in the first violin part, but
expectation denied, at least temporarily. I am suggesting that in all other parts of the orchestra as well. The chords change
when deceleration delays progress toward a climax, listeners twice per bar throughout the intensification and thus do not
attach special meaning to the intensification that precedes contribute a pace change to the surge scenario; acceleration
the climax. The deceleration, combined with intensification, is palpable, however, in the quickening succession of motives
conveys a sense that that the music moves with strenuous ef- within both the string and the brass sections. In the first vio-
fort toward the climax. lin part, the onsets of motives occur every 2 bars in measures
Before going on to the two scenarios in the right column 62–66 and thus establish a pace of 1 motive per 2 bars, or 1⁄ 2
of the table, I will illustrate surge and struggle scenarios using e/b (see the statements of motive a1, beginning with the pick-
musical examples. As we examine the examples of surge and ups to measures 63 and 65, and the first statement of motive
struggle scenarios that follow, it will be evident that the sense b, beginning with the pickup to measure 67). The first violins
of acceleration and deceleration may derive from various accelerate to 1 e/b as a new statement of motive b appears
sources. Like the phases of intensification and abatement every bar in measures 67–70. The sense of acceleration is re-
within intensity curves, accelerations and decelerations within inforced by the succession of motives in the brass section.
pacing scenarios are the net result of changes within one or The trumpets imitate the strings by stating motive a1 (start-
more parameters. Pace, as the rate at which events occur, can ing with the pickup to measure 64 and to measure 66) and
be articulated by a melody, by a chord progression, or by some adopting the pace set by the strings, 1⁄ 2 e/b.12 In measures
other series of related events. I will express pace in terms of 67–70, where the brass section presents overlapping state-
events per bar (e/b), where the events may be melody notes, ments of motive a2 (motive a1 without the pickup note), the
melodic motives, or chords, for instance. By “bar” I mean the series of motives in the brass accelerates to 1 e/b. Acceleration
length of a notated bar. Pace cannot be based on a count of in the successions of motives within the strings and brass, ac-
events present between successive bar lines since a chord pro- centuated by the animando marking, imbue the intensifica-
gression in which chords extend across the notated bar lines tion into the climax on the downbeat of measure 71 with a
can still articulate a pace of 1 e/b even though two chords are sense of irresistible energy and forcefulness, labeled a “surge.”
present in between successive bar lines. I will return to the Another surge scenario occurs in Example 7, a passage
issue of pace and the parameters that may articulate it after from Liszt’s Piano Sonata in B minor, but this time chords,
first illustrating the pacing scenarios shown in Example 5. not motives, are the main source of acceleration preceding
the climax. The music moves with increasing forcefulness
i.1 surge and struggle scenarios and speed to a climax on the downbeat of measure 55, where
the second main theme of the sonata makes an appearance.
Surge Scenarios. In Example 6, a passage from the fourth Intensification results from crescendos (beginning in mea-
movement of Tchaikovsky’s Pathétique Symphony, a surge sures 48 and 51 and reinforced by a hairpin in measure 54)
scenario in measures 67–70 leads to a climax in measure 71.11 and from registral ascents in the bass and in the arpeggiations
11 Measures 63–71 of Example 6 present the second theme of the move- 12 We could also combine the string and brass streams into one composite
ment. In this, the last of four successive statements of the theme, the stream of motives with a pace of 1 e/b in measures 63–66. Either way,
theme rises to its most powerful climax. we find acceleration between measures 63–66 and measures 67–69.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 332
a1 a1 b b
animando
Vlns.

(62)
3
4

cresc.
a1 a1 a2
3 !
Trpts.

Hns.
4

3
4
cresc.
#6
D: I V 43

vii 7 iii iii vi 43 V

vii 7 iii iii V 65 IV ii6 V 65 V
b b b b' c
Più mosso

68

ff "
a2 a2 a2 a2

Hns.

Trpts. Trpts.

ff
"

ff "
iii 6 V 65 vi IV 6 V 65 $VII V6

vii 65 vi vi6
example 6. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 6 in B minor, fourth movement, measures 63–81
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 333
c c
stringendo c c

73
% %

sempre "
% %

$VII 6 6
4
c c c c c c

Vivace

78
(
%

%

& "
% % (
'

6 6
4 "
example 6. [continued ]
played by the right hand. The harmonic progression con- The sense of acceleration in Example 7 also stems from
tributes to the surge scenario by accelerating from 2 to 4 e/b harmonic motion at a slightly deeper level, in which pace is
in measure 51. The initial pace of 2 e/b is set in measures articulated by a series of expanded triads in measures 45–50.
45–50, where each measure begins with a triad and changes The triads E minor, F major, and A major are each embell-
to a fully diminished seventh chord on the third beat. After ished by neighboring and passing fully-diminished seventh
accelerating in measure 51, the progression maintains the chords. For instance, D°7 in measure 45 serves as a neighbor
faster pace of 4 e/b up to the climax on the downbeat of chord to the E minor triad in measures 45–46, and G°7 in
measure 55.13
My ear is drawn away from the notated meter by motive a, resulting

13 The pacing of the chord changes is complicated by syncopation be- in a metrical shift of an eighth note in measure 45. Although the pas-
tween arpeggiations and motive a, which moves by step in parallel sage in measures 51–53 is ambiguous, the arpeggiations usually sound
thirds. The arpeggiations change chords on the notated beats through- syncopated to me because of my tendency to entrain to motive a. I shift
out the passage, while motive a projects chord changes an eighth note back to the notated meter in measure 54 as the parallel thirds jump in
later in measures 45–53. Syncopation ends in the last three beats of “early,” on beat 2 of measure 54, and the syncopation ends. The early
measure 54, where the arpeggiations and motive a’s rising thirds move entrance of the third A–C creates a sudden and momentary accelera-
in tandem toward the climax. tion in metrical accents a few beats prior to the climax.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 334
) a a

m.s.
44
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
) $ $ $ $ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $$
E $m
D 7
a
E $m G 7 a
a a a

47
$

$ $ $ $ $ $
cresc.
$ $

$ $ $

$ $
$$ $

F
a
G 7 a
F
B 7
a
A$
G 7
a

$

$ $
50
$
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $

$ $ $
più agitato e crescendo
$ $

$

a a a a a
A$ G 7 A$ A B C D E F G
example 7. Liszt, Sonata for Piano in B minor, measures 44–56
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 335

) ↓
↓ $ ↓

53
$$ $
) $
$

$
)
ff $ ↓
) $ ↓ ↓

$ $ % $

A B

C D
E F G Am B$ E$ B$
measure 46 serves as a passing chord to the next triad, F gives way in measure 54 to a chain of parallel thirds that as-
major in measures 47–48. Since embellishment delays the cend to the climax. It is therefore acceleration in harmonic
arrival of the next triad until 2 bars later, the triads occur at a progressions, both at the surface level and at a slightly deeper
pace of 1 chord per 2 bars, or 1⁄ 2 chord per bar. This slow level, that create the surge in Example 7.
pace casts in sharp relief the faster pace of harmonic change
starting in measure 51, beat 2. It would be an apples-to-or- struggle scenarios
anges comparison, however, to assert acceleration between We have witnessed two examples in which accelerations
the slow succession of embellished chords in measures 45–50 in successions of chords or motives combine with intensifi-
and the fast succession of surface-level chords in measures cation toward a climax to form a surge scenario. Now I turn
51–55. Instead, I group surface-level chords in measures to passages in which decelerations combine with intensifica-
51–54 in pairs on the basis of the articulations in the left tion to create struggle scenarios. Here, as in surge scenarios,
hand: a slur connects an accented chord to a short, staccato the changes in pace are projected by successions of chords
chord, which makes the first chord sound like a neighbor to and motives.
the second. (I will provide support for such harmonic group- In Example 8, an excerpt from Richard Strauss’s Don
ing later, when I discuss pace in more detail.) The accented Juan, a struggle scenario arises due to a deceleration in the
chords and the 2-chord groups that they initiate occur two harmonic progression prior to the climax in measure 149.
per bar, and the deeper-level harmonic motion thus acceler- This is the last and most prominent climax in a series of
ates from 1⁄ 2 e/b to 2 e/b. three climaxes (with the smaller climaxes located in measure
As mentioned, the pace of motives does not contribute to 123 and measure 135). Intensification into the main climax
the sense of acceleration in Example 7. Motive a, which in- results from a crescendo (from mezzo forte to triple forte in
volves parallel, stepwise motion between two pairs of notes a measures 137 to 149) and also from a chromatic ascent in
third apart, appears in the pianist’s right hand in measure 45 the first violins (from E6 to B6 in measures 146–49).
and then alternates between the left and right hands through Deceleration occurs as the chords in measures 135–48 (F7,
measure 50. By appearing at two-beat intervals, the motive B7, and C7) increase from 2 to 4 to 8 bars in length. The
sets a pace of 2 e/b. Starting in measure 51, motive a appears pace of the chord progression thus decreases from 1⁄ 2 e/b
solely in the left hand, but its pace is unchanged. The motive (1 event per 2 bars) to 1⁄ 4, and then to 1⁄8 e/b. Anticipation
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 336

121

,,

,
,

A 7
A7 D 7

(D 42 = B 7)
G 7

molto espr.

129

+ cresc.

C m A 7
6
5 F7

137

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example 8. Richard Strauss, Don Juan, measures 121–51
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 337
of harmonic change builds as C7 continues for 8 bars with- of a motive and to lengthening melody notes, aspects of
out resolution and as the chromatic ascent in the melody melodic rather than harmonic pacing. Intensification in
seems to be striving toward a chord change. Deceleration in measures 91–94 (the result of a crescendo from pianissimo to
the harmonic progression, in combination with intensifica- fortissimo, a chromatic stepwise ascent in the bass line from
tion due to the melodic ascent and crescendo, conveys a F3 to C4, and an ascent in the first-violin melody) leads to a
sense that strenuous effort is exerted in attaining the climax climax on the downbeat of measure 95. The first violins pre-
and is labeled a “struggle.” sent five successive variations of motive a in measures 91–95.
Another struggle scenario results from the deceleration Each statement of the motive begins with a large leap from a
that we noted earlier in Example 2, the excerpt from grace note up to the highest, and usually the longest note of
Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, where the chord progression is the motive. The highest note in each successive statement is
again most responsible for the sense of deceleration prior to one step higher than the last until motive a5 in measure 94,
the climax. Along with the deceleration, part of what makes which soars up to A6, an octave and a step higher than G5,
the approach to the climax in measure 61 project a sense of the highest note in the previous statement (motive a4 in
struggle is that the music keeps churning with rhythmic ac- measure 94). Deceleration within the struggle scenario oc-
tivity even as deeper-level motion comes to a halt during the curs as motive a expands from 3 to 8 beats in length. The
expansion of the dominant harmony in measures 54–60. four statements of motive a in measures 91–93 are each 3
1
After the dominant pedal begins in the bass midway through beats in length and establish a pace of 1 ⁄ 3 e/b (4 motives per
measure 54, the first violins initially traverse a series of as- 3 bars). As motive a5 stretches out to fill two bars, the suc-
cending minor thirds, as indicated by the slurs added to the cession of motives decelerates to 1⁄ 2 e/b. Only a portion of
score: B–D (measure 54), C–E and D–F (measure 55), this deceleration contributes to the struggle scenario, how-
and then E–G (measure 56). The violin melody then as- ever, since the latter half of the motive occurs after the arrival
cends repeatedly to G in measures 56–60, only rising above of the climax. By the beginning of measure 95, we already
it at the very end of measure 60. Rhythmic activity continues know that the motive is over a bar long, for the highest note
even as the violins seem incapable of ascending past G.14 of the motive lasts the entire duration of measure 94 and
Example 2 thus demonstrates that surface-level activity does does not change on the downbeat of measure 95. Thus, the
not detract from, but rather contributes to the sense of strug- pace drops below 1 e/b by the time the climax arrives on the
gle that arises from deceleration at a deeper level. downbeat of measure 95. The first-violin melody also con-
In contrast to the previous two examples of struggle sce- tributes to the deceleration within the struggle scenario
narios (Examples 2 and 8), Example 9, a passage from the through the pacing of its stream of notes. The notes played
Adagietto in Mahler’s Fifth Symphony, illustrates a struggle by the first violins lengthen from eighths in measure 93 to
scenario in which deceleration is primarily due to expansion over a whole note in measures 94–95, a deceleration from
8 e/b to under 1 e/b.15 The elongation of this note in mea-
sure 94, the second note of motive a5, causes the succession
14 The vocal part also combines rhythmic activity and tonal stasis in mea-
of motives as well as the surface-level stream of notes to de-
sure 59. In measure 59, the voice twice repeats the rhythm of measure
58 while fixating on motion between two notes, C and E. The vocal
celerate. By delaying the arrival of the climax, the deceleration
melody decelerates, however, from 6 notes per bar in measure 59 to 3
notes per bar in measure 60, thus reinforcing the sense of deceleration 15 I am ignoring the grace note notated at the beginning of measure 94, but
conveyed by the harmonic progression. its short duration only accentuates the length of the following note, A6.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 338
Noch langsamer a1 a2 a3 a4

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example 9. Mahler, Symphony No. 5, fourth movement, measures 87–103
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 339
amplifies the continued process of intensification into the scenarios in the right-hand column may involve pace
climax in measure 95. Instead of moving steadily to the cli- changes articulated by melodies or chord progressions.
max, the melody has to “earn” the climax, thus creating a
sense of struggle.16 tumble scenarios
A tumble scenario that involves acceleration within a
i.2 tumble and settle scenarios melody appears in measures 71–81 of Example 6, the passage
from Tchaikovsky’s Pathétique Symphony. We have already ex-
Unlike surge and struggle scenarios, which precede a cli- amined the surge that leads to the climax on the downbeat of
max, the scenarios in the right-hand column in Example 5 measure 71. Following the climax, abatement results from a
follow a climax. In a tumble scenario, the pace increases registral descent to C3 on the downbeat of measure 81, as well
while the intensity decreases, perhaps conveying a sense of as from thinning of the texture as instruments gradually drop
surplus energy being expended after a preceding surge or out from measure 77 up until the off-beat chord in measure
struggle scenario. In a settle scenario, the pace and the in- 81, for which all the instruments enter to create the musical
tensity both diminish, conveying a sense that the music is equivalent of an emphatic punctuation mark. As abatement
gradually making its way to a point of rest and resolution, takes place, the melody accelerates. A succession of motives,
thus “settling down.” As with the surge and settle scenarios each labeled as motive c in the score, accelerates from 1 motive
in the left-hand column in Example 5, the tumble and settle per 2 bars (1⁄ 2 e/b in measures 71–76) to 3 motives per 2 bars
(3⁄ 2 e/b in measures 77–79) to 3 motives per bar (in measures
79–80).17 At the same time, the melody notes accelerate in
16 The contribution of the chord progression to the struggle scenario is
measures 76-80 from eighth notes to eighth-note triplets, six-
not as straightforward as that of the melody since the onsets of chords
in measure 93 are not always as easy to locate as the onsets of motives
teenths, and finally sextuplets. Although the chord progres-
in Example 9. Harmonic change is accomplished in measure 93 by sion does not contribute to the acceleration—it maintains a C
staggered semitonal shifts: the change from F major to an F augmented major triad from measure 73 through measure 81—accelera-
triad on beat 2 of measure 93 results from a semitonal shift from C to tion within the melody prevents the music from “settling
C, and this change seems in some performances to be more prominent down.” The main impression is of the music spilling down
than the change on beat 3, where a semitonal shift from A to B in the from the climax in ever quickening cascades until it comes to
bass line produces a iv7 chord. If we provisionally accept the chords rep-
an abrupt halt in measure 81. The tempo markings, stringendo
resented by Roman numerals below the score as the main harmonic
events in measures 92–94, then the chords increase from 1 to 3 to 4
(in measure 77) and Vivace (in measure 79), by emphasizing
quarter-notes in length and thus contribute to the deceleration within the aforementioned accelerations, heighten the sense that the
the first part of the struggle scenario. Perhaps most striking is the lack intensity built up within the preceding intensification is re-
of harmonic change on the downbeat of measure 94, where motive a5 leased in the flurry of activity following the climax.
begins and thus brings motive a back in phase with the notated meter. The tumble scenario in Example 10, a passage from the
The lack of a chord change here calls attention to the deceleration and second movement of Dvorak’s Cello Concerto No. 2 in B
the struggle scenario. In measure 94, however, the chord progression
minor, demonstrates that harmonic progressions as well as
accelerates with the progression from viiø7/V in measure 94 to the six-
four chord on the downbeat of measure 95. The acceleration creates a
melodies can create a sense of acceleration following a climax.
short surge scenario right before the climax. I will return to the topic of
successions of pacing scenarios, such as this change from a struggle to a 17 There is one deceleration at the end, as the final statement of motive c
surge scenario, later in this article. extends over the bar line into measure 81.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 340
(Adagio ma non troppo)

(23) $ $ (climax)
7
$

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$ $ $

8
dim.
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$
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poco accelerando
Tempo I
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example 10. Dvorak, Cello Concerto No. 2 in B minor, second movement, measures 24–32
Abatement within this tumble scenario results from diminu- the harmonic progression to determine the pacing scenario.
endos and from a descent in the cello melody in measures As in the tumble scenario from Tchaikovsky’s Pathétique
28–32. Simultaneously, the harmonic progression accelerates Symphony (Example 6), a tempo marking, in this case poco
from 1 e/b in measure 28, to 2 e/b in measure 29, and then accelerando, reinforces the sense of acceleration within the
to 3 e/b in measures 30–31. The harmonic progression is tumble scenario, and once again, acceleration in combination
mainly responsible for the sense of acceleration within this with abatement conveys a release of tension.
tumble scenario since the main melody, played by the solo
cello, maintains a consistent pace of 3 e/b with its statements settle scenarios
of a two-note motive throughout measures 29–32. The Having shown how both melodic and harmonic pacing can
countermelody in the flutes also does not display a trend of create the sense of acceleration within a tumble scenario, I
acceleration or deceleration in these measures, thus leaving turn now to examples in which melodic and harmonic pacing
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 341
create the sense of deceleration within settle scenarios. A set- Deceleration occurs as the tonic triad in E minor, which
tle scenario involving deceleration in a melody appears in appears simultaneously with the climax on the downbeat of
Example 9, the excerpt from Mahler’s Fifth Symphony, from measure 305, lasts for a total of 24 bars; previous to this ex-
measure 95 to the end of the movement. Earlier, we found tended tonic chord, the harmonic progression maintains a
that a struggle scenario precedes the climax on the downbeat pace of 1 chord per bar (measures 301–04). The gestures in
of measure 95. The melodies in the first violins and in the the first violins, both the ascending flourishes immediately
double basses begin the abatement that follows by descend- before climax and the shimmering, slow descent after the cli-
ing from the climax. Diminuendos and resolution from the max, are best heard not as motives, but simply as arpeggiat-
dominant to the tonic harmony add to the abatement in the ing gestures. The deceleration in the rate of arpeggiation
last four bars of the movement. The settle scenario is formed reinforces the harmonic deceleration, which is the primary
from the combination of this abatement with deceleration source of deceleration within the settle scenario. I will have
within successions of motives, in both the first violins and more to say later on about the repeated arpeggiating gestures
the basses. Deceleration results from enlargement of motive in measures 309–312 and the fragmentation of motivic ma-
a: motive a expands in the first violins from 2 to 6 bars in terial in the clarinet in measures 317–20. The point I wish to
length (compare motives a6 and a7 in measures 96–103), emphasize here is that the grand harmonic deceleration and
and expands in the basses from 2 to 7 bars in length (com- the deceleration in the rate of arpeggiation, in combination
pare motives a8 and a9). The deceleration in the statements with abatement, gradually usher in state of calm, and in
of motive a are directly related to deceleration in the notes doing so form a settle scenario.
that form that motive. For instance, the accented notes
played by the basses in measure 96 as part of motive a8 i.3 pace and some events that articulate it
(C–A–G) become half notes when they appear an octave
lower in measures 98 and 99 as part of motive a9. The de- In the examples of surge, struggle, tumble, and settle
celerations in the succession of motives and in the surface- scenarios presented so far, it is series of melodic or har-
level streams of melody notes contribute to the sense that monic events that articulate acceleration or deceleration
the music is gradually winding down and coming to a close, within the pacing scenario. Although listeners may attend
a settle scenario.18 to the pacing of many other kinds of musical events as well,
Another settle scenario occurs in measures 307–20 of I consider the pacing of melodic and harmonic events to
Example 11, a passage from the fourth movement of be most responsible for a sense of acceleration or deceler-
Dvorak’s Ninth Symphony, but this time the pacing scenario ation within pacing scenarios.19 Example 12 presents some
involves deceleration primarily in a harmonic progression. melodic and harmonic events organized by level. At the sur-
Abatement following a climax in measure 305 is due to a face level, a melody consists of a succession of individual
registral descent in the first violins from the climactic B6 to notes; these notes may group together to form deeper-level
B3 in measure 309 (beat 2) and also to diminuendos. melodic events such as motives (short, distinctive melodic
18 The marking in the score, “Drängend,” or “pressing forward” (measure 19 For an example of a very broad conception of pace, see Berry (1976,
96) helps create the impression that motives a6 and a8 move quickly as 313–16), who recognizes changes in any musical aspect as a species of
compared to the preceding motive a5, but this does not detract from the rhythm. Berry terms such rhythms “rhythms of structural elements,” or
sense of deceleration that follows in motives a7 and a9. simply “element-rhythms.”
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 342

301
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(Hrn.)

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example 11. Dvorak, Symphony No. 9, fourth movement, measures 301–20
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 343
Shallower levels Deeper levels

Melodic Events Melody notes Groups of notes (eg. motives)
Repetitions of pitches Pitches Notes join together on the basis

of pitch and temporal
proximity, parallelism, etc.
Harmonic Events Chords Groups of chords (eg. harmonic
expansions)
Repetition and change Change of root initiates Groups of chords join together
of inversion each initiate a new event primarily on the basis of
a new event embellishing motion (passing,
neighboring, etc.) in the bass
and other voices.
example 12. Melodic and harmonic events at multiple levels
units that are repeated or varied).20 A harmonic progression harmonic events such as harmonic expansions.22 I will use the
consists, at the surface level, of a succession of individual word “stream” for a series of events at a given level of melodic
chords.21 Chords, too, may group together to form deeper-level or harmonic grouping. The most surface-level harmonic
20 While I rely, following Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1989), on the Gestalt one-dimensional because his analyses either ignore a chord as “passing”
principles of temporal and registral proximity as a main criterion in or represent it with a Roman numeral (2002, 7–8). If a chord is deemed
forming melodic groups, I place a great deal more emphasis on the embellishing, it makes no contribution to the harmonic rhythm and the
grouping principle, “melodic parallelism,” Lerdahl and Jackendoff ’s previous chord might just as well have been sustained. Swain’s solution
sixth grouping preference rule (51). Although they state that “the im- is to present six “dimensions” of harmonic rhythm simultaneously, thus
portance of parallelism in musical structure cannot be overestimated,” allowing many aspects of harmonic rhythm to receive notice without
they admit that their preference rule “still leaves a great deal to intu- privileging Roman-numeral status or excluding passing chords (see
ition” (52). Aural recognition that a parallel exists between two succes- Swain 2002, which builds on Swain, 1990 and 1999). The dimension of
sive sets of notes, as occurs when a motive is immediately repeated or phenomenal rhythm—the rhythm of the simultaneities created by any
varied, seems to be at the very core of the Gestalt approach. Such a par- change in pitch within the texture—demonstrates that the “surface-
allel makes the groups and their pacing easy to perceive. level” can be construed as something other than root motion.
21 Following the lead of Walter Piston (1944, 44), various writers on the 22 Schenker’s view of harmony and elaboration has greatly influenced my
topic of harmonic rhythm, such as Mary Arlin (1965, 6), have defined own understanding of these two interlocking issues, and I use
harmonic rhythm as the rhythm of “root changes.” Piston (1941) also Schenkerian concepts and approaches. For instance, I use Schenker’s con-
discusses “passing chords,” however, thus introducing a hierarchy cept of linear progression to form larger harmonic groups from individual
among roots. Such chords are the product of “melodic tones which chords. The groups of chords that here form events at deeper levels,
happen to harmonize at the moment” but do not “form an independent however, differ from the underlying chords that appear at deeper
chord” (51). Swain criticizes Piston’s conception of harmonic rhythm as Schenkerian levels. The difference is not so great, however, if the levels
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 344
stream in a given analysis will be labeled the “level-0 har- find the “average pace” by counting the number of events
monic stream.” The first level of harmonic grouping will that occur within some span of time or find the “specific
then be labeled as the “level-1 harmonic stream.”23 pace” by tracing every fluctuation. In Example 6, for in-
Pace is the rate at which events occur within a stream. As stance, the “average pace” of the surface-level harmonic
mentioned earlier, I express pace as events per bar (e/b). stream in measures 63–70 is 2 e/b because 2 chords occur
When the pace of a stream fluctuates rapidly, one can either within any given measure. The “specific pace,” by contrast,
captures the fluctuations in pace that occur as the chords al-
of a Schenkerian graph, including the elaboration at shallower levels, ternate between quarter-note and half-note lengths. When
are rightly considered together as a whole. chords occur at the interval of a quarter note (within the 3⁄ 4
The distinction I make between surface-level chords and harmonic meter of Example 6), they articulate a pace of 3 e/b; when
groups is akin to Schenker’s disctinction between Dreiklang and Stufen chords occur at the interval of a half note, they articulate a
in Harmonielehre: “One should not take every triad to be identical to a pace of 11⁄ 2 e/b. The specific pace therefore fluctuates within
Stufe, and must therefore make a distinction between C (for instance)
each measure between a slower pace of 11⁄ 2 e/b and a faster
as the root of a triad, and C as Stufe. For the Stufe forms a higher, more
abstract unit, so that it now and then consumes several harmonies, each
pace of 3 e/b in measures 63–70.
of which may be individually considered as a triad or seventh chord. While I define pace as the number of events that occur
And from time to time several harmonies very closely resemble even per bar length, I recognize that the tempo itself can change,
individual triads or seventh-chords, so that they can under certain con- both as performers respond to tempo indications in the score
ditions clearly express a triad when considered together. Take for in- (for example, accelerando, ritardando) and as they introduce
stance the triads C major–E major–G major: the three must be sub- their own nuances in the timing of events (rubato). The
sumed under the construct of a C triad taken as a Stufe. Thus the Stufe
tempo fluctuations introduced by composers and by per-
protects its higher character in that it incorporates individual phenom-
ena into its own triadic unity” (181).
formers seem typically to correspond to pace changes inher-
A significant difference between the approach found here and that ent in the score. Tchaikovsky’s animando and stringendo
found in many Schenkerian-derived accounts of rhythm is that I will markings in Example 6, for instance, reinforce accelerations
not normalize rhythmic abnormalities at higher levels. For instance, that are built into the melodies as notated.
Carl Schachter (1976), William Rothstein (1989), and Schenker (1979)
himself often omit durations that result from expansions and add dura- i.4 multiple streams and simultaneous
tions to fill out contractions. This reveals a normative model for the
acceleration and deceleration
passage or work at hand, but it also causes a movement’s “basic length”
to differ from its actual length. (See discussions of basic length in
Schachter, 230, and Rothstein, 106–7.) I retain the literal durations of I am mainly interested in surface-level streams and in
events even at deep levels in order to preserve the literal pacing. In ad- streams at the first two levels of melodic and harmonic group-
dition to retaining time spans at deeper levels, I also avoid a second ing because these streams seem most likely to contribute to
kind of “normalization,” the shifting of events to undo rhythmic dis-
placements, such as a chord change that occurs on a second beat when
it was expected on the previous downbeat. Sonata, for instance, each neighboring fully-diminished seventh chord
23 Not all shallow-level events must belong to a group at a deeper level. belongs to the same group as the triad it embellishes. The passing di-
When events of a shallow-level stream combine to form deeper-level minished-seventh chords that occur between successive triads in
groups, subordinate events either join with the events they embellish, Example 7, although subordinate to the flanking triads, do not belong
or else serve as intermediate events, situated between groups but not to the group associated with either triad; neither do they have enough
part of them. In Example 7, the passage from Liszt’s B minor Piano “weight” to initiate a deeper-level harmonic group.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 345
pacing scenarios. Events within deeper-level streams tend to Dvorak’s New World Symphony, for instance, a series of
encompass too many measures to be heard as leading toward suffixes extend the preceding group by repeating the end of
or away from a climax. To participate in a pacing scenario, a that group. In the first violin part, the last four notes of the
change of pace must be associated with a change in intensity, arpeggiation that descends from the climax, B4–G4–E4–B3,
either intensification or abatement. A pace change is closely recur three times in measures 309–12 (with an interrupted
associated with an intensity change when it is articulated by fourth statement in measure 312). Similarly, the second half
events that occur during the intensity change. Level-3 of the 2-bar motive played twice by the clarinets in mea-
streams (at the third level of grouping) often include events sures 313–16 returns four times as a suffix in measures
that are longer than the intensification or the abatement, 317–20. The suffixes create decelerations by extending
thus leaving shallower-level streams to contribute to the for- events within the level-1 melodic stream and thus contribute
mation of a pacing scenario. to the settle scenario in measures 306–20. In Example 6, the
With melodic and harmonic streams at several levels all excerpt from Tchaikovsky’s Pathétique Symphony, by
potentially contributing to a pacing scenario, simultaneous contrast, none of the melodic groups that follow the cli-
accelerations and decelerations are quite possible. Often, max in measure 71 are subordinate to the preceding mo-
however, no conflict arises because simultaneous streams tive. The foreshortening of melodic groups here is not a
have the same kind of pace change, either acceleration or heard as deceleration, but as acceleration within a tumble
deceleration; the streams all have a steady pace, creating a scenario.
“steady” scenario; or a set of streams have the same kind of Deceleration often trumps acceleration to form struggle
pace change while the others maintain a constant pace or do scenarios as well as settle scenarios. We noted earlier that
not clearly project a pace change. When acceleration and continued surface-level activity is common within struggle
deceleration occur simultaneously, they may either balance scenarios, as occurs in Example 2, the excerpt from Isolde’s
one another, counteracting each other’s effect and creating “Transfiguration.” Example 13, a passage from the first move-
an “ambiguous scenario,” or else one pace change may ment of Mendelssohn’s Symphony No. 5 (“Italian”), presents
trump the other, which seems more common. For instance, a case in which surface-level activity not only continues, but
acceleration often trumps deceleration and forms a tumble accelerates while a deeper-level harmonic stream decelerates.
scenario, as in the excerpt from Tchaikovsky’s Pathétique Deceleration predominates and creates a struggle scenario.
Symphony (Example 6). Harmonic streams decelerate due Example 13 is also interesting because the last portion of the
to a 12-bar expansion of the C major chord in measures intensification is almost entirely due to tension produced by
73–81, but the shallow and deeper-level melodic streams the extension of an unstable harmony, V7/V in A major, not
accelerate and prevent a settle scenario from emerging. The by a crescendo or registral ascent. The initial portion of the
accelerations negate a potential sense of “settling” and create intensification (measures 536–45) is due to crescendos and
a tumble scenario. to the entrances of more and more instruments until all the
Acceleration does not always trump deceleration, how- instruments together present the V7/V chord in measure 546
ever. When acceleration in a shallower-level stream occurs at a fortissimo dynamic level. From that point on, however,
simultaneously with deceleration in a deeper-level stream, intensification derives from the extension of the V7/V chord,
the deceleration will predominate if the activity at the shal- which resolves four measures later (in measure 450). During
lower level serves to elaborate and thereby extend one or the extension of V7/V, the chord progression decelerates
more deeper-level events. In Example 11, the excerpt from from 1⁄ 2 e/b (the pace established in measures 536–45) to 1⁄ 4
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 346

Vln. I

Vln. II Vln. I

536

sempre cresc.
(! ) cresc.

(! ) :
A: V 42 ii ii 6 V 42 I6

vii 42 V
cresc.
Vln. II : : : :
: :

Vla. ff

545

ff

+

:ff :
V7 V V6
vii 7 vi ii 65 V 64
7
5
3 I
example 13. Mendelssohn, Symphony No. 4 in A major, first movement, measures 536–54
e/b, thus creating a struggle scenario in measures 546–49.24 I repetitions of the V7/V chord count as events. The level-1
will refer to the series of chords labeled beneath the score in harmonic stream represents the second of the two types of
Example 13 as the “level-1 harmonic stream” because, even shallower-level harmonic streams shown in Example 12, in
though this is a shallow-level stream, I would like to ac- which each new event is initiated by a change in root; the
knowledge an even shallower-level stream in this passage. level-0 harmonic stream represents the first type, in which
While the level-1 harmonic stream decelerates, acceleration repetitions of chords qualify as harmonic events (see column 1
occurs within the “level-0 harmonic stream,” in which even in the table in Example 12). When the level-0 harmonic
stream accelerates from 1 e/b in measures 546–47 to 2 e/b in
measures 548–49, it seems as if the music is striving to create
24 A tumble scenario follows in measures 550–51: tension abates as V7/V
resolves to the dominant in measure 550 and as the progression then
the impetus needed to resolve the V7/V chord. The combi-
approaches a perfect authentic cadence (in measures 552–55); com- nation of acceleration within the level-0 harmonic stream
bined with this abatement is acceleration in the harmonic progression with deceleration within the level-1 stream conveys a sense
from 1⁄4 e/b to 2 e/b in measures 550–51. that strenuous effort is exerted to overcome resistance on the
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 347
way toward the climax. In this way, the surface-level acceler- support the pace-tension hypothesis. Perhaps these three pac-
ation does not negate the underlying deceleration, but con- ing scenarios—surge, settle, and particular tumble scenarios—
tributes to the sense of struggle. are more normative than struggle scenarios and other tumble
We thus find that a deeper-level deceleration may trump scenarios. In addition, we should consider as normative situa-
a shallower-level acceleration and create either a settle or a tions in which no pace change accompanies an intensity
struggle scenario. In the context of a struggle scenario, accel- change; for the pace-tension hypothesis does not imply that
eration within the shallow-level stream is like the spinning acceleration or deceleration must occur in conjunction with any
wheels of a vehicle: just as a vehicle that cannot establish portion of the intensity curve. Steady-paced intensifications
traction with a road surface expends energy without produc- and abatements, or “steady” scenarios as I refer to them, are
ing forward motion, so the acceleration in the shallow-level also fully consonant with the pace-tension hypothesis.
stream does not produce acceleration in a deeper-level Furthermore, the pacing scenarios that support the pace-
stream. In the context of a settle scenario, acceleration within tension hypothesis may join to form what may be considered
the shallow-level stream is like the whiplash experienced by normative successions of pacing scenarios. In a normative
passengers in a vehicle that suddenly stops: just as the pas- succession, acceleration, if it occurs, produces a fast pace in
sengers are thrown forward as the vehicle decelerates, so ac- one or more streams by the end of the intensification or in
celeration occurs in the shallow-level stream even as the close proximity to the climax, thus associating a fast pace
deeper-level stream decelerates. with the climax; and deceleration, if it occurs, produces a
slow pace in one or more streams near the end of the abate-
ii. successions of pacing scenarios ment that follows the climax. Given these criteria, the suc-
cession <surge–settle> is normative because acceleration
I have devoted the past few pages to making the case that combines with intensification within the surge scenario and
acceleration and deceleration do not always produce tension produces a fast pace at the climax, and then deceleration
and relaxation (respectively), but that pace changes interact combines with abatement within the settle scenario to pro-
with intensity changes to create unique energetic effects, cate- duce a slow pace following the climax. The succession
gorized as pacing scenarios. Although I take issue with the as- <struggle–tumble–settle> also qualifies as normative if the
sumption that acceleration necessarily promotes intensification tumble scenario’s acceleration occurs soon after the climax,
and that deceleration necessarily promotes abatement, it may thus associating a fast pace with the climax. The successions
be that the two pacing scenarios based on this assumption are <steady–settle>, <surge–steady>, <steady–steady> also are
more normative than those that contradict it. I call this as- normative since acceleration, deceleration, or both might be
sumption the “pace-tension hypothesis.” Occurrences of at absent from a normative succession. We can define norma-
least three pacing scenarios could be cited in support of a hy- tive successions as follows:
pothesized correlation between pace and tension. First, when A normative or prototypical succession of pacing scenar-
acceleration contributes to intensification, a surge scenario re- ios involves
sults. Second, when deceleration contributes to abatement, a
settle scenario results. Third, an acceleration that immediately (a) a surge scenario that leads to the climax and/or a
follows the arrival of an intensity peak might be viewed as con- tumble scenario directly following the climax,
tributing to the peak itself. Thus, a tumble scenario that results (b) a settle scenario that occurs near the end of the abate-
from acceleration immediately following a climax could also ment following the climax, and
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 348
(c) the possible substitution of a steady scenario for any pacing scenarios that accompany the main climax in each of
or all of the pacing scenarios mentioned above. the main sections of the exposition (FTG, transition, phrase
1 and phrase 2 of the STG) and in the coda, I will not only
The prototypicality of a succession of pacing scenarios
illustrate various successions of pacing scenarios, but will also
does not depend on frequency of occurrence, although in an
demonstrate the role of pacing scenarios in the context of an
earlier repertoire, frequency might establish a particular suc-
entire movement. I begin by comparing the successions of
cession as prototypical. Our definition of normative succes-
pacing scenarios at the ends of the FTG and the transition
sions finds support, however, in the formal role successions
in the exposition.
of pacing scenarios play within movements. I contend that
movements tend to end with more normative elements
ii. 3 the non-normative succession of pacing scenarios
rather than abnormal ones as a means of creating closure. If
at the end of the ftg and its replacement by a
this contentiontion is correct, then a concentration of nor-
normative succession in the transition
mative successions at ends of movements or at the ends of
large formal units, such as an exposition within a sonata-
The FTG and the transition share much the same motivic
form movement, serves as evidence that these successions are
material: they begin with two statements of the primary theme
in fact normative.
and then vary it. The chain of developing variation that
begins in the FTG resumes within the transition, and the
ii.2 successions of pacing scenarios within the first variation of material from the FTG allows the transition
movement of brahms’s violin sonata in a major to end, not with the non-normative succession <surge–
struggle> that ends the FTG, but with a normative succes-
The first movement of Brahms’s Violin Sonata in A sion, <surge–settle>. The normative succession creates a
major, op. 100, contains normative successions of pacing sce- sense of closure at the end of the transition and counterbal-
narios at the ends of formal units. On a large scale, the coda ances the inconclusiveness of its cadence on the dominant of
forms normative successions by reworking thematic materi- E major. The normative succession thus helps produce clo-
als that had formerly participated in non-normative succes- sure at the end of the first half of the exposition, just before
sions. On a smaller scale, the exposition of this sonata-form the presentation of new melodic material in the STG.
movement also ends with a normative succession. The
reworking of thematic materials is also evident in the exposi- the non-normative succession of pacing scenarios at
tion: the motives that participate in the non-normative suc- the end of the ftg: <surge–struggle–||>
cession at the end of the first theme group (FTG), are varied The FTG consists of a single phrase in the key of A
to form the normative succession at the end of the transi- major and ends with an imperfect authentic cadence in mea-
tion; the motives that participate in the non-normative suc- sures 20–21. Example 15(c) provides the end of the FTG.
cession at the end of the first phrase of the second theme The final and most prominent climax of the section, on the
group (STG) are varied to form the normative succession at E5 on the second beat of measure 20, is the result of a
the end of the second phrase of the STG, which ends the ex- crescendo and a stepwise melodic ascent (measures 16–20).
position as a whole. As shown in Example 14, the STG divides A surge scenario occurs in measures 16–19, but a struggle
into two phrases on the basis of a cadence in G minor (iii in E scenario occurs immediately prior to the climax in measure
major, the key of the STG). By examining the successions of 20. The surface-level stream of melody notes contributes to
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 349
Exposition 1–87
FTA 1–21 A phrase ending with an IAC in A major and overlapping the
beginning of the transition.
Themes 1A, 1B1, and 1C1
Transition 21–50 A phrase ending on V in E major.
Themes 1A, 1B2, 1B3, and D1
STA 51–87 A period in E major comprised of two parallel phrases.
Phrase 1 51–66 16 measure phrase ending with an IAC in G minor
Themes 2E and Theme 2F1.
Phrase 2 67–87 21 measure phrase ending on V in E major.
Themes 2E, 2F2, and 2G
Development 89–157 Themes 1A and 2G are developed.
Recapitulation 158–219
FTA/trans 158–186 A phrase ending with a HC in A major.
Themes 1A, 1B1, 1B3, and D2
STA 187–219 A period in A major comprised of two parallel phrases.
Phrase 1 187–202 16 measure phrase ending in an IAC in C minor.
Themes 2E and 2F1
Phrase 2 203–219 A phrase with an evaded PAC in A major in mm. 218–219.
Themes 2E, 2F2, and 2G
Coda 219–280
Section 1 219–258 Themes 2F and 2E are developed.
Section 2 259–280 Themes 1A and 1B are developed.
example 14. Form diagram of Brahms, Violin Sonata No. 2 in A Major, first movement
the surge scenario by accelerating from 1 to 3⁄ 2 e/b in mea- struggle scenario. In the level-1 chord progression in mea-
sure 18, early in the intensification. The stream decelerates sures 18–21, V7/II–II–V7–I (in A major), one could con-
back to 1 e/b just before the climax arrives as the note D5 in ceivably argue that II in measure 19 is transformed into iif7
measure 19 extends to 3 beats, or one bar in length, thus on the downbeat of measure 20 by a rising half step in the
elongating the third element of the hemiola in measures bass (B to B), but I hear the B (the bass note of the “iif7”
18–19. The deceleration delays the arrival of the climactic E5 chord) as an anticipation of the following V chord, not as a
until the second beat of measure 20 and creates a struggle chord change at level 1. In this hearing, the expanded II
scenario. A harmonic deceleration also contributes to the chord causes a harmonic deceleration since it delays the V7
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 350
a) Theme 1A
1 3 Allegro amabile

4 ' ' ' '

a1 +
Allegro amabile
3
4

+
3

4

b) Theme 1B 1
a2 a2 a3 a 3'
11

' ' ' '

+

A: IV I6 IV I6 4
3
4
3
c) Theme 1C 1 Transition
1C1 1A
a4 a4 a5 a5 a4 a2 a1
16

' ' ' ' '

Surge Struggle Climax

$
$ $
+

poco cresc.

$
$
ii6 65 7 6
P4 V 7 $II $II V7 I ii 6
example 15. Developing variation in the three themes of the FTG of Brahms, Violin Sonata No. 2 in A Major, first movement
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 351
chord until beat 2 of measure 20 and causes it to coincide We have noted how decelerations of melodic and har-
with the climactic E. Thus, the melody and the chord pro- monic streams create a struggle scenario immediately pre-
gression decelerate just before the arrival of the climax and ceding the main climax of the FTG. Following the climax,
produce a struggle scenario. The performer can call attention abatement is cut short by the entrance of the violin, which
to the deceleration and to the struggle scenario by adding a marks the beginning of the transition on the downbeat of
ritardando in measures 19–20. measure 21 (Example 15[c]). The piano passes the melody to
As shown in Example 15(a)–(c), a chain of developing vari- the violin by playing B at the end of measure 20, a note that
ation leads from motive a1, the opening motive of the move- leads chromatically to the violin’s C in measure 21, thus cre-
ment (Example 15[a]), through motives a2 and a3 in theme 1B ating another statement of motive a (motive a2: E5–B4–C5).
(Example 15[b]), to motives a4 and a5 in theme 1C (Example The C serves as the last note of the FTG and, simultane-
15[c]). Since the transition continues this chain of developing ously, as the beginning of the transition. The performers can
variation and thus creates the normative succession associated help project this motive and lead smoothly from the FTG to
with its main climax, I will briefly trace the motivic develop- the transition by creating continuity in terms of pacing and
ment in the FTG and its effects on the pacing. In measures 11 dynamics: the pacing of quarter notes can form an unbroken
and 12 of theme 1B (Example 15[b]) the first pitch of motive pattern of ritardando into the climax followed by accelerando
a2 is presented alone, without chordal support—the first step in after it, despite the movement of the melody from the piano
a process that separates the first element of motive a from the to the violin; the violinist can present the C in measure 21 as
rest of the motive by various means, such as registral placement an outgrowth of the diminuendo created by the pianist, and
and timbre. In theme 1C, (Example 15[c]) the notes of motive yet present it assertively, as the beginning of a new section.
a4 are distributed between the pianist’s hands with the last two The overlap between sections, which leaves just one beat be-
notes of the motive in the bass (see the notes B4–D2–D2 in tween the climax and the beginning of the transition, makes
measure 16). Acceleration between motives a4 and a5 in theme the abatement following the climax very brief and prevents
1C follows the pattern of acceleration heard in theme 1B, any pacing scenario from emerging. I will represent the ab-
where motive a2 is compressed to form motive a3: the first two sence of a final pacing scenario due to truncated abatement
notes of motive a2 in measure 11, A and E, occur simultane- using the sign for interruption: <surge–struggle–||>. In this
ously in motive a3 in measure 13. In theme 1C, motive a4 in non-normative succession, the fastest pace, ushered in by the
measures 16–17 is truncated from three to two notes to form surge scenario, is not associated with the climax because de-
motive a5 in measures 18–19. The compression of motive a2 in celeration occurs as part of the struggle scenario immediately
theme 1B and the truncation of motive a4 in theme 1C each preceding the climax, and there is no significant deceleration
create an acceleration from 1 e/b to 3 events per 2 bars (3/2 to mark the end of the FTG.
e/b). In theme 1C, the acceleration in the surface-level melodic
stream is directly related to the acceleration in the level-1 the normative succession of pacing scenarios at the
melodic stream because the first note of each motive forms the end of the transition: <surge–settle>
surface-level stream (B4–C5–C5–C5–D5–E5). Thus, although Example 16 provides the score for measures 37–51, in
the distribution of the motive between the pianist’s hands en- which the transition concludes. In contrast to the FTG,
courage the first note of each statement of motives a4 and a5 to which ends with a non-normative succession of pacing sce-
form a surface-level stream, the pacing of that stream is deter- narios, the transition ends with a normative succession:
mined by the pacing of the motives. <surge–settle>. To eliminate the struggle that precedes the
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 352
Surge Climax Settle

Theme 1B 2 1B 3 D1
a7 a7 a'7 a6 a6 w1 w1 w1 c1

37

$
( ) a9
a9 a'9
a'10

( ) ; cresc.

E: i $VI iv i 64 7
V 65 $VII iv 6 V7
= Gr 65
Phrase 1 of the STG

(D 1 ) 2E1
c1 c2 link
45

a2
'

a 10 +
a 10

dim. teneramente

'

dim. +

' '

ii7 V7 I
example 16. Brahms, Violin Sonata No. 2 in A Major, first movement, measures 37–51
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 353
climax in the FTG, the transition further varies motive a. harmonic stream accelerates from a pace of 1 e/b in measures
The main climax of the transition occurs on the downbeat of 39–41 to a peak pace of 3 e/b for the iv6 chord on the last
measure 43. Preceding the climax, an ascent in the violin quarter-note of measure 42, just before the dominant appears.
melody and a crescendo contribute to intensification within the The pacing of the level-1 melodic and harmonic streams
surge scenario in measures 41–42. Following the climax, a two- within the transition thus eliminates the delay in the arrival
octave descent in the violin (to F4 in measure 48), and a of the climax and allows the surge scenario to lead directly to
diminuendo contribute to abatement within the settle scenario. the climax without an intervening struggle.
The settle scenario ends in measure 48 because a registral as- Most performances inject a deceleration in the tempo just
cent occurs in measures 48–50 and links the transition to the before a climax, no matter whether a surge or a struggle sce-
start of the second tonal area, which begins in measure 51. nario precedes it, unless the composer specifically indicates
Melodic and harmonic streams contribute accelerations to otherwise. My recommendation to performers is to consider
the surge scenario preceding the climax. The surface-level accelerating in response to surge scenarios. For the present
melodic stream accelerates from 1 e/b in measures 39–40 surge scenario in Example 16, performers can introduce a
to an average pace of 3 e/b (6 notes per 2 bars) in measures slight ritardando in measures 39–40 to prepare for an
41–42. Motive a, the first and second notes of which are now accelerando in measures 41–42. The tempo can then broaden
played by the violin and piano respectively, continues to influ- out, perhaps starting as early as the F at the end of measure
ence the pacing of the surface-level melodic stream. (Motive 42, for the settle scenario that follows.
a6, B–F–G, in measure 39 of Example 16 is one instance.) Also in contrast to the FTG, which includes no decelera-
Motive w1, a dotted rhythm and an upward leap, articulates a tion and almost no abatement at its end, the transition ends
hemiola with its pace of 3 events per 2 bars (3⁄ 2 e/b) in mea- with a long settle scenario. The settle scenario occurs in mea-
sures 41–42, but as indicated in Example 16, the first note of sures 43–48 of Example 16, immediately following the climax
each statement of motive w1 is also the first note of a state- on the downbeat of measure 43. The level-1 harmonic stream
ment of motive a9. We can therefore understand the hemiola and the level-1 melodic stream both contribute to the sense of
in measures 41–42 as the result of overlaps between state- deceleration within the settle scenario. Earlier, we noted that
ments of motive a9. The overlaps allow the level-1 melodic the iv6 chord in the third beat of measure 42 reaches a pace of 3
stream to accelerate from 1 e/b in measures 39–40 to 3⁄ 2 e/b e/b just before the climax. The chords that follow in measures
in measures 41–42 and to contribute to the surge scenario. 43–46, V7 and ii7 in the key of E major, set a slower pace of 1⁄ 2
Although the last statement of motive a9 in the transition e/b (or 1 event per 2 bars). Simultaneously, the level-1 melodic
extends across a bar line, as does motive a4 in theme 1C in stream decelerates as the pace of the hemiola in measures
measure 20 of the FTG (Example 15[c]), there is no deceler- 41–42, 3⁄ 2 e/b, changes to 1⁄ 2 e/b for motive c in measures
ation or struggle scenario here in the transition. The pattern 43–46.25 The decelerations allow the music to wind down at
of overlapping motives prepares the way for the climactic
note, F6, to begin a new motive just as the last note of motive 25 A note on the melodic grouping: I hypothesize that boundaries be-
tween groups tend to occur when the pace of the next lower stream
a9 occurs on the downbeat of measure 43. The level-1 har-
drops to a local minimum. The idea that a drop to a minimum pace
monic stream also changes its pacing as compared to theme tends to create a group boundary receives some support from Gestalt
1C. In the FTG, the dominant in A major arrives on the sec- psychology’s principle of proximity: a fast pace creates temporal prox-
ond beat of measure 20, but in the transition, the dominant of imity between event onsets, whereas a slow pace, by creating a longer
E major arrives on the downbeat of measure 43. The level-1 inter-onset interval (IOI), puts temporal distance between event onsets.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 354
the end of the transition even though the harmonic goal of the non-normative succession in phrase 1 of the stg:
the transition, the dominant in E major, is not conclusive.26 <struggle-tumble>
The first phrase of the STG ends as shown in Example 17.
ii.4 the non-normative succession of pacing In measures 59–66 a subsidiary theme, theme 2F1, appears
scenarios at the end of the first phrase of the and tonicizes G minor (iii of E major). The main climax ap-
stg and its replacement by a normative succession pears on beat 2 of measure 62. Intensification into the climax
at the end of the second phrase of the stg results from a crescendo (marked in measure 60 and reempha-
sized by a hairpin in measures 61–62) and a registral ascent in
The STG divides into two phrases, each of which presents measures 61–62 from A4 to the appoggiatura G5.27 In addi-
roughly the same succession of motives. The motives are varied tion to this fairly short ascent, a longer ascent occurs over the
within the second phrase of the STG such that the non- three statements of motive d in measures 59-63: A4–C5,
normative succession within the first phrase, <struggle-tum- A4–E5, A4–G5, thus arpeggiating the iif65- chord in G minor.
ble>, is replaced with the normative succession <steady-settle>. Having noted the intensification into the climax, consider
the accompanying decelerations in the level-2 and level-1
harmonic streams. The progression at level 2 of the har-
Lerdahl and Jackendoff apply the Gestalt principle of proximity in assert- monic grouping in measures 58–66 is i–iif6- –V7–i in G5
ing that listeners prefer to locate group boundaries where long IOI’s minor. The initial i chord maintains a previously-established
occur; see their grouping preference rule “GPR2 (proximity),” (1983, 45). pace of 1 e/b, but the stream decelerates to less than 1⁄ 3 e/b
The pacing of notes within the surface-level melodic stream in the present as the iif6-5 chord is expanded for three and 1⁄ 3 bars in mea-
passage supports the grouping of the melody into several appearances of
sures 59–62. Within the level-1 harmonic stream, the iif6-5
motive c because the half-notes on the downbeats of measures 45 and 47,
as long melody notes, each serve as the final element of a melodic group,
chord’s expansion subdivides into three groups, each of
motive c (as well as the first element of the following one). which moves from a downbeat iif6-5 chord to a root-position
Another reason to hear motive c as a group at level 1 of the melodic iif6-5 chord.28 The third group (measures 61–62), however,
grouping is the presence of motive a10 within it. When motive a10 ap- elaborates the basic pattern with the insertion of a passing
pears a third time, in measures 47–48, its relationship to an earlier vari- six-three chord on the third beat of measure 61. The inserted
ant of motive a, motive a2 from measure 11, is especially clear. I hy- chord elongates the pattern, delays the dominant’s arrival
pothesize that a series of melody notes will tend to cohere as a melodic
from the downbeat to beat 2 of measure 62, and thus creates
group if they can be heard as a repetition or a varied repetition, in
whole or in part, of a previously-formed melodic group. In the present
a deceleration just ahead of the climax. The level-1 melodic
case, the varied repetition of motive a provides a connection between stream also decelerates in measure 62 due to B4 and C5, in-
notes that might otherwise have formed separate melodic groups. serted within motive d1 to create motive d2. By creating
26 The presence of small-scale intensifications within the larger trend of more surface-level activity, even while they facilitate deceler-
abatement does not negate the interpretation of a settle scenario. The ations within the level-1 streams, the interpolated melody
chromatic rise from D to E in the violin melody in measure 47, for in-
stance, creates an increase in tension at the beginning of measure 46
and invites the violinist to employ a richer tone and a small swell in dy- 27 Registral ascents and descents, as used here, are not equivalent to linear
namic level, but like an autumn leaf wafting down on gentle breeze, the progressions. Often the melodic highpoint at a climax is a note of em-
music continues its settle scenario despite twists and turns in the bellishment, such as this appoggiatura in measure 62.
melody. The performer can accentuate each nuance of the melody while 28 Here I have assigned changes of inversion to a level-0, or surface-level
at the same time maintaining the larger trend of abatement. harmonic stream.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 355
Theme 2E 2 2F1 Struggle Climax

d1 d1 d2

58 e1
' ' ' '

g1

cresc.

9
Level 1: 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 7 7

5

5

5

4
Level 2: G: i ii
V
Phrase 2 of the STG
Tumble 2E1
e2

63 f1 f1
' ' '

y1 y2 y2 y2 y2 y1
,,

,

+ dim.

8 9 8 7 9 8 8 7 9 8 8 7
4 6 7 7 6 5 4 3 6 5 4 3 6 (5)

3 2 4 3
(V) i V i E: V
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 356
notes and the passing six-three chord help convey a sense e2 and thus creates a slight deceleration in the level-1 melodic
that it requires effort to reach the climax. stream. Once again, shallow-level motion extends a deeper-
As noted earlier, increased surface-level activity preceding level unit, but the deceleration between motive e1 (2.5 bars
a climax often results from the elaboration of deeper-level long) and motive e2 with its extension (2.8 bars) is negligible
entities. Here, one might interpret the dotted rhythm of the compared to accelerations that occur simultaneously within
two B’s in the last beat of measure 61 and two C’s in mea- the level-1 and level-2 harmonic streams; even if acceleration
sure 62 as a compressed form of the double-dotted rhythm were confined to one stream, however, it would prevent the
of the two A’s in measure 61. One could then make a case music from “settling down” and would trump even a very
for a surge scenario on the basis of this acceleration; how- large deceleration in another stream. The level-1 harmonic
ever, to return to the metaphor of a vehicle: there is a lot of stream contributes to the tumble scenario by accelerating in
spinning, surface-level activity, but no acceleration at a measures 65–66, where the progression V7–i in G minor oc-
deeper level. The elaborating surface-level events only delay curs twice. The V chord in measures 64–65 lasts for the
the arrival of the climax and displace the dominant harmony equivalent of one bar, and then the stream accelerates from
from its expected position on the downbeat of measure 62.29 1 e/b to 3 e/b for the next three chords, i–V7–i in measures
The pianist can dramatize the late arrival of the climax by 65–66. The level-2 harmonic stream also accelerates since the
adding a ritardando just before the climax. tonic, the last chord in the progression i–iif6–V7–i in G
5
The next pacing scenario in the succession, the tumble minor in measures 58–66, is shorter than the preceding V
scenario at the end of phrase 1 of the STG, appears in mea- chord. The final dominant and tonic in this level-2 harmonic
sure 65 of Example 17. After the climax on G5 in measure progression are each expanded by motion to the chord a fifth
62, a smaller, local climax on E5 appears on the second beat of above: V7– iif7–V7 and i–V7–i. The final (expanded) tonic of
measure 64, as a small-scale reworking of the previous climax. the progression lasts the equivalent of 1 bar in measures
The abatement following the smaller climax consists of a 65–66 (thus setting a pace of 1 e/b); whereas the (expanded)
diminuendo and a registral descent from E5 in measure 64 to dominant lasts the equivalent of 3 bars from measure 62, beat
B4, the fourth eighth-note in measure 65. Starting on the last 2, through measure 65, beat 1 (thus setting a pace of 1⁄ 3 e/b).
beat of measure 65, the concluding segment of this descent In sum, instead of coming to rest on the tonic of G minor,
repeats and thus forms motive f1: D5–C5 –C5 –B4. The rep- the level-1 and level-2 harmonic streams accelerate, thus cre-
etition of motive f1, the tail end of motive e2, extends motive ating a tumble scenario. The continued motion at the end of
the first phrase of the STG avoids the stability and conclu-
29 The fact that the change to the dominant occurs on beat two of mea- siveness engendered by a settle scenario and causes the phrase
sure 62, an unexpectedly weak metrical position for such a chord to lead directly into the second phrase of the STG, which be-
change, dramatizes the delay in the arrival of the climax. Rothstein gins on the second beat of measure 66.
(1990, 93) articulates the principle that new harmonies tend to begin
on strong beats. He also states that normalization of a point of initia- the normative succession in phrase 2 of the stg:
tion at a deeper level should also take into consideration the prevailing <steady–tumble–settle>
harmonic rhythm, which in the STG of the present movement has al-
The second phrase of the STG replaces the non-normative
most invariably been 1 e/b. Swain (2002, 5) finds perhaps the first ref-
erence to the principle that chord changes tend to occur on strong beats succession of pacing scenarios found at the end of the preced-
in the work of Jean-Philippe Rameau, who forbade chord changes on ing phrase with a normative succession by varying the mo-
weak beats. tives found in that phrase and by creating a new harmonic
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 357
Steady Climax 1 Climax 2 Tumble

g1 g1 g1 g1 g2 g2 h1

75
%

1

d1 d1 d1 d1 h h1 i1 etc.

%

7 7 7
E: ii 65 V 65 V V 65 6
5
4
2 I6 IV V 64 5
3 I IV
Settle
h1 h1 h2 h3 h4

82

' '

+
dim.

'
+
dim.

'

7 7 7
6 5 6 5 6 5 6 7 6 5
4 3 4 3 4 3 4 5 4 3
7
I V V V
progression with fresh pacing. A steady scenario (intensifica- measure 79. Intensification is due to a crescendo and to
tion with no significant pace change) replaces the struggle melodic ascents in both the violin and piano. The level-1
scenario of phrase 1, and a settle scenario replaces the tumble harmonic stream maintains a steady pace of 1⁄ 2 e/b in mea-
scenario at the end of phrase 1. sures 75–78 because the chord roots (F in measures 75–76
The steady scenario appears in measures 77–78 of and B in measures 77–78) change every 2 bars. The level-1
Example 18 and leads to the climax on the downbeat of melodic streams, featuring motive g in the violin and motive
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 358
d in the piano, also maintain a steady pace, 1 e/b, in mea- measures 83–87. The next chord change occurs six bars later,
sures 75–78. in measure 89, after the bar-long rest in measure 88 (a decel-
As components of theme 2F1 in phrase 1 of the STG, eration to 1⁄6 e/b). The level-1 melodic stream makes its
motives g and h were in conflict with the notated meter, but own contribution to the settle scenario by decelerating late in
as components of theme 2F2 in phrase 2 of the STG, these the STG. The statements of motive h presented in the violin
motives consistently begin on a downbeat. When motive g1, maintain a pace of 1 e/b through measure 85, but when the
for instance, is taken from its original context as part of mo- violin drops out, the piano presents motive h4, an expansion
tive e1 in measure 62 of theme 2F1 and transplanted to of motive h3 in the violin in measure 85.31 As motive h4
theme 2F2, each statement of motive g1 begins on a down- stretches out over a two-bar span and is followed by a bar-
beat. Similarly, the elongation of motive d1 in measures long rest in measure 88, the melodic stream decelerates from
61–62 delays the arrival of the climax in measure 62, but 1 e/b to 1⁄ 3 e/b. Large decelerations in both harmonic and
now motive d1 recurs on each successive downbeat. The un- melodic streams thus create a pronounced settle scenario at
ruly pace changes within theme 2F1 have thus been “tamed” the end of the second phrase of the STA, in stark contrast to
and brought into conformity with the notated meter in the the end of the first phrase of the STA. Whereas acceleration
second appearance of the theme. The result is a steady sce- occurs in the reiterated changes from dominant to tonic (in G
nario and, in combination with the pacing scenarios that fol- minor) at the end of the first phrase, deceleration within the
low, a normative succession of pacing scenarios. dominant expansion (in E major) marks the end of the second
The tumble and settle scenarios that complete the nor- phrase. The tumble scenario persists in phrase 2, but accelera-
mative succession at the end of the second phrase of the tion within this scenario occurs near the climax; the fast pace
STG both partake of the long abatement following the cli- ushered in by this acceleration associates with the climax in
max in measure 81 (Example 18). This second climax reiter- measure 81. The tumble and settle scenarios at the end of the
ates the climax in measure 79, but now the violin plays the STG thus join the preceding steady scenario to form a nor-
main melodic material, including the climactic note, E6.30 mative succession.
The abatement in measures 81–88 results from melodic de-
scents in the violin and piano and from diminuendos. The non-normative successions followed by normative
tumble scenario immediately following the climax is due to ac- successions in the exposition: a summary
celeration in the level-1 harmonic stream from 1 e/b in mea- Looking back at the exposition as a whole, we find that
sure 80 to an average pace of 2 e/b in measures 81–82. The set- Brahms uses normative successions of pacing scenarios to
tle scenario begins as the level-1 harmonic stream subsequently bring a section to a close when the following section presents
decelerates as the dominant of E major is expanded in new thematic material, but he uses non-normative succes-
sions to end a section when the following section shares es-
sentially the same thematic material. The FTG and the tran-
30 Although one could conceivably recognize a pacing scenario (a settle sition share much the same thematic material, as do the two
scenario due to the combination of a melodic descent and deceleration
phrases of the STG; a change of thematic material follows
in the level-1 harmonic stream) in between the first and second cli-
maxes (in measures 79–80), the potential for abatement following the
climax in measure 79 is not realized because the climax is reiterated on 31 Although several notes of motive h3 in measure 85 are elongated within
the downbeat of measure 81. The abatement phase of the intensity motive h4 in measures 86–87 (namely, the third through sixth notes,
curve follows in measures 81. B–A–G–F), the last note of motive h3 (E) is omitted from motive h4.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 359
the transition and the STG. Consider the parallels between cut short by the beginning of the coda. The normative suc-
the successions of pacing scenarios found in the FTG and cession <steady–tumble–settle> that originally ended the
transition, on one hand, and in the two phrases of the STG STG is rendered non-normative by the omission of the final
on the other. First, the FTG and phrase 1 of the STA have a settle scenario. As shown in Example 19, the coda begins in
non-normative succession associated with their main cli- measure 219, immediately after the return of the tumble sce-
maxes: <surge–struggle-||> in the FTG and <struggle–tum- nario in measures 217–18, and brings the processes of abate-
ble> in phrase 1 of the STG. Both of these successions have ment following the climax in measure 217 to a sudden and
a struggle scenario right before the climax, and both succes- premature end.32 The appearance of a subdominant chord in
sions do not include deceleration following the climax: at the six-four position in place of the tonic chord expected in
end of the FTG, the transition begins before deceleration measure 219 leaves both tonal closure and the formation of a
can occur; in phrase 1 of the STG, acceleration occurs after normative succession to the coda.
the climax and forms a tumble scenario. In a second parallel
between the FTG/transition and the STG, normative suc- ii.6 normative successions of pacing
cessions end the transition and phrase 2 of the STG: the scenarios in the coda
succession <surge–settle> ends the transition and the succes-
sion <steady–tumble–settle> ends the phrase 2 of the STG. The coda draws its material from the two sections of the
In these successions, no struggle scenario precedes the cli- exposition that feature a non-normative succession in associ-
max, and a settle scenario brings the section to a close. Since, ation with their main climax. By reworking of the materials
normative successions are reserved for major formal divi- from those sections the coda eliminates the original, non-
sions, the end of the exposition and the end of the transition, normative successions in favor of normative successions, thus
which divides the exposition into two main parts, normative “resolving” the non-normative scenarios found in the exposi-
successions can begin to be associated with ending. This tion. The coda divides into two sections: the first section pre-
supports my contention that such successions are indeed sents material from the first phrase of the STG; the second
normative. section presents material from the FTG. Section 1 of the
coda replaces the non-normative succession <struggle–tum-
ii.5 changes in successions of pacing ble> in the first phrase of the STG with the prototypical suc-
scenarios in the recapitulation cession <surge–settle>. Section 2 of the coda replaces the
non-normative succession <surge–struggle–||> in the FTG
The recapitulation changes the successions of pacing sce-
narios found in the exposition, first by omitting the succes-
sion at the end of the FTG, and second, by omitting the set- 32 One could argue that a settle scenario occurs at the beginning of the
tle scenario at the very end of the STG. The FTG and coda, due to diminuendos in measures 219–26 and a harmonic deceler-
transition are combined in the recapitulation, a task facili- ation in measures 217–30 (as the six-four chord in measure 217 re-
solves to a minor tonic chord in the last measure of a twelve-bar tonic
tated by their shared thematic materials; in this new amal-
pedal); however, this cannot be heard as the final pacing scenario of the
gam, the normative succession from the end of the transi- STG but as part of the coda because it is too startlingly different from
tion, <surge–settle>, is retained rather than the the preceding material and from the pattern established in the exposi-
non-normative succession from the end of the FTG. At the tion. The coda begins with slow, quiet arpeggiations, over which trans-
end of the recapitulation, the second phrase of the STG is formations of motive d eventually appear (as in measures 227–30).
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 360
Climax 2 Tumble Coda

h1 h1

216

+ dim.
h1

+ dim.

col.
7
6 97

6 5 7 6
4 3 4 43 5
A: V IV IV $VII IV V IV vii v v
d3 d3

225

$
$
sempre

$
97 97
6 6 6 53

5 4 3 4 5
3
vii IV IV i
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 361
with the normative succession <steady–steady>, in which no the normative succession <surge–settle> in place of its origi-
pace changes interrupt the steady march to and from the nal, non-normative succession <struggle–tumble>.
final climax.
ii.7 the normative succession within theme
the normative succession in section 1 of the coda: 1a in section 2 of the coda
<surge–settle>
Example 20 provides the score for measures 243–50. Like section 1, section 2 of the coda (given in Example 21)
Theme 2F, unlike its previous appearances, is presented in features two climaxes, the second of which eclipses the first.
two-bar segments within section 1 of the coda. Each segment A struggle scenario leads to the first climax, on the note A5
is stated by the piano and then imitated by the violin. The in measure 267, but a steady scenario leads to the main cli-
imitation leads to two competing climaxes, of which the lat- max on A6 in measure 276. The initial struggle scenario is
ter, in the violin on the second beat of measure 250, is the reshaped to form a normative succession at the end of the
main climax because it supercedes the climax in the piano (on section, and of the movement as a whole.
the second beat of measure 248) in terms of both register and The second section of the coda begins with the return of
dynamic level. Earlier appearances of theme 2F also included theme 1A in measures 259–62. The theme is varied in two
two climaxes, but the first one was preeminent. The coda also ways: its final note (C5) is missing, which will prove signifi-
changes the harmonic progression originally associated with cant later, and it is extended by sequential repetitions of its
the theme. As we found in Example 17, theme 2F1 returns to last two measures (see measures 263–64, 265–66, and
the dominant for its second climax, but theme 2F3 in the 267–69). The struggle scenario that precedes the first and
coda, after reaching the dominant in A minor at the first cli- smaller climax occurs in measures 265–67. Intensification
max (in measure 248), moves to VII7 in A minor, for the sec- within this scenario results from the sequential repetitions of
ond climax (in measure 250). Moreover, the coda replaces the the tail end of theme 1A, which ascend by step, and from a
struggle scenario that originally preceded the main climax swell in dynamic level that peaks on the downbeat of mea-
with a surge scenario in measures 249–250. Acceleration sure 267. Deceleration occurs as the third sequential repeti-
within the level-2 harmonic stream helps create the surge sce- tion stretches out to fill 3 bars in measures 265–69; a ritar-
nario. As the stream accelerates, its chords (VII7–iif65- –V7– dando accentuates the composed-out ritardando. Although
i–iv–VII7 in A minor in measures 243–54) shorten from 8 there is a diminuendo marked in measure 267, this only
beats to 4 beats to 1 beat in length, thus bringing the pace to slightly relieves the tension that has built up. The violin
3 e/b just before the arrival of the climax in measure 250. melody, instead of descending, reiterates the climactic note,
Following the climax, a melodic descent and a diminu- A5, in measure 268 and embarks on an ascent of an octave to
endo combine with deceleration in the level-1 harmonic the main climax on the downbeat of measure 276.
stream to create a settle scenario in measures 250–54. The Whatever resistance was encountered in the ascent to the
stream decelerates as the VII7 chord that enters at the climax first climax is overcome as the steady scenario in measures
in measure 250 persists through measure 254. The level-1 268–75 leads up to the main climax. The level-1 harmonic
melody also contributes to the settle scenario by extending stream maintains a pace of 1 e/b throughout the two state-
motive d through repetitions of its last few notes in measure ments of theme 1A7 in measures 268–71 and 272–75. The
253, and by varied repetition of those notes in measure 254. level-1 melodic stream also articulates a pace of 1 e/b with
We thus find that variation of theme 2F in the coda creates its statements of motive a, although some ambiguity arises
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 362
Theme 2F2
d1 d1 d1 d1 d2

243

' ' % % '

+ cresc.
% %

vivace

+ cresc.

6

A:
4
87
3 $VII
2 43 6
5
7
iv
6
5
ii
7 6
5
6
8 2 ’s 8 2 ’s
Surge Climax 2 Settle

d 2'
f1
y1 y1 y2 y2 y1

248 hemiola: 1 2 3

' %

dim. j1

dim.

7 7 4 6 7
2
V i iv $VII
4 2 ’s 12 12 14 2 ’s
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 363
j1 j2 j1 j1
253

sempre più dim.

+

sempre più dim.

7
vii
8
V
7
in connection with the pickup notes to the downbeats of grouping. Because the pacing of melodic and harmonic
measure 270 and measure 271. The violin’s pickup notes to streams repeat within the second statement, the pacing is
measure 272 seem, on paper, to disrupt the pace of 1 e/b predictable within that statement. If we hear a deceleration
since they initiate a new melodic group mid-measure, but due to the extension of motive a9, this deceleration does not
that is not how they sound, probably because of the parallel create a struggle because it does not delay the arrival of the
that exists between measure 272 and the downbeat of mea- main climax. Rather, it appears to be a feature of the theme
sure 268, where theme 1A7 appears, but without the pick- itself. The registral ascent is also tied to the pacing of theme
ups. The downbeat of measure 272 is clearly the start of 1A7: the statements of the theme create terraces in the as-
motive a and of the theme, despite the pickups that precede cent to the melodic highpoint. The predictability of the
it. More significant ambiguity attends the highest notes in pacing and the regimented ascent created by the repetition
the piano part in measure 270. The last two notes of motive of theme 1A7 give the impression that the music is now un-
a are consistently supplied by the piano, as here in measure opposed and free to approach the last and highest climactic
270, but the piano’s notes in measure 270 simultaneously note of the movement in a stately manner, indicating that
serve as pickups to the appoggiatura (A5) and its resolution the struggle associated with the climax in measure 267 is
(G5) in measure 271. Perhaps the appoggiatura and its res- now over.
olution serve as an extension to motive a9, as I have shown The climax in measure 276, the main climax of the coda
by the slur in Example 21, measures 279–71. This ambigu- and of the movement, can be viewed as a reworked version
ity is regulated by the repetition of theme 1A7, however, and of the climax in measure 267. The F6 that follows the cli-
does not detract from the impression of a steady scenario. mactic A6 in measure 276 supplies the last note of theme
The two statements of theme 1A7 are each four-bar units 1A, thus compensating for its absence in measure 262 and
(measures 268–71 and 272–75) at level 2 of the melodic throughout the sequence in measures 261–67. In particular,
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 364
Section 2 of the coda

Theme 1A 6
a1 b3 b3' b3'

259

+ dolce sempre

+

dolce sempre

6 6 6 6 6
5 5 4
A: I ii I V ii ii V iii iii
1A 7 1A 7
Struggle Climax 1 Steady Intensification
a6 a6 a9 a6 a6

a tempo

266 poco rit.

a tempo

poco rit.

6 7 6 7 6 6
4
3
V IV IV I VV V V IV
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 365
Climax 2 Steady Abatement

a9 b4 b4' = a 2
end of motive b 1

274
(

(

(

7 7
V I IV V I
the culminating sequential repetition, labeled as motive b3' as a whole. The change from non-normative to normative suc-
in measures 265–67 presents G4–C5–E5–A5; at the main cessions is highlighted by the way in which materials that for-
climax, the violin plays the last three of these notes one oc- merly created a non-normative succession are reworked to form
tave higher (C6–E6–A6) and then completes motive b with a normative succession later in the movement. Thus, non-nor-
the F6 on the third beat of measure 276. mative successions can be viewed as compositional “difficulties”
After the main climax, abatement due to the registral de- that may be resolved by the reworking of thematic material such
scent in measures 276–78 combines with a steady pace of 1 that new, normative successions result at the close of a large sec-
e/b in the level-1 melodic and harmonic streams to create a tion of the movement or at its very end.
steady scenario in measures 276–77. The coda thus returns at In this respect, non-normative successions are comparable
its very end to motivic material presented in the FTG, but to what Arnold Schoenberg calls a “tonal problem.”33 As he
refashions that material to create a normative succession conceived it, a tonal problem is a challenge to the sovereignty
rather than the non-normative succession found in the FTG of a tonic note. It is located within a motive, and “as the
and found early within section 2 of the coda. theme offers a number of transformations (variations of the
conclusions 33 Patricia Carpenter has elaborated on Schoenberg’s notion of a tonal

problem in various articles (1983, 1988, 1997, 2005). Carpenter (2005)
The first movement of Brahms’s Violin Sonata in A major follows up on Schoenberg’s observation of a tonal problem in the open-
features normative successions in the final sections of larger for- ing theme from the first movement of Brahms’s Piano Quartet in C
mal units, such as the exposition, and at the end of the movement Minor, op. 60.
MTS3102_04 11/10/09 2:17 PM Page 366
motive), in each of which the problem is presented after all, parameters. The analysis of pacing scenarios illuminates how
but always in a different way, the tonic is continually contra- the elements of harmony, melody, rhythm, and various musi-
dicted anew” (1995, 103). Schoenberg (1984) describes the cal parameters such as dynamic level and melodic register in-
tonal problem as a matter of unrest and imbalance that re- teract with one another and the expressive implications of
quires resolution: those interactions.
Every tone which is added to a beginning tone makes the meaning
of that tone doubtful. . . . In this manner there is produced a state of
unrest or imbalance which grows throughout most of the piece and references
is enforced further by similar functions of the rhythm. The method
by which balance is restored seems to me the real idea of the compo- Agawu, V. Kofi. 1982. “The Structural Highpoint as
sition” (123). Determinant of Form in Nineteenth Century Music.”
One could also ascribe “imbalance” and “unrest” to non-nor- PhD diss., Stanford University.
mative successions such as <struggle–tumble>, in which decel- ———. 1983. “On Schubert’s ‘Der Greise Kopf ’.” In Theory
eration does not accompany abatement. Thematic transforma- Only 8.1:3–21.
tions then vary the theme such that balance and rest are ———. 1984. “Structural ‘Highpoints’ in Schumann’s
restored in a normative succession at the end of a movement. Dichterliebe.” Music Analysis 3.2:159–80.
It would be interesting to investigate whether non-normative ———. 1999. “Formal Perspectives on the Symphonies.” In
successions, as perhaps one of the “functions of rhythm” to The Cambridge Companion to Brahms, ed. Michael Musgrave,
which Schoenberg alludes, work in tandem with a tonal prob- 133–55. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
lem to create imbalance and whether the change to a norma- Arlin, Mary Irene. 1965. “Harmonic Rhythm in Selected
tive succession coincides with resolution of a tonal problem. Fugues from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I.” MMus
In addition to the formal function of normative succes- thesis, Indiana University.
sions within particular movements, another source for the Berry, Wallace. 1978. Structural Functions in Music.
normative status of certain successions of pacing scenarios Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
may very well lie in a repertoire of music that predates the ———. 1975 “Rhythmic Accelerations in Beethoven.”
nineteenth century, the purview of the current study. This is Journal of Music Theory 22.2:177–236.
an avenue for future research. Carpenter, Patricia. 1983. “Grundgestalt as Tonal Function.”
The main contribution of this paper, however, is not suc- Music Theory Spectrum 5:15–38.
cessions of pacing scenarios but its recognition of the pacing ———. 1988. “A Problem in Organic Form: Schoenberg’s
scenarios themselves. The notion of pacing scenarios recog- Tonal Body.” Theory and Practice 13:31–63.
nizes the multi-faceted nature of pace and of its interactions ———. 1997. “Tonality: A Conflict of Forces.” In Music
with other musical parameters. The pace-tension hypothesis Theory in Concept and Practice, ed. James Baker, David
limits the role of pace by viewing pace in terms of intensifi- Beach, and Jonathan Bernard, 97–129. Rochester:
cation and abatement, but acceleration does not automati- University of Rochester Press.
cally create intensification and tension and deceleration does ———. 2005. “Schoenberg’s ‘Tonal Body’.” Theory and
not automatically create abatement and relaxation. Pace Practice 30:35–68.
changes are capable of a wide variety of effects as they com- Childs, Barney. 1977. “Time: A Composer’s View.” Perspec-
bine with patterns of intensification and abatement in other tives of New Music 15.2:194–219.
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Dewey, John. 1939. “The Psychology of Conduct.” In ———. 1980. “Rhythm and Linear Analysis: Durational
Intelligence in the Modern World: John Dewey’s Philosophy, Reduction.” In The Music Forum, vol. 5, ed. Felix Salzer
ed. J. Ratner, 729–60. New York: Random House. and Carl Schachter, 197–232. New York: Columbia
Eitan, Zohar. 1997. Highpoints: A Study of Melodic Peaks. University Press.
Studies in the Criticism and Theory of Music. Phila- ———. 1987. “Rhythm and Linear Analysis: Aspects of
delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Meter.” In The Music Forum, vol. 6, ed. by Felix Salzer and
Frisch, Walter M. 1984. Brahms and the Principle of Developing Carl Schachter, 1–59. New York: Columbia University
Variation. Berkeley: University of California Press. Press.
———. 1990. “The Shifting Bar Line: Metrical Dis- Schenker, Heinrich. 1979. Free Composition (Der freie Satz).
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Historical Perspectives, ed. Georges S. Bozarth, 139–64. ———. 1954. Harmony. Ed. and annotated by Oswald Jonas.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. Trans. Elisabeth Mann Borgese. Chicago: University of
Lerdahl, Fred, and Ray Jackendoff. 1983. A Generative Chicago Press.
Theory of Tonal Music. Cambridge: MIT Press. Schoenberg, Arnold. 1984. “New Music, Outmoded Music,
Meyer, Leonard B. 1956. Emotion and Meaning in Music. Style and Idea.” In Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Schoenberg, 2nd ed., ed. Leonard Stein and trans. Leo
———. 1980. “Exploiting Limits: Creation, Archetypes, Black, 113–23. Berkeley: University of California Press.
and Style Change.” Daedalus 109.2:177–205. ———. 1995. The Musical Idea and the Logic, Technique, and
———. 1989. Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology. Art of its Presentation by Arnold Schoenberg. Trans. and
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ed. Patricia Carpenter and Severine Neff. New York:
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Piston, Walter. 1941. Harmony. New York: W. W. Norton. Music Theory Spectrum 20.1:48–71.
Ratner, Leonard G. 1966. Music: The Listener’s Art. 2d ed. ———. 1999. “Teaching Harmonic Rhythm.” Journal of
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Rothfarb, Lee. 2002. “Energetics.” In The Cambridge History ———. 2002. Harmonic Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University
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electronic ISSN 1533-8339. © 2009 by The Society for Music
Schachter, Carl. 1976. “Rhythm and Linear Analysis: A Theory. All rights reserved. Please direct all requests for permission
Preliminary Study.” In The Music Forum, vol. 4, ed. Felix to photocopy or reproduce article content through the University
Salzer and Carl Schachter, 81–334. New York: Columbia of California Press’s Rights and Permissions website, at http://www.
University Press. ucpressjournals.com/reprintinfo.asp. DOI: 10.1525/mts.2009.31.2.325

654321brahms Op.100 Pacing Scenarios

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Pacing Scenarios: How Harmonic Rhythm and Melodic Pacing

Keywords: pacing, climax, harmonic rhythm, motives, deceleration, nineteenth-century music,

I sume that melodies and harmonic progressions con-

325 on Sat, 12 Sep 2015 16:28:24 UTC

326 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

64 fortissimo in measures 56–61). Meanwhile, the chord pro-

example 2. Wagner, Tristan und Isolde, Isolde’s Transfiguration, measures 52–63

328 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

capable of contributing to an intensity curve “establish con-

Continuums of Parameters Changes in Intensity:

Faster/Slower Pace Acceleration Deceleration

Thicker/Thinner Textural Density Growing increasingly Growing increasingly

330 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

increase in dynamic level, and deceleration in the pace of Intensification Abatement

332 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

example 6. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 6 in B minor, fourth movement, measures 63–81

My ear is drawn away from the notated meter by motive a, resulting

334 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

example 7. Liszt, Sonata for Piano in B minor, measures 44–56

336 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

    ,,        

   

      un poco più lento 

example 8. Richard Strauss, Don Juan, measures 121–51

338 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

    ﬀ viel Ton! poco a poco dim. ! + dim. 1

example 9. Mahler, Symphony No. 5, fourth movement, measures 87–103

340 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

(Adagio ma non troppo)

342 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

example 11. Dvorak, Symphony No. 9, fourth movement, measures 301–20

Shallower levels Deeper levels

Repetitions of pitches Pitches Notes join together on the basis

example 12. Melodic and harmonic events at multiple levels

344 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

346 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

 

348 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

350 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

352 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

Surge Climax Settle

Phrase 1 of the STG

354 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

Theme 2E 2 2F1 Struggle Climax

   

Phrase 2 of the STG

' ' ' 

356 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

Steady Climax 1 Climax 2 Tumble

358 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

360 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

Climax 2 Tumble Coda

362 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

Surge Climax 2 Settle

example 20. [continued ]

364 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

Section 2 of the coda

Climax 2 Steady Abatement

example 21. [continued ]

conclusions 33 Patricia Carpenter has elaborated on Schoenberg’s notion of a tonal

366 music theory spectrum 31 (2009)

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,,

un poco più lento

ﬀ viel Ton! poco a poco dim. ! + dim. 1

' ' '