Intro to Radar/Basic Radar Concepts, Terms and Principles

(Slide 1) / (Slide2)
A. OVERVIEW: The term RADAR is common in today's everyday language. You probably use it
yourself when referring to a method of recording the speed of a moving object. The term Radar is an
acronym made up of the words radio detection and ranging. The term is used to refer to electronic
equipment that detects the presence, direction, elevation, distance, intensity and velocity of objects by
using reflected electromagnetic energy.

Agenda—Outline Class (Slide 3)

The electronics principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave reflection.
If you shout in the direction of a sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave), you will hear an
echo. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the distance and general direction of
the object that returned the echo. Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in the same way. RF energy
is transmitted out through the atmosphere and will hit an object. A small portion of the energy is reflected
from the object and returns to the radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it is in sound
terminology. Radar sets use the echo to determine the location and size of the reflecting object.

NOTE: The terms TARGET, RETURN, ECHO, CONTACT, OBJECT, and REFLECTING
OBJECT are used interchange-ably throughout this lesson to indicate any surface or airborne object that
has been detected by a radar system.
(Slide 4) Electromagnetic energy in the frequency range used by radar is unaffected by darkness and also
penetrates weather to some degree, depending on frequency. It permits radar systems to determine the
positions of ships, planes, land masses and weather formations that are invisible to the naked eye because
of distance, darkness, or weather.

1. (Slide 5) The development of radar into the highly complex systems in use today represents the
accumulated developments of many people and nations. The general principles of radar have been
known for a long time, but many electronics discoveries were necessary before a useful radar system
could be developed.

a. Early in the 20th century, radio operators along the Potomac River notice anomalies in
communications whenever ships passed in front of their radio transmitters. Engineers realized
that they could use these anomalies to detect the presence of ships which otherwise would go
unnoticed. At the beginning of World War II, US and United Kingdom forces teamed up to
develop a system to detect enemy aircraft and ships. Britain’s development of the magnetron
provided a high power, high frequency device with high stability. This allowed the use of smaller
radar systems and smaller antennas that could provide greater accuracy.

b. Radar technology has improved in the years since the war. We now have radar systems that are
smaller, more efficient, and better than those early versions. Modern radar systems are used for
early detection of surface or air objects and provide extremely accurate information on distance,
direction, height, and speed of the objects. Radar is also used to guide missiles to targets direct
the firing of gun systems, and provide early warning of possible severe weather conditions.

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2. USES OF RADAR (Slide 6-8)

a. Air Traffic Control

b. Military Air Defense

c. Meteorological

3. Types of Meteorological Radars (Slide 9)

a. Doppler —(Slide 9-12) Doppler radars have the capability of detecting motion in a target by
measure the phase shift of received energy.

b. Polarimetric—Dual Polarized radars have the capability of transmitting and receiving energy in
both horizontal and vertical polarized planes, allowing radar sets to distinguish between different
types of water particles.

4. Agenda (Slide 13)

B. (Slide 14) Radar Principles and Definitions.

1. Introduction (Slide 15) – Radar Meteorology – use of radar technology in the science of the
atmosphere and its phenomena.

2. Transmitter/Pulse Characteristics—(Slide 16) This training will be focused on pulsed type Doppler
radars we develop here at EEC, though the concepts will generally apply to all radar types. The
Transmitter is the source of the Electromagnetic energy and determines the radar’s operating
frequency and Peak output power.

a. (Slide 17) In order to analyze the returns from an echo, we need to have precise control over the
originating pulse from our transmitter. The operating frequency or carrier frequency of the
transmitter is the frequency of the EM energy that is generated within the short burst of power.
Weather radars generally transmit between 2 and 10 MHz, each frequency within that range
having different propagation characteristics.

b. The Amount of time the transmitter is on and transmitting the pulse of EM energy determines the
pulse width. The ideal pulse width will have the transmitter coming to full power
instantaneously, then cutting off in the same manner, thereby giving us a maximum power output
and clean points of measurement. In reality, there is a slight lag in the rise and fall of the
transmitted pulse. The Width of the pulse is measured at the 70% power points, and is critical in
determining the power output and accuracy of the radar. A wider width will increase the power
output, while a narrower width will increase accuracy and allow for faster pulse repetition
frequencies.

c. Radar systems radiate each pulse at the carrier frequency during transmit time, wait for returning
echoes during listening or rest time, then radiate a second pulse, and continue this cycle. The
number of pulses radiated in one second is called the PULSE REPITITION FREQUENCY
(PRF), or the Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR). The time between the beginning of one pulse and the
start of the next pulse is called PULSE-REPETITION TIME (PRT) and is equal to the
reciprocal of the PRF. This rate is critical in determining the range and maximum detectable

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 velocities. A slower PRF will increase your range and allow for a wider pulse width, while a
faster PRF will provide greater accuracy in signal quality and velocity measurements.

d. (Slide 18) The Duty Cycle of the Transmitter is the ratio of the on time to the (on + off) time, or
in other words PW/PRT. This is a critical factor in determining the power output and durability
of the transmitter. When using a wider pulse width, the PRF must be reduced so as not to
overdrive the transmitter.

Selection of the proper PW and PRF is critical in providing the user with the most accurate and
desired returns for the current atmospheric condition. Our radars have software that allows the user to
vary the selections of PRF to optimize detection of meteorological phenomena, along with default
selections that may be used for particular atmospheric conditions. In all cases, circuitry and software
within the radar will prevent you from operating at unsafe duty cycles.

3. Antenna Types—Isotropic vs. Directional--(Slide 19) The transmitter will radiate the energy to the
atmosphere through an Antenna. We know that the amount of power returned by a target will be
directly proportional to the amount of power that hits it. Besides the peak power output of the Radar
transmitter, the directivity of the antenna impacts the amount of power that intersects the target.
a. An isotropic radar antenna is one that radiates energy in all directions at one time.

b. A directional antenna focuses the energy into a narrow beam. Radar dishes we use here are
parabolic type dishes designed to transmit energy in one direction. (Slide 20) As the beam is
focused, the antenna pattern will produce a main beam and various side lobes. Side lobes are
portions of the energy which is radiated in undesired directions, and should be reduced as much
as possible. Proper shape of the reflector and positioning of the Feedhorn will reduce side lobes
and direct the maximum amount of power to the main beam.

1) The increase in power in the direction of the main beam compared to what the power in that
direction would be for an isotropic antenna is known as the Antenna Gain. The gain may
also be calculated by measuring the size of the beam. Note that the narrower the beam, the
greater the antenna gain.

2) The size of the main beam is determined by the size and shape of the antenna and is known as
the beamwidth (BW) (Slide 21). BW, measured in degrees, is the measure of how “focused”
your radar transmission is. The beam is generally focused into a circular pattern and is
measured both vertically and horizontally at the point of the beam at which the power level
drops to one half of the maximum power or 3 dB, called the “half-power” points” of the
main lobe. The normal beamwidth of our antennas is about 1 degree.

3) The amount of space the transmitted pulse occupies within the atmosphere is known as the
pulse volume (Slide 22) and is a function of the PW and the beamwidth, along with the
distance the pulse travels from the antenna. Note that the narrower the beamwidth and the
shorter the pulse width, the smaller the pulse volume will be. Also note that the further the
pulse travels from the antenna, the larger the pulse volume becomes (though beamwidth in
degrees remains the same).

4) The purpose of sending out a pulse of radiation is to have weather targets intercept this
energy and reflect some of it back to the radar so we can determine the intensity of the
weather targets. The amount of energy that intercepts these weather targets is called the
power density, and it‘s dependent upon two factors: Transmitter power and Beam size. First
power density (Slide 23) will increase with increasing transmitter power. However, as the

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 beam goes down range, remember it increases in size, so that same amount of power is spread
across a larger area, so the power density actually decrease as the beam goes down range, but
it’s not equally distributed across the beam. The beam centerline contains most of the power.

4. Locating Targets (Slide 24)—Radar systems also require a reference coordinate system to define the
positions of detected objects. The radar location is the center of this coordinate system. Radar
surface angular measurements are normally made in a clockwise direction from true north along a
horizontal plane. The angle measured clockwise from true north is called the true bearing or Azimuth
angle. All angles in the up direction are measured in a second plane perpendicular to the horizontal
plane called the vertical plane. The line from the radar set directly to the object is referred to as the
line of sight (LOS), the length being called the Slant Range. The angle between the horizontal plane
and the LOS is the Elevation Angle. From this angle, the radar set can determine the height or
elevation of the object above ground level. These three coordinates of range, bearing, and elevation
describe the location of an object with respect to the antenna.

a. BEARING--The TRUE BEARING (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the angle
between true north and a line pointed directly at the target, and is normally determined by
azimuth of the antenna at the time the maximum echo is received. This angle is measured in the
horizontal plane and in a clockwise direction from true north.

b. ELEVATION--Altitude of the target is determined by the elevation angle of the antenna in the
vertical plane measured against the horizontal plane, taking into account the distance to the target
and curvature of the earth. (Slide 25-28) Note that the further from the radar set the beam
travels, the height of the beam increases dramatically. At 300 miles at 0degree elevation the
beam is already almost 60,000 ft (17,600 meters) elevation, and at 2 degree you’ve reached the
top of the stratosphere (over 37 kms). This is one reason the weather radars are generally
ineffective at ranges over 200 miles, requiring you to buy many of them.

c. RANGE

1) (Slide 29) Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the
properties of radiated electromagnetic energy. This energy normally travels through space in
a straight line, at a constant speed, and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and
weather conditions.

a) (Slide 30) Electromagnetic energy travels through air at approximately the speed of light,
which is 300,000 Kilometers per second or 300 meters per sec. [approximately 186,000
STATUTE MILES or 162,000 nautical miles per second = 984 ft per sec.]

The approximate time required for radar energy to travel one nautical mile is:
6080 feet / nautical mile
984 feet / microsecond
= 6.18  sec / nautical mile
The approximate time required for radar energy to travel one km is:
1000 m / km
300 m / microsecond
= 3.33 microseconds / kilometer

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 b) Pulse-type radar sets transmit a short burst of electromagnetic energy. (Slide 31) Target
range is determined by measuring elapsed time while the pulse travels to and returns from
the target. Because two-way travel is involved, a total time of 12.36 (6.18 x 2)
microseconds per nautical mile (6.66 µsec per kilometer) will elapse between the start of
the pulse from the antenna and its return to the antenna from a target. This 12.36
microsecond time interval is referred to as a RADAR MILE. The range (in nautical
miles) to an object can be found by measuring the elapsed time from the beginning of the
transmitted pulse to time the echo returns (in  seconds), and dividing that time by 12.36.
(Slide 31) For Kilometers, measure the elapsed time and divide by 6.67.
2) Range Limitations (Slide 32)
a) Minimum range of a radar is determined by the pulse width and RECOVERY TIME.
The radar cannot receive while it is transmitting (PW). Radar sets also have isolation
circuits that activate during the transmit time to prevent the transmitted pulse from
entering the receiver (otherwise the receiver would be destroyed). A Transmit/Receiver
tube (T/R Limiter) ionizes during transmit time to limit the power going into the receiver
(generally to about +13 dBm). (This is what will also appear as the “main bang” on the
radar A-Scope.) Unfortunately, this also prevents received signals from entering the
receiver. Recovery time is the time required for the radar set to switch back into its
“receive mode” (T/R Tube to de-ionize). Therefore, the total time in which the receiver
is unable to receive reflected energy is equal to the pulse width (transmit time) plus the
recovery time. Ex. A radar set with a pulse width of 2 microseconds and recovery time
of 5 microseconds, would have a minimum range of about 1.1 Kilometers. Echoes from
close targets returning before the receiver is able to receive will be undetected.

b) Maximum Range--The maximum range of a pulse radar system depends upon Peak
Power of the Transmitter, Sensitivity of the receiver, the Operating Frequency and the
Pulse Repetition Frequency.
(1) Peak Power is the highest amount of energy transmitted during the pulse. The higher
the peak power output, the greater the power density of the pulse volume and the
more energy is available to intersect the target and still return a usable echo,
especially at long distances. A usable echo is one that can be discerned above the
noise levels inherent to the environment and the radar system itself.
(2) The Minimum Discernable Signal (MDS) is the lowest detectable level that can be
received and processed by the radar and presented on the display as data (Receiver
Sensitivity).

(3) (Slide 33) The operating or carrier frequency of the transmitter is a limiting factor
because the oxygen in the atmosphere rapidly attenuates RF energy above 3,000
megahertz, decreasing the usable range of RF energy. As the carrier frequency is
increased The available range is decreased

(a) S-Band between 2-4 GHz [Radar frequencies between 2.7 – 2.9 GHz]
(b) C-Band between 4-8 [Radar frequencies between 5.2 – 5.9 GHz]
(c) X-Band 8-16 GHz [Radar frequencies between 8.5 – 10.7 GHz]

(4) PRT—(Slide 34) Pulsed radar systems radiate a pulse at the carrier frequency during
transmit time, wait for returning echoes during listening or rest time, then radiate a

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 second pulse, and continue this cycle. Distances to targets are determined by the
amount of time it takes for the echoes to be returned to the receiver. The radar timing
system must be reset to zero each time a pulse is radiated to ensure that the range
detected is measured from time zero. The maximum amount of time the radar will
wait for an echo is until the next pulse is generated, or pulse repetition time. That is
why the PRT or PRF is the primary factor in determining the maximum range of a
radar. (Slide 35)

Rmax = c •· PRT/2

or c = speed of Electromagnetic
Waves (3.00 • 108 M/S)
Rmax = c/(2·PRF)

Or, the Maximum Range of a radar (in km) is PRT (in secs) / 6.67
c) RF Energy does not simply stop being reflected just because it’s reached the Maximum
range of the radar. Echoes received outside the maximum range would appear to have
emanated from the next transmitted pulse. (Slide 36) Target return times that exceed the
PRT of the radar system appear at incorrect locations (ranges) on the radar screen and are
referred to as ambiguous returns or Second-Trip echoes. The maximum range of a
radar is often referred as Maximum Unambiguous Range. (Slide 36) Often ambiguous
returns will appear on the display as a V-shaped signal where you would otherwise not
expect a return. (Slide 37-40)
RADAR ACCURACY--. (Slide 41) is a measure of the ability of a radar system to determine the
correct range, bearing and height of an object. The degree of accuracy is primarily determined by
the resolution of the radar system. Some additional factors affecting accuracy are pulse shape and
atmospheric conditions.

3) TARGET RESOLUTION--The TARGET RESOLUTION of a radar is its ability to

distinguish between targets that are very close together in either range or bearing..
a) Range Resolution: (Slide 42) Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to
distinguish between two or more targets on the same bearing but at different ranges. The
degree of range resolution depends on the width of the transmitted pulse. A well-
designed radar system should be able to distinguish targets separated by one-half the
pulse width time.
b) Bearing Resolution. (Slide 43) or Azimuth Resolution is the ability of a radar system to
separate objects at the same range but at different bearings. The degree of bearing
resolution depends on radar beamwidth and the range of the targets. (Range is a factor in
bearing resolution because the radar beam spreads out as range increases.) Two targets at
the same range must be separated by at least one beam width to be distinguished as two
objects.
4) PULSE SHAPE—. (Slide 44) In the case of a pulse radar, the shape and width of the RF
pulse influences minimum range, range accuracy, and maximum range. The ideal pulse
shape is a square wave having vertical leading and trailing edges. This means the radar
reaches full power quickly and shuts down cleanly. However, equipment does not usually
produce the ideal waveforms.

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 a) A narrow pulse is necessary for short ranges. A sloping trailing edge extends the width
of the transmitter pulse, although it may add very little to the total power generated.
Therefore, along with a narrow pulse, the trailing edge should be as near vertical as
possible for accurate range measurements.
b) A sloping leading edge affects range accuracy since it provides no definite point from
which to measure elapsed time from the transmitted pulse to received echo.

C. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (Slide 45)

1. Frequency Wave length and Frequency Spectrum

a. An electromagnetic wave (Slide 46) consists of two primary components, an ELECTRIC FIELD and a
MAGNETIC FIELD. The principles of radiation of electromagnetic energy are based on two laws:

b. A MOVING ELECTRIC FIELD CREATES A MAGNETIC (H) FIELD.

c. A MOVING MAGNETIC FIELD CREATES AN ELECTRIC (E) FIELD.

2. The electric field results from the force of voltage, and the magnetic field results from the flow of current
Although a conductor is usually considered present when a moving electric or magnetic field is mentioned, the
laws that govern these fields say nothing about a conductor. Therefore, these laws hold true whether a
conductor is present or not. Although electromagnetic fields that are radiated are commonly considered to be
waves, under certain circumstances their behavior makes them appear to have some of the properties of
particles. In general, however, it is easier to picture electromagnetic radiation in space as horizontal and vertical
lines of force oriented at right angles to each other. These lines of force are made up of an electric field (E) and
a magnetic field (H), which together makes the electromagnetic field in space.

1) An INDUCTION FIELD contains an E field and an H field and is localized near the antenna. The E
and H fields of the induction field are 90 degrees out of phase with each other, and the fields collapse
as the energy is applied through the antenna.

2) The E and H fields that are set up in the transfer of energy through space are known collectively as the
radiation field. And is responsible for electromagnetic radiation from the antenna. In space, these two
fields will be in phase and perpendicular to each other at any given time. The radiation field decreases
as the distance from the antenna is increased

3) (Slide 47) Polarization on an EM wave is determined by the Electrical Field of energy. Note that in a
waveguide, the Electric field is aligned with the narrow portion of the waveguide.

a) A VERTICALLY POLARIZED antenna transmits an electromagnetic wave with the E field

perpendicular to the Earth's surface.

b) A HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED antenna transmits a electromagnetic wave with the E field

parallel to the Earth's surface.

4) The radiated energy from an antenna is in the form of an expanding sphere. (Slide 48) A
WAVEFRONT is a small section of an expanding sphere of radiated energy and is perpendicular to
the direction of travel from the antenna. All the energy on the wave front is in phase and generally
equal distant from the antenna. The further from the antenna the Wavefront travels, the less spherical
it becomes and assumes a more planar shape perpendicular to the direction of travel.

b. Electromagnetic waves travel in a sinusoidal pattern at the speed of light (letter c) (Slide 49).

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 1) The length of these waves is measured between any two identical points of the wave, and is usually
represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).

2) The Phase of the wave is determined by the measure where the wave is in relation to 0 phase, and is
represented by the letter φ. The 0 phase is the point of the wave where the angular measurement is
equal to 0 (sin 0 = 0) where the wave is crossing from negative to positive. (Slide 50) The angular
frequency or speed at which the wave changes phase is measured in radian per second and represented
by the letter ω. Each cycle will consist of a 360 degree movement of the wave, which is also
represented by the formula 2πr (radians) .

3) (Slide 51) The frequency of the wave is determined by the number of cycles per second of the wave,
and is measured in Hertz (Hz).

4) The relationship of frequency to wavelength is reciprocal, and measured using the formula. F = c/ λ
Note that the longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency. (Slide 52) Wavelengths associated
with our radars are:
S band: 2,700 to 2,900 MHz λ = 10.3 - 11.1 cm
C band: 5,200 to 5,900 MHz λ = 5.0 - 5.7 cm
X band: 8,500 to 10,700 MHz λ = 2.8 - 3.5 cm

c. The characteristics and properties of EM waves is dependant on the frequency, each frequency having
different propagation properties. (Slide 53) The Electromagnetic Spectrum shows the range of
frequencies and categories of EM waves, and their different characteristics and uses: from VLF at the low
end of the spectrum, used for submarine communication, to visible light, and on up to and cosmic gamma
rays and ionizing radiation at the high end of the spectrum.

3. (Slide 54) Radar Frequency and Propagation—The radar frequencies we use fall within the RF portion of the
spectrum mostly in the SHF range or centimeter band, but more specifically in the S through X bands. All EM
waves will be reflected, refracted, and diffracted in the atmosphere, the amount dependant on the frequency of
the wave and atmospheric condition.

a. Refractivity – (Slide 55) When a wave passes from one medium to another medium that has a different
velocity of propagation, a change in the direction of the wave will occur. This change is called Refraction.
Refraction will occur to a radar wave as it passes though the atmosphere due to the different levels of
refractive indexes throughout the layers of the atmosphere.

1) (Slide 56) Refractive index is the measure of the degree to which the speed of an EM wave will slow
down as it passes through the medium. It is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (“c”) to the
speed of light through the medium (“u”), and represented by the letter “n”. This is represented by the
equation

n = c / u and will always be a number  1.

(Slide 57) Since the resultant number is hard to work with, we’re going to subtract 1 from “n” and
multiply it by 106, so we can use a Normalized refractive index of “N”.

2) Atmospheric refractivity is dependent on

a) Atmospheric Pressure (P)
b) Temperature (T)
c) Vapor pressure (e)
d) Number of Free Electrons per m3 (Ne) (ionization)

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 e) Radar Frequency (f)
(Slide 58) And can be represented by the equation: N = (77.6/T)·(P + 4810 (e/T)) - 4.03·107(Ne/f2)

3) Normally, due to the lower Temperature, pressure, vapor pressure and increase in ionization at higher
altitudes, the refractive index decreases as the elevation increase. (Slide 59) This causes the EM
Wavefront to travel faster at higher elevations and bend the radar beam towards the earth. (Slide 60)
The standard refractive index of the atmosphere occurs when the “N” units decrease about 39 units
per kilometer, and will cause the radar beam to bend slightly downward from a straight line relative to
the 4/3 earth model.

4) (Slide 61) If Atmospheric conditions exist which disturb the normal refractive gradient, an
anomalous propagation occurs

a) (Slide 61) In cases in which the refractive index decreases at less than 39 N units/km (or
increases), the wave front will bend upward in what is known as subrefraction. Subrefraction
will greatly decrease the range of the radar.

b) (Slide 62) If the index decreases at greater than 39 N units/km, the beam will tend to bend
downwards towards the earth in superrefraction.

c) (Slide 63) When radar waves are trapped in a layer ducting occurs. This frequently occurs when
strong inversions are present.

d) (Slide 64-67) If the gradient decreases at about 157 N units/km, the radar beam will return to the
surface of the earth. (Slide 62&67) The waves may become trapped in duct between the Earth’s
surface and the negative gradient causing the downward refraction. This is called ducting or
trapping. This phenomenon may also occur between two atmospheric layers creating an elevated
duct.

(68-71) Ground Clutter and Beam Blocking, Partial Beam Filling, Below Beam Effect, Cone of Silence

b. Atmospheric Attenuation (Slide 72-73) —As EM energy propagates through the atmosphere, it is
attenuated (i.e., undergoes a loss in overall energy) by absorption and scattering. The major gaseous
absorbers in the atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and oxygen. Each is selective about
which frequencies it absorbs, (e.g., oxygen greatly absorbs UV energy), but for most radar, absorption is
fairly negligible in terms of its effect on EM propagation. EM energy is also scattered by liquids and
solids in the atmosphere. This effect is greatly dependent on the size of the particle in relation to the
wavelength, but as with absorption, scattering represents a small factor in normal EM propagation.

1) (Slide 74) Air—Main source of attenuation is Oxygen. As frequency increase, attenuation increases.
Can by significant for X-Band. Generally less than 0.01 dB/km. Significant only for scanning
elevations < 5 degree. Little contribution beyond range of 180 km. Correction provided in EDGE ™.
2) (Slide 75) Clouds—Highly variable - depends on temperature and liquid water content. Little effect
from ice clouds. Difficult to correct for. May be significant for X-Band.
3) (Slide 76) Rain—Of major significance in large storms. Major problem for X-Band Radars. Can be
corrected for.
4) (Slide 77) Snow—Much less effect than rain. More attenuation than in clouds, but not generally a
problem.
5) (Slide 78) Hail—Highly variable. Restricted to small regions. Large wet hail can cause major
attenuation problems. Difficult to quantify and correct for.

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D. Radar Data Moments—(Slide 79-80) Empirical Data moments are measured from the raw data the radar
receives and processes from a target in real time. It describes the properties of the target in terms of size,
motion, turbulence and particle identification at the time the signal is received by the radar. (Slide 66) The
measured data moments are: Intensity, Uncorrected Intensity, Differential Reflectivity, Differential Phase,
Velocity and Spectrum Width. From these moments, other data moments will be derived to provide a good
picture of what is happening with the sample area.

1. (Slide 81-82) Radar Equation and Signal Intensity (power): The Intensity Data Moment is derived from the
amount of power received by the radar

a. Point Targets: A point target is a single object or return within a sampled area of space. The amount of power
the radar will receive from a point target is dependant on several factors:
1) (Slide 83) Transmitter/Antenna Characteristics—The amount of power being directed at the target
2) (Slide 84) Isotropic radiator and Power Density—How much energy is being reflected by the object.
3) (Slide 85) Cross-sectional Area—A target will re-radiate energy received from the radar isotropically.
The radar will receive the backscattered energy from the target. The target’s backscattering cross-
sectional area is a function not only of its size, shape, and substance but also radar’s wavelength. (Slide
86) The size of the target in relationship to the radar’s wavelength will cause the amount of backscattered
energy to behave differently. (Slide 87) These targets sizes fall into three categories.
a) (Slide 88) Rayleigh Scattering The size of the weather the weather target compared to the wavelength
of the radar beam, the scattering is fairly uniform in all directions and the amount of power reflected
increases linearly with increasing size. This type of scattering is Rayleigh scattering and s preferred
because the linear relationship between power return and target size is very helpful. Rayleigh is a
good assumption for all weather targets smaller than 7 mm which includes practically all rain, but not
hail.
b) region [0.1 < (2πa/λ) < 1.0] (small, where the diameter of the target is less than about 1/6th of the
wavelength, or about 1 cm, based on a wavelength of about 5.5 cm). A change in diameter in this
region yield a six order of magnitude change of the backscatter cross-sectional area, hence the reason
for D6 in the equation for . In other words, if a 10 mm fly reflected 1 microwatt of power, a 20 mm
fly would reflect 64 microwatts of power and a 50 mm bee would reflect 15.625mW of power. A
small change in diameter yields a large change in backscatter.
c) (Slide 89) Mie or Resonance [1 < (2πa/λ) < 10.0]: (Targets between 1 and 10 cm or up to about
twice the size of wave length). For certain target sizes, backscatter cross-sectional area can actually
decrease as size increases. (see graph)
d) Optical [10.0 < (2πa/λ)]: As the target gets larger (greater than twice wavelength, or over 10 cm), the
target’s backscatter cross-sectional area will approach the size of the target’s geometric area. (Slide
90)
4) (Slide 92) Back scatter cross sectional area from a point target—When the [Hydrometeor Diameter (D)/
λ] value is:
a)
Large (e.g. 10 to 16) then A =  = π · r2
b) Small (e.g. 1/16 to 1/10) and A. The sphere is in the Rayleigh region,

so:  = (p5 · |K|2 · D6) / λ4. Note: K is related to the material’s complex index of refraction.

(Slide 93) Power transmitted from the radar is intercepted by the target at a level determined by
Transmitted power, Antenna gain, target cross-sectional area and the range to the target. This energy is
then Isotropically re-radiated based on the cross-sections area of the target, with the backscatter being
detected by the radar at a level determined by all the above factors, but is representative of the size of the
reflecting object.

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 5) Power received from a small point target (Slide 94)

pt  g 2  λ 2  σ
pr =
64  π 3  r 4
Short Version: (Slide 95) The more power received by the antenna at the same range, the bigger the
object is.

b. (Slide 96) Distributed Targets: Meteorological targets are not point targets. Several hydrometeors will be
contained within a sampled volume of the atmosphere. Therefore, the amount of power we will receive at the
radar will be a sum total of all the returns contained within a pulse volume

1) (Slide 97) Pulse Volume—The pulse volume is the actual space the transmitted pulse is occupying at any
one time, and is a function of the pulse width, the beamwidth and the range from the antenna. (Slide 96)

2) (Slide 97) Backscatter—Billions of returns in the sample volume each have a cross- sectional area (i).
(Slide 98) Total backscattering cross-sectional area (t) is:
σ =∑ σ
n

t i
i= 1
Or the aggregate sum total of all the little backscattering SOBs in the sample volume

3) Unit/Echo volume—(Slide 99) Multiplying the total backscattering cross-sectional area (t) with the area
of the sample volume gives us the backscattering cross-sectional area (t) of the unit volume.

4) Radar Equation-(Slide 100) Using this information, we can determine the amount of water in a sample
area base on the intensity or power level we receive at the radar using the Radar Equation.

Based on the amount of power in the pulse volume (adjusted by the Probert-Jones adjustment formula),
(Slide 101) (Slide 102). Here is the of the Porbert-Jones formula (Slide 103). Substituting
the distributed returns formula in place of the point target formula in the radar equation,
(Slide 104) adjusting for the small size of particles that fit in the Rayleigh region, (Slide 105) and
considering that the total backscattering cross-sectional area is in fact the reflectivity value “z”, (Slide
106-107) and adding in round trip gas attenuation, we can calculate the Power we will receive at the
antenna as:

pt  g 2  π 3  θ  φ  h  K   l  z
2

pr =
1024  ln2  λ 2  r 2

(Slide 108) Combining all the constants for the radar itself, (Transmit Power, Antenna Gain, pulse
volume), assuming gas attenuation is constant, and that the complex index of refraction is constant for
water, (Slide 109) we’ll cancel everything out of the equation (Slide 110)
z
Pr = C •
r2

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 In short: The intensity moment is a direct measurement of the reflectivity value, which is the amount of
water in the sample area. It is measured by the amount of power received by the antenna. The more water
in the sample area, the greater the return. The farther away the sample area is, the less the return.

5) (Slide 111) Because of the R2 decreases in power as the range to the target area increase, power from
returns at distant targets will decrease at an exponential rate. Range normalization is the process of
factoring in the exponential value of range when doing the intensity calculations.

2. Doppler Measurements and Velocity: (Slide 112) Another characteristic we can determine from the return of
energy is the velocity of the target. The Doppler radar can measure radial velocity, or the speed of an object
directly towards or away from the radar. .

a. Electromagnetic wave, phase shift, velocity, and the moving target:

1) Doppler Effect – When a radar beam strikes a moving target and is returned, there will be an apparent
shift in the frequency of the returned signal. (Slide 113 This is known as the Doppler Effect. The
effect is similar to the effect you hear when a train passes by you. (Slide 114) As the object
generating the sound approaches, the shorter distance between you and the object decreases, so the
sound waves will reach you faster, making the frequency appear higher. As the object moves away
from you, the longer distant between you and the object will make the waves take longer to reach you,
so the frequency will appear to decrease. As with sound, objects moving towards or away from the
radar will produce an apparent frequency shift, which we can measure to determine how fast the object
is moving.
2) Phase shifts—(Slide 115) Recall the properties of a sine wave. (Slide 116) The full length of a sine
wave () = 2 radians. (Slide 117) A radar signal is initially transmitted beginning at phase 0.
(Slide 118) The distance to a target and back (2  range) can also be measured in wave-lengths ()
and radians and is equal to (2  r /  ) 2. The phase of the signal when it returns will be the original
phase, plus the distance the wave has traveled, or:
= 0 + 4r/ 

(Slide 119) When the target is moving with respect to the radar, its range will change between two
consecutive radar pulses. Therefore the return from the target will reach the radar at a different phase,
causing a Phase-Shift. The velocity of the object and the speed at which the pulses are transmitted
(PRF) determines the amount of phase-shift between pulses. By measuring the shift, we can determine
how far the object has moved over a given interval of time and thereby determine its velocity. (Slide
120) This is known as Pulse-Pair Processing. (Slide 121) The direction of the phase shift (+ or -)
will indicate the direction of the movement. Objects moving towards the radar produce negative
phase-shifts. Objects moving away produce positive phase-shifts. Objects that are moving laterally
with the radar will produce no frequency shift and are displayed as stationary.

(Slide 122) (Slide 123) The amount of phase-shift can also be measured as a frequency that is
proportional to the velocity of the target, and expressed in the following equation:

f=2V/ 
For example: if your radar’s transmitted frequency is 5000 MHz, the wave length would be 6 cm. A
target that is moving towards you at 300 cm /sec (about 7 mph) would produce an apparent frequency
shift of +100 Hz.

3) Velocity Aliasing/Maximum Unambiguous Frequency –This equation does have its limitations.
Remember that the apparent shift of frequency is due the difference in the phase of two subsequently
received returns. That phase difference can be no more than   radians, or ½ a wavelength between
the two returns. Otherwise, the change would appear to be in the other direction. A positive phase
shift of 4 cm with a 5000 MHz transmitter would in fact look like a negative phase shift of 1 cm. The

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 radar would measure this as velocity in the opposite direction. This effect is known as Folding or
Velocity Aliasing. If the target were traveling a speed to have exactly one wavelength change between
transmitted pulses, the two returns would come back at the same phase, and the target would look as
though it were motionless. (Slide 124) Therefore, to increase the maximum velocity we can
measure, we would have to send those pulses out faster (increase the PRF), decreasing the distance the
object can travel before the next pulse hits it. This is why Doppler radars generally have a higher PRF
than other search or intensity only radars. (Slide 128) The maximum velocity that can be measured
by the radar is:

Vmax = PRF  / 4

(Slide 129) For example: If your PRF is 1180 and your frequency is 5600 ( = 5.357 cm), the
maximum velocity you can detect without aliasing or folding is about 16 m/sec (35 MPH).

(1) PRF

(2) Operating Frequency

(3) Doppler Dilemma--(Slide 130) The problem is, that the higher the PRF, the lower the
maximum unambiguous range. The lower the PRF, the less the Velocity-to-fold. Many
radars have unfolding programs that allow you to increase the maximum velocity-to-fold.
Here are examples of targest within and beyond Rmax and Range Folded – beyond
Rmax
4) Unfolding / Velocity Aliasing -- (Slide 131-134) One way to increase the maximum velocity is to
stagger the PRF. By staggering the PRF, the changes in the phase shifts detected by the radar can be
mathematically calculated to extend the maximum detectable velocity up to 5 times. (Slide 135)
The PRF is switched from its normal PRF to a PRF 2/3 the original (for 2X unfolding) or ¾ the
original (for 3X unfolding) or 5/6 the original for 5X unfolding.

b. Correlation - (Slide 136) Correlation is a statistical measure indicating how related two radar signals are.
Values run between zero and one, with zero being no relation and one being an identical match-up in the
two signals

1) (Slide 136-137) Signal Quality Index (SQI)—because of the noisy nature of weak returns, the
spectrum width will appear wide. Setting a higher correlation coefficient will force the signal
processor to only consider returns which meet the correlation standard to be processed for Spectrum
width. [Another factor in making accurate measurements is the Time to Independence or Decorrelation
time. (Slide 138) This is the time it takes for all the hydrometeors in a sample area to rearrange
themselves, so that one sample pulse looks nothing like the last sample (considered having a
correlation coefficient of .01 or 1%). In velocity measurements, the amount of decorrelation will be
used as a Signal Quality Index (user set threshold) to eliminate false velocity displays from weak
signals. (Slide 139 – noise example) A correlation coefficient of 1.0 (100% correlation) would
indicate the samples are identical. While this would mean the sampled measurement was a good
measurement, it also means that there was no movement in the sample. A correlation of 0 would
indicate the samples were completely different, however if the return from samples are weak, this
could mean you have just picked up noise and could give you false Velocity and Spectrum Width
measurements. Normal decorrelation times are 10 to 20 milliseconds. 1Since our PRF is 1180 PPS,
we should provide enough pulses to measure the sample before decorrelation, and we can set the SQI
(% of how much one sample must correlate to the previous sample) to eliminate returns that appear to
be noise.]

2) Decorrelation times are usually 3.5 to 30 msecs, depending on the storm and radar. (Slide 140-142)

3. Spectrum Width and Turbulence (Slide 143)

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a. (Slide 143) Spectrum Width: Another characteristic related to the Doppler effect is the Spectrum Width.
b. Distributed target returns-- Recall that the radar set groups distributed targets from a sample area as one
return. The intensity of this area is determined from the reflectivity of all the targets.

c. Frequency content of the return-- The velocity is determined from the phase shift of the returns of the
individual particles within the sample area between two pulses.

d. Variability within the volume Variance-- (Slide 144) If all the particles are moving the same direction at
the same speed (regardless of how fast they are moving), the detected change in phase of the returns from
all the particles will be about the same. (Slide 145) Therefore the returns from all the pulses through that
sample area would have a relatively narrow range of frequency shifts, or fall within a narrow frequency
domain. If the particles are moving at different speeds or directions, the amount and directions of the
phase-shifts will be varied. Therefore the returns from all the pulses through that sample area would have a
relatively wide range of frequency shifts, or fall within a wide frequency domain.

e. Standard deviation. (Slide 146-147) The signal processor will analyze this domain of frequency
measurements, and estimate the velocity of this sample based on the mean or average of the domain. It will
then compare the differences of all the measured frequency shifts to the measured mean frequency, and
develop a standard deviation. The measurement of this Standard Deviation is called Spectrum Width . If
the domain is very wide (Spectrum Width is large) it is an indication of turbulence within the sample.
(Slide 146) Wide spectrum widths could also be an indication of wind shear or tornadic activity.

f. Sources of Velocity Variance (Slide 148) :

1) (Slide 149) Wind Shear
2) (Slide 150) Antenna scanning
3) (Slide 151) Differential fall speeds
4) (Slide 152) Turbulence

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