Week 1 Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Lesson Summary
Welcome to our subject! Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. This subject uses insights from Anthropology,
Political Science and Sociology to develop your awareness if cultural, social and political dynamics, and sensitivity to
cultural diversity. This is to provide you an understanding of how culture, human agency, society and politics work; and
engage you, a student, in the examination of the country’s current human development goals.
At the end of our subject, you should acquire ideas about human cultures, human agency, society and politics; recognize
cultural relativism and social inclusiveness to overcome prejudices; and develop social and cultural competence to guide
your interactions with groups, communities, networks and institutions.

Gender
Gender is the socially – constructed characteristics of being male or female (Eccles: 43). It refers to society’s division of
humanity into two distinctive categories based on sex. Gender serves as a guide on how male or female think and act
about themselves; the ways they interact with others; and how they perform their various roles in society. Gender is the
culturally – learned difference between men and women. The level of masculinity and femininity varies from one culture
to another especially on how society dictates one’s productive and reproductive roles or gender roles. Society confers
power on each of these sexes that leads to the development of a sense of empowerment and sensitivity.
Socio – economic class / status
Socio – economic status refers to the category of persons who have more or less the same socioeconomic privileges in a
society. These privileges are due to inherited wealth and / or the occupational status of the breadwinner in the household.
(Panopio, etc.: 327) The types of social class / status operate in varying forces and combinations at different times within
a society or in diverse societies. In the Philippines, three types of social classes are identified: upper, middle, and lower
middle classes. The elite class consists of elite families. There are two general types: the new rich (nouveau riche) and
traditional upper class. The middle class is composed of small business and industry operators mostly owners and
managers, professionals, office workers, and farm owners with income sufficient enough to provide a comfortable and
decent living.
Ethnicity
Ethnicity is the expression of the set of cultural ideas held by a distinct ethnic or indigenous group. An ethnic group refers
to people who collectively and publicly identify themselves as distinct and unique based on distinguishable cultural
features that set them apart from others, such as language, shared ancestry, common origin, customs and traditions
(Haviland, et. Al.: 313)
Religion
Religion is an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere of the supernatural, along with associated ceremonial
or ritualistic practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond human
control. (Haviland, et.al.: 554)
Gender, Socio – economic status, Ethnicity and Religion plays a big role in Culture, Society and Politics. These are
significant factors, along with exceptionality and nationality, in determining how culture changes overtime, how society
affects a certain individuals and the impact of politics to an individual or a group.

Contributors of Changes in Various Aspects of Society

Norms
Norms are often contributed the form of rules, standards or prescriptions that are strictly followed by people who adhere
on certain conventions and perform specific roles. It indicates a society’s standards of propriety, morality, ethics, and
legality.
Norm of appropriateness or decency is commonly exhibited on the type of clothing a person wears in a specific
occasion. This norm also includes the manners and behaviors that show a person’s refinement and civility.
Norms of Conventionality are beliefs and practices that are acceptable to certain cultures but is not accepted to other
culture. For example, Bagobo inhabitants of Davao bury their dead within the neigborhood and the T’boli of South
Cotabato hangs corpses of dead infants on trees.
Individuals and groups can shape the norms and values of their society through the concrete application of their beliefs,
norms and values in their everyday lives. One can gain wisdom at looking into the significance of norms and values.
Conformity and Deviance
All norms whether codified or not are supported by sanctions: rewards for conformity and punishments for non –
conformity. Conformity therefore refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted
behavior within his or her group or society. As individuals and groups conform to an established norm, the norm then
becomes a convention. Conventional norms exert more sanctions in society as it is tantamount to public approval and
recognition. On the other hand there are forms of behavior that are relatively or distinctly set away from a norm. This
form of behavior van be referred to as deviant behavior or non-conformity. Deviance is divided into two types. Formal
deviance includes actions that violate enacted laws while Informal deviance refers to violations to social norms that are
not codified into law. Deviance also include food taboos, crime and even the emergence of political dynasties. These
behaviors, regardless to conform or deviate from the traditional norms of society may contribute to the changes in various
aspects of society.

Significance of Studying Culture, Society and Politics

Culture is generally defined as the sum of an individual’s way of life, ranging from the food he or she eats, the clothes he
or she wears, and the house where he or she lives. It also includes both the material and non – material things he or she
possess or acquires. Culture also includes fads and fashion trends, manners and taboos as well as scientific knowledge and
technology that manifest through tangible aspects, such as architectural and engineering wonders, advancement in
medicine and breakthroughs in transportation and communication.
Society is generally defied as an organized group or groups of interdependent people who share a common territory,
language, and culture, and who act together for collective survival and well – being. The ways that people depend upon
one another can be seen in different social features, such as their economic, communication, and defense systems. They
are also bound together by a general sense of common identity and pride of place. In reality, there can be no culture
without a society and so far there are no known human societies that do not exhibit culture. (Haviland, et. Al: 312)
Politics refers to the “theory, art and practice of government.” The political institution is a relatively stable cluster of
statutes, general norms, and role behavior, which are involved in the acquisition and exercise of power and decision-
making in the society (Turner: 215). The institution that sets up the social norms and values as to who will possess “the
monopoly of legitimate use of physical force within a given territory,” how that power is acquired and maintained, and
how that power is organized and exercised, comprises the state (Weber: 216).
Culture, society and politics are essential in understanding human behavior and social groups. They are interrelated and
to some extent reflective of each other. Through similarities and areas of convergence exist among them, they are nor
identical.

The Essence of Studying Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology.

Numerous changes and transformation in the social, political, and cultural aspects of individuals and societies all over the
world are best understood using the disciplines if anthropology, political science and sociology as tools.
Anthropology is the study of human beings and their ancestors. Anthropology produces knowledge about what makes
people different from one another and what they all share in common. Anthropologists work within the four fields of the
discipline.
1. Physical Anthropology focuses on humans as biological organisms.
2. Cultural Anthropology investigates the ways groups of people think, feel and behave.
3. Biological Anthropology / Archaeology try to recover information about human cultures – often form the past – by
studying samples, skeletal remains and settlements.
Political Science is the body of knowledge relating to the study of the state and government. It primarily focuses on the
“power” that plays a crucial part in the struggle in which the individuals and their groups may be found involved
according to their capability and degree if interest at all levels – local, regional, national and international (Sharma and
Sharma: 6).
Sociology is considered the science of society and social behavior, which is viewed as an aggregate of individuals
(Robertson: 5). It deals with social development in general and describes and analyses social life in all its phases and
complexities. Accordingly, sociology deals with perspectives, which is fundamental in the study of various activities of
human beings (Macionis: 2). It is also considered as the science of origin, development structure and functions of social
groups. The discipline tries to provide vivid awareness of relationship between private experience and the wider society
(Robertson: 5).
The study of culture, society and politics is important to you students to be equipped with the basic concepts of each
discipline.

Week 2 Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Lesson Summary
We are now on 2nd week! This time we will be analysing the concept of culture and society, its aspects and how it
changes. As what we discussed last week culture is the sum of an individual’s way of life. Society on the other hand
society is an organized group or groups of interdependent people who share a common territory, language, and culture.

What is Society?
Society is an organized group or groups of interdependent people who share a common territory, language, and culture.
To have a complete understanding about society, Shabirm et.al, and the term “society” signifies an organized group of
people who share a common, dwelling and who are dependent on each other for their survival and well – being. They
depend on each other through filial relationships and common identity. Human beings are considered to be naturally
inclined to establish societies, since it is interacting with others that they are able to ensure survival by establishing
mutually beneficial relationships with one another. Societies enable individuals to acquire necessary survival skills,
maximize their potential, and share resources.
Elements of Society
a. Social solidarity. Members of the community live together for mutual benefit;
b. Shared identity and culture among members that serve as basis for their patterns of actions or behavior;
c. Common language;
d. A large population and the ability to sustain succeeding generations of members;
e. Definite geographical area;
f. Political, economic, and social organization.
Five Major Types of Societies According to how they changed and developed over time
1. Hunting and gathering communities. Dating as far back several million years ago and were considered the first
societies.
2. Horticultural and pastoral societies. Societies that relied on the cultivation of plants as their primary source of food,
while pastoral societies depended on the domestication of animals.
3. Agricultural societies. Food production became more efficient establishment of permanent settlements.
4. Industrial societies. Technological advancements resulted in the invention of machines that improved production.
5. Post – Industrial societies.

Individual societies have varying histories, experience, identities, and organizations, all of them have four vital cultural
components;
1. Symbols refer to things that convey meaning or represent an idea. They are essential in communication, shaping
thoughts and ideas and defining a society’s culture.
2. Language is a set of symbols that enables members of society to communicate verbally (spoken) and nonverbally
(written, gestures).
3. Values are shared ideas, norms, and principles that provide members of society the standards that pertain to what is
right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable.
4. Norms are shared rules of conduct that determine specific behavior among society members.
a. Folkways are norms that may be violated without serious consequences.
b. Mores are norms with moral connotations.
c. Laws are norms that are legally enacted and enforced.

What is Culture?
The first clear conceptualization of and definition of culture came from Sir Edward Taylor a British Anthropologist, in
1871. For him culture is “a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other
capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. The word “culture” derives from Latin words “cult” or “cultus”
which means “tilling”, “cultivating”, or “refining worship”. It can be inferred that culture is supposed to be improved and
refined.
There are two primary categories of culture: material culture and nonmaterial culture
Material Culture is composed of the physical or tangible objects produced, shared, and utilized within society such as
tools or implements, paintings and other works of arts, architectural styles, weaponry, and toys.
Nonmaterial Culture consists of the intangible properties and elements of society that influence the patterns of action
and behavior of its members. Examples nonmaterial culture includes language, beliefs, values, attitudes, ideas, and norms
shared among the members of the society.

Characteristics of Culture
Culture is Dynamic, Flexible and Adaptive
Cultural behaviors allow people to fit into and adapt to their respective environment. The cumulative and social nature of
human activities, and artefacts gives a tremendous potential source of variability in adaption. Some cultures through
experience have developed diverse ways in adapting to their environment, which is even important to their survival on the
planet. Culture for people is like water for fish, so omnipresent and important that they could hardly fathom its
significance. Yet conscious or not, people have adapted significantly to their environments and cultural ways rather than
evolve biologically or naturally and, in so doing, have gained prowess and momentum in manoeuvrability and flexibility
in environmental adaptation, simply unchallenged by other forms of life. (Collins: 207 – 208)
Culture is Shared and Contested
This concept means that various members of a society or group commonly share ideas, activities, and artifacts. Hence, the
behavior of people in a group or society often becomes socially and conventionally standardized in form and manner.
Shared culture provides order and meaning in interpreting behavioural patterns of individuals in a society. People do not
only interact together to share a common culture but also to validate it. Since culture is extra genetic, its transmission is
not simply automatic but largely depends on the willingness of people to give and receive it. People alter ideas activities,
and artifacts prior to their transmission and even reject them afterwards.
Culture can learned through Socialization and Enculturation
Behavior patterns that constitute a specific culture are not genetically or biologically determined. Socialization refers to
the lifelong process if forging identity through social interaction. Enculturation refers to the process by which an
individual learns or acquires the important aspects of his or her society’s culture. For example, every normal infant has the
potential to learn any culture as he or she grows and survives the various stages of life. Man not only learns a culture but
also has a capacity to abandon or set aside parcels of it in certain conditions and gradually adapt new and often radically
different behavior forms.
Culture is Patterned Social Interaction.
The learned behaviour of people is patterned. Each person’s behaviour often depends upon some particular behaviour of
someone else. The point is that, as a general rule, behaviours are somewhat integrated or organized with related
behaviours of other persons.
Culture is Integrated and at times Unstable
For a society or group, ideas, activities, and artifacts are not only shared; their arrangement more or less fit together and
interlock to form a consistent whole. The various behaviors we observe are different kinds of cultural expressions and are
acted for different for different reasons and purposes.
Culture is transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation Acquired through learning, cultural ideas activities, and
artifacts are handed down from generation to generation as super organic inheritance, which means it is inherently passed
on through generations. Some forms of cultural ideas, activities, and artifacts are also acquired through social learning –
by imitating the act of others – and through communication and language.
Culture requires Language and Other Forms of Communication
Language is a shared set of spoken (often written) symbols and rules used in meaningful ways. Language has been called
“the store house of culture.” It is the primary means of capturing, communication, discussing, changing, and passing
shared understandings to new generations (new citizen). Language is the most important means of cultural transmission,
the process by which one generation passes culture to the next. Without language, people will not be able to inform others
about events, emotions and other experiences that they did not experience. Much of the human behavior involves symbols
or non – verbal forms, such as signs, sounds, emblems, and other things that are linked to something or someone else and
represented in meaningful ways. These symbols, ranging from nationals flags to wedding rings to money, enter into every
aspect of culture from social life and religion to politics and economics (Haviland, et.al: 316).

The Connection between Culture and Society

Culture and Society are connected concepts. One cannot be studied without referencing to the others. There is no culture
without society, and there is no society that does not exhibit culture. The organization of the society is the reflection of its
culture. It is the product of various historical, cultural, social, political, ad economic processes. The organization of a
society is especially seen through the cultural beliefs that society holds dear – cultural beliefs that are identical, commonly
known and have been handed down from one generation to another. It is also because of culture that society establishes
institutions and organizations to enforce the said culture and cultural beliefs. Culture and Society are connected concepts.
One cannot be studied without referencing to the others. There is no culture without society, and there is no society that
does not exhibit culture.

Week 3 Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Lesson Summary
There are 7.8 billion people living in Earth as of 2018, each one belongs to a certain culture and has a certain set of
beliefs. Each culture differs from another as each defines differently realities. And because of this people find it difficult
to get along with or understand other people’s ways of thinking and doing. Some groups find their own culture superior
and everything that is outside of it is wrong or frowned upon. This week we will be talking about the perspective and
approaches to the study of culture and society. At the same time we will be focusing on different views (ethnocentrism,
xenocentrism, and cultural relativism) one have regarding to the culture they currently have / in. Let’s start!
Society and Culture according to the Three Discipline
Anthropology
Culture is the central focus of the discipline Anthropology because it studies the different cultures of different societies.
Anthropology examines and provides explanations for the existence of different cultural patterns as well as the similarities
and differences between various cultures. There three views on how a group / an individual sees culture; Ethnocentrism,
Xenocentrism and Cultural Relativism.
Ethnocentrism. This is the view that one’s group is superior compared to another. Ethnocentrism diminishes or
invalidates “other” ways of life and creates a distorted view of one’s own. In many cases, a group or society uses their
own values and norms as bases of measurement of other folkways and values. In ethnocentrism, there is a tendency to
evaluate other cultures in terms of one’s own and to conclude that the other cultures are inferior, barbaric, or immoral.
Because of this, relationship and individual behavior with other culture may be affected. Extreme forms of ethnocentrism
have led to wars or colonization. Here are some examples of how ethnocentrism can be shown;
a. William Howard Taft once referred to the Filipinos as the Americans “little brown brothers” who needed to be
supervised by the United States of America in establishing a society and government that approximates “Anglo –
American standards”.
b. Chinese people’s feeling of superiority anchored on the so – called “middle kingdom complex”.
Xenocentrism is the tendency to consider their culture as inferior to others. Some Filipinos share this perceptions that
some aspects of Philippine culture are inferior compared to foreign cultures, particularly those of our former colonizers.
This kind of mentality is referred as “Colonial Mentality”. Another manifestation of xenocentrism and colonial mentality
is the preference of Filipinos to speak English or other European languages.
There has been a lot of emphasis on cultural relativism that recognizes and accepts cultural differences between
societies. This view believes that every aspect of a culture can justified by the context in which culture is has been formed.
According to cultural relativism assert that culture must be viewed and analysed on their own terms, in the context of their
own societal setting. No culture should be considered better than another; different cultures should be accepted, tolerated,
and appreciated rather than condemned. Cultural relativism states that there are no universal norms or moral absolutes,
any act can appear either good or bad.
Some have advanced the concept of cultural sensitivity. It advances awareness and acceptance of cultural differences but
encourages a critical stance in dealing with issues regarding diversity. This view believes that not all cultural practices,
traditions and views can be integrated, and that distinct cultures can be harmoniously coexist in society.

Sociology
Sociology relates culture with the overall context of social order. There are different sociological perspective that explain
this order.
Structural Functionalism. It operates on the assumption that society is a stable and orderly system. Structural
functionalists consider culture as a glue that binds society together.
Conflict theory assumes that there is a constant power struggle among various social groups and institutions within
society. Conflict theorists study the culture of “dominant classes” and analyse how this culture is imposed on other
classes.
Symbolic Interactionism views individual and group behavior and social interaction as defining features of society.
Symbolic interactionist believe that culture provides shared meanings to the members of society. The more meanings are
shared, the more society ensures social order.

Political Science
Political science also examines culture as a vital aspect of society. Culture, together with political socialization, is
analysed in order to explain political behavior such as voting patterns and behavior leaders. Culture is seen as an
important element in building social capital and could also lead to future conflicts and division.
Multiculturalism is an ideology that acknowledges and promotes cultural diversity within society. Multiculturalism
entails the establishment of political groups and institutions comprised of people from diverse cultures. This view
challenges the idea of the nation – state and the advancement of nationalist and ultranationalist policies.
Cultural Forms and Threats
If you still remember from last week’s lesson there are two primary category of culture. These are material culture and
nonmaterial culture. Let us deepen our understanding on why preserving intangible cultural heritage and passing it on to
future generations strengthens the identity of a certain group or person.
A good portion of culture is visible and tangible since it consists of a huge number of products conceived and
manufactured by people. Material Culture / Tangible includes all material objects, such as artifacts, buildings or
landscapes, tools, furniture, bridges and any physical substance which has been changed and used by people.
Nonmaterial / Intangible is consists of abstractions that include knowledge, beliefs, values, rule for behavior, traditional
skills and technologies, religious ceremonies, performing arts, and storytelling. Both tangible and intangible forms of
culture, according to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) intangible culture
are considered cultural heritage.
The UNESCO emphasized the preservation of intangible cultural heritage. This nonmaterial form of cultural heritage can
either be characterized as traditional, contemporary and living, inclusive, representative, and community – based.
Intangible cultural heritage has been passed from one generation to another. It has evolved in response to the changes in
the community that it belongs to. It gives a sense of identity and continuity to people and his or her community. Intangible
cultural heritage is not merely valued as cultural good, on a comparative basis, for its exclusivity or its exceptional value,
which qualifies it as representative heritage.
Forms of intangible cultural heritage have witnessed certain changes brought about by globalization, technological
revolution, and even cultural homogenization through the years. There are expressions and manifestations of intangible
cultural heritage that are under threat by the lack of support, appreciation, and understanding of people. If intangible
cultural heritage is not nurtures, it risks becoming lost forever, or frozen as a practice belonging in the past.
Pointers to Remember!
 Ethnocentric and xenocentric views, which believe in the notion that a culture may be “superior” or “inferior” to other
cultures, are challenged and negated by cultural relativism, multiculturalism, and cultural sensitivity.
 Ethnocentrism is not the appropriate behavior in understanding other cultures because it requires a person or group to
use its own set of cultural beliefs and practices as a yardstick.
 Culture is composed of heritage that can be seen and touched; and those that are intangibles or abstracted.

Week 4 Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Lesson Summary
Why is the past important? The past influences the present. The present is shaped by the ways of life of early people,
prehistoric people such as our ancestors. It is important to know the past in order for you to know why you become the
person in the present and what kind of person you will be in the future. Remember it is important to know the past not stay
on the past. Among the most interesting and important questions that social scientist delve into is the origin and nature of
society. In explaining the basis of the origins or societies, anthropologists have focused on the following questions: “what
is the relationship between biological factors and cultural behavior? Do biological factors that influence cultural behavior
and vice – versa? These questions contextualize the interaction between biological factors and cultural behavior toward
shaping the society as well as how its individual members lived.
Biological Evolution
This refers to the process whereby organisms undergo various genetic and physical changes that pave way for biological
diversity. Biological evolution continues to influence how people live and interact members of society. Individuals
gathered in small groups that eventually turned into large societies. They lived a nomadic lifestyles and engaged in
hunting and gathering for their livelihood. They then learned to settle in specific areas, particularly in areas that were in
close proximity to rivers, and acquired knowledge in producing their food through agriculture. People in groups
underwent a technological evolution as they learned to create various tools and equipment for their daily tasks such as
planting crops, domesticating animals and trade. As people learned to live together as a society, shared beliefs, ideas,
values, attitudes, practices, knowledge, and material possessions were accumulated over time and forged sense of culture
among the members of society.
Biocultural Evolution
Introduced by anthropologists sometime in 1970s. Biocultural evolution is “the mutual interactive evolution of human
biology and culture.” This concept focuses on the idea that “biology makes culture possible and that developing culture
further influences the direction of biological evolution.” It is a basic concept in understanding the unique components of
human evolution.
Early Humans
Humans and their ancestors are distinct among the hominoids for bipedalism a special form of locomotion on two feet.
Larger brains and bipedal locomotion constitute the most striking differences between contemporary people and our
closest primate relatives. Tracing the roots of human evolution is done by determining whether a fossilized hominoid is
bipedal (walks on two feet). There are several ways to determine bipedalism such as looking at the curves of the spine,
shape of the pelvis, and shape of the foot bones, among others. (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, and Mcbride. 2008) The earliest
ancestors of humans hailed from the Australopithecus which were bipedal but had small brain-size proportion to their
bodies. It is theorized that from one species of Australopithecus, the Homo habilis evolved. Compared to the
Australopithecus, the Homo habilis most probably exercised higher abilities to learn and were better at processing
information than the Australopithecus. In addition, dates of the projected time of existences of the Home habilis are close
to the dates where early stone tools were discovered. (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, and Mcbride, 2008). Following the Homo
habilis in the line of human evolution was the Homo erectus. With an even larger brain, the Homo erectus was more able
to adapt to the environment and provide solutions to the problems of survival. The culture of the Homo erectus is mostly
perceived through the tools they made.
Man’s Cultural Evolution
Paleolithic Period---The Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age is divided into three divisions, each with a distinct tradition
of tool – making (Kottak, 2000). The divisions are labelled according to the layers of ground the tools were found in.
a. The Lower Paleolothic Period marked the existence of the Homo erectus. The Homo erectus sought efficiency
and made tools for specific tasks. During this period, the hand axe and other stone tools were created. Tools
during this period were made by chipping off flakes from a core of rock, from different angles. (Kottak, 2000).
b. b. The Homo sapiens lived during the Middle Paleolithic Period. The Homo sapiens made more efficient tools,
allowing them to do anatomical labor much easier, such as prying, lifting, holding, and pulling. Further
specialization of tools was also done by creating uniform flakes of rock and detailing each one for a particular
task. (Kottak, 2000)
c. c. Lastly, the Homo sapiens lived during the Upper Paleolithic Period. The blade, loner than a flake of rock, was
the most distinct tool developed during this period. A further increase in specialized tools was also created during
this period. The expansion of specialized tools reflected an increase in the population of the Homo sapiens sapiens
and their exploration of new economic activities.

Neolithic Period---It literally means the New Stone Age Revolution. This is because of the polished stone tools and the
techniques that produced such tools emerged during this period. Neolithic Period was a time of fundamental change; it
was the period when food production started. People had also started to settle in specific areas they called villages so they
can grow crops and raise animals, which in turn, lessened nomadic practices.

Early Civilization and the Rise of the State

The word civilization comes from the Latin words civis, which refers to a person who lives in a city; and civets, which
refers to the urban community in which one dwells. As defined by anthropologists, civilization refers to societies in which
large numbers of people live in cities. The inhabitants of the cities are socially stratified and governed by a ruling elite
who work through centrally organized political systems called states.
Rise of Cities
There are four basic changes mark the transition from Neolithic village life to life in the first urban centers: agricultural
innovation, diversification of labor, social stratification, and central government.
a. Agricultural Innovation
Changes in farming methods distinguished early civilizations from Neolithic villages. Irrigation was an important
factor that increased crop yield. Freedom from seasonal rain cycles allowed farmers to harvest more crops yearly.
When farming became permanent, populations in farming villages rose. Often, areas near bodies of water were
developed into agricultural lands. With the development of irrigation systems, even dry areas were able to participate
in food production.
b. Diversification of Labor
Diversification of Labor was also a characteristics of early civilization. In a Neolithic village without irrigation or
plow farming, every family member participated in the planting crops. High crop yields made possible by new
farming methods and increased population permitted a sizable number of people to pursue non-agricultural activities
on a full – time basis. Ancient public records document a variety of specialized workers. For example an early
Mesopotamia document from the old Babylonian city of Lagash (modern day Tell al – Hiba, Iraq) listed artisans,
craftsmen, and people who store crops in the temple granaries as examples of specialized workers in ancient
Babylonian civilization. Other workers included were coppersmiths, silversmiths, sculptors, merchants, potters
tanners, engravers, butchers, carpenters spinners, barbers, cabinetmakers, bakers, clerks, and brewers.
c. Social Stratification
The rise of large, economically diversified populations presided over by centralized governing authorities brought
with it the fourth cultural characteristics of civilization: social stratification or the emergence of social classes. People
who stood or near the head of government were the earliest holders of high status. As time passed by, the possessions
of wealth and the influence it could buy became in itself a requisite for high status, as it is in some contemporary
cultures. The existence of social stratification in early societies is reflected in their laws and other written documents;
archaeological features, such as dwelling size and location; mortuary evidences.
d. Central Government
The emergence of a governing elite also characterized early civilizations. The challenges new cities faced because of
their size and complexity required a strong central authority. The governing elite as to it that different interest groups,
such as farmers or craft specialists, provided their respective services and did not infringe on one another. Evidence of
centralized authority in ancient civilizations comes from sources, such as law codes, temple records and royal
 chronicles. Excavation of city structures themselves provides additional evidence because they can show definite
signs of city planning. Through written documents and artifacts, central authorities disseminated information and
stored, systematized, and transmitted memory and information for political religious, and economic purposes.
Democratization
Democratization is considered the peak of civilization’s evolution. Democratization is a complex, multi – linear
process operating under certain contexts and structures unique to each country albeit delimited by dominant global
structures. It evolves primarily from interaction of internal groups (e.g. labor, consumers, renters, and women among
others) ad institutions grappling with each other in the domestic context and the global order. (Ferrer, 1997)

Week 5 & 6 Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Lesson Summary
For an individuals to become a functional member of society, he or she should have a meaningful interaction with the
various social structures and institutions of society – that is, a pattern of relationship among basic components of social
system. This week we will dwell on how meaningful social interactions provide room for the formation and organization
of groups in a society. Groups play a pivotal role in the interplay, negotiation, and contestations of status, roles, and laws
that significantly shape an individual’s link to his or her society.

Socialization
Socialization refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire their identities and
necessary survival skills in society. It prepares new members of society and trains them to think, feel, and act in
appropriate ways. Socialization is considered the central process of social life, and is also a process of member
recruitment and replacement. Here are some examples of socialization;
a. child – rearing;
b. orientation of a student to his or her new school;
c. an initiation to an organization;
d. attendance in Sunday school;
e. catechism for Catholics;
f. recruitment processes for political parties;
g. acquainting an immigrant to significant aspects of life in his or her new country.
The process of socialization enables a person to gradually become self – aware and knowledgeable human being, and
learn the ways, values, rules, and culture of his or her society.

Enculturation
Enculturation is the process of being socialized into specific culture. Through enculturation, individuals learn cultural
symbols, norms, values, and language by observing and interacting with family, friends, teachers, and the rest of society.
It is a process that helps individuals become functional members of society. Melville Herskovits clarifies that
enculturation process by saying that in the early stages of human growth, the individual unconsciously internalized his or
her culture; but in the conscious stage during his or her later years, the process already involves innovations and inquiry
on the part of the individual.

Result of Socialization and Enculturation

Identity Formation – An individual’s identity is formed through his interactions with other people. A person’s
socialization with individuals or group allows his or her identity. (ideas derived from Newman, 2012). For example, the
centuries of Philippine Chinese exposure to Filipino culture made them imbibe facts of Filipino character in the same way
Filipinos learned to love Chinese culture..

Norms and Values

Norms are culturally determined rules that guide people regarding what is right, wrong, proper, or improper. Norms
create predictability in daily affairs and interactions, making it easier to live with other members of society (Newman,
2012). Norms did not exists out of thin air. They were initially designed and created by people who benefitted from their
existences or suffered from their absences (Coleman, 2000). People are subjected to norms when they become part of
society. As such they are also subjected to the sanctions and rewards of a society’s norms – whether rewards for
adherences to a norm or punishment for a violation of a norm. (Coleman, 2000). There are two most popular norms in the
Philippines. First is the norm of appropriateness and wearing decent and appropriate clothes for a particular occasion or
event. Second is tact and courtesy. When somebody makes a mistake or slips in his or her words and actions, we do not
laugh or make fun of the person in order not to embarrass him or her and, at the same time, express our respect and
courtesy.
Values are standards people use to determine desirable goals and outcomes (Hewitt and Hewitt, 1986 in Newman, 2012).
Values are criteria on which people base their judgements regarding behaviors and decisions. In the Philippine setting,
values are often used as parameters in separating what is considered normal and moral from taboo and predatory. The two
most important values that Filipinos possess are: first, value of industry and, secondly utang na loob (reciprocity or debt of
gratitude). Values are created and shaped in the community through time. It does not happen overnight. As standards to
determine desirable outcomes and goals, values are experimented by a particular society to check its relevance and
appropriateness to existing norms and laws.
Statuses and roles – Status is any position that an individual can occupy in society. (Newman, 2012). It is not a ranked
position, but simply a label that implies certain roles that must be performed (Newman, 2012). Every person can
simultaneously hold various statuses at any point in time. In a specific situation, when a person’s different statuses require
him or her to perform different roles, his or her actions will reflect which statuses is more important in that certain
circumstance at that given time. (Newman, 2012).

The two type of status are ascribed and achieved.

Ascribed status is given at birth or assigned later in life. Some examples of ascribed status include age, sex, ethnicity,
and membership in a family, among others. Achieved status is acquired wilfully and consciously through effort talent,
decisions, and accomplishments. It includes being someone’s girlfriend or boyfriend, being the top student in one’s class,
and being a black belter in karate.
Agents of Socialization and Enculturation
An important part of the socialization and enculturation processes are the social groups that people come in contact and
interact with throughout their lives. These groups are called participants or agents of socialization and enculturation, and
consist of persons, groups, and institutions that teach people essential knowledge to participate successfully in society.
The Family
The family is the primary agent of socialization of an individuals upon birth, throughout infancy, and up to childhood.
Parents and other family members are essential for the early care and development of the child, and as the child matures,
the family becomes an important venue for social engagement and political socialization.
Schools
Schools have a critical and active role in socialization, as their various academic and social activities mold students’
beliefs, values, and attitudes. Schools teach students important values like competitiveness, cooperation, conformity,
innovation, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for authority. In addition, students learn the value of self – improvement
and hard work through classroom activities and learning tasks which give them opportunities to apply their knowledge
and skills. Students also benefit from the constant guidance and evaluation provided by teachers. Through education,
students become more aware of the interactions between people and social institutions and how these influence society.
The school also provides students venues for increased political and social participation, enabling for involvement. This
results in students taking on more mature and responsible political roles as they grow into adulthood, and they begin to
exercise their rights and responsibilities in their respective communities by voting and becoming active supporters of
certain political or social issues.
Peer Groups
Peer groups also reinforce acceptable behaviors introduced by the family and school, allow s a certain degree of
independence from family and certain figures of authority, and are also a means for socialization and involvement in
social and political issues. Peer groups refers to people who share the same interests or characteristics such as age and
social background. Peer groups for the most part are formed by informal, spontaneous, and voluntary means. There are
certain organized groups that can be considered peer groups since they allow individuals who share similar backgrounds
and interests to come together.
Mass Media
Mass media includes forms of communication such as books, magazines, newspaper, other print materials, radio,
television, and movies. It is a powerful agent of socialization which is widely used by many institutions and organizations
involved in the use of print and electronic communication.
Religion and State
Both religion and state are considered as the ultimate sources of authority, making the church and government important
agents of socialization. Religion exerts a great influence on the views of a person, legitimizes accepted social practices,
and provides stability to society, and can even be sources of social change. The state participates on socialization through
laws and other regulations that reinforce appropriate behavior, and help form values and attitudes of the citizens. Through
laws, the state upholds important concepts such as the rights and responsibilities, and regulates behavior of its citizen
through the use of rewards and sanctions.
Major Social and Historical
Events Major social and political events can also be significant socializing for an entire generation. The changes and
developments brought about by historical events often cause transformations in the values, attitudes, and views that define
societies.

Conformity and Deviance

Conformity refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted behavior within his or her
group society. Social psychology considers conformity as product of pressure exerted by the group on the individual.
Herbert Kelman identifies three types of conformity: compliance, identifies three types of conformity: compliance,
identification, and internalization or acceptance.
Compliance refers to the outward conformity to social pressure but privately disagreeing with it. This action is often
motivated by the desire to gain rewards or avoid punishment.
Identification refers to the individual adopting a certain behavior because it enables him or her to have a satisfying
relationship with the members of his or her group.
Internalization or acceptance involve public compliance and internals acceptance of the norms and standards imposed by
the group. Acceptance or internalization is motivated by the desire to be right, with the authority figure or person of
influences being deemed trustworthy, credible and of good judgement.
Deviance is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members and involves actions that
violate commonly held social norms. What is defined as deviance varies depending on the context of the group or society.
What may be considered normal behavior in one culture may be considered deviant behavior in others.
The most popular form of deviance is the commitment of crime, which is defined as the violation of norms that have
been formally enacted into criminal law. Criminal deviance itself is varied ranging from minor violation of traffic rules to
serious offenses like murder and rape. In modern societies, juvenile delinquency is also considered a deviant crime being
a violation of legal standards by children or adolescents.
Sociologists view deviance as rooted in society, and very evident in three ways. First, it exists only in relation to
cultural norms. Any thought or action cannot be considered deviant unless it is correlated to a particular norm. Second
people become deviant as others define them that way. Being deviant is in the eye of the beholder and largely depends
on the perception, pre-conditioned notion, and definition of the situation of other people. Third, both norms and the way
events are defined are related to patterns of social power.
Strain theory is one of the most well - known explanations about deviant behavior. This was advanced by sociologist
Robert Merton who claimed that the operation of society actually encourages crime and other types of deviance,
especially by people in certain situations. This theory states that deviant behavior occurs when people experience strain or
tension when culture impose goals that individuals should achieve, but the social environment makes it hard or
challenging for individuals to meet such goals through a legitimate manner. Put in another way, when a society’s cultural
goals and the socially accepted means to achieve those goals are out of balance, deviant behavior occurs.
Members of society react to strains in five different ways:
1. Conformity – individuals still accept cultural goals and try to achieve them through culturally approved methods.
2. Innovation – Individuals still accept cultural goals but go about in achieving it in a culturally disapproved way.
3. Ritualism – Individuals still live in society and follow its culturally approved ways, but they no longer try to achieve
cultural goals.
4. Retreat – individuals no longer desire to achieve cultural goals and have abandoned the culturally approved ways of
achieving those goals.
5. Rebellion – Individuals challenge the existing culturally accepted goals by coming up with new ones and also challenge
the prescribed means on achieving cultural goals.

Mechanism of Social Control

Deviance is checked through social control to ensure that norms and conventions are safeguarded and order preserved.
Society controls individual ideas and behaviors through the following.
Labelling theory – this theory state how members of society label each other, whether they are deviant or not. Being
labelled a deviant entails numerous consequences throughout an individual’s life. A person’s chance of acquiring socially
acceptable roles and relationships with other people becomes limited when he or she is labelled as deviant.
Gossip – This is often practiced in small – scale communities where people know each other personally. Gossiping or
talking behind someone’s back and spreading rumors about him or her, society reinforces what norms should be followed
and punishes the deviants by putting them to shame.
Laws – Laws are formal codes of conduct that are met with negative sanctions when violated. Laws are meant to guide
the daily lives of members of society by providing clear definitions of relationships among individuals, including
expectations on how people should behave in particular contexts.

Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good

Human Dignity refers to the idea that a person has the innate right to be valued, respected and treated well. Human
rights are legal social, and ethical principles that consider the human person as deserving of liberties and protections by
virtue of his or her human dignity.
Human dignity and human rights are significant concerns when dealing with socialization and issues on deviance and
social control. Socialization primarily aims to instil recognition of and respect for human rights and dignity.
Human rights are founded on natural rights, which are universal and inalienable, and are not contingent on laws, customs,
beliefs, or values of a particular culture. Examples of these rights are the right to life and freedom. Human rights are
considered to have the following characteristics:
 They are universal because they belong to all human beings regardless of race, religion, gender, and other
characteristics.
 They are fundamental since they cannot be taken away from any human being.
 They are indivisible as various rights are interrelated and given equal importance.
 They are absolute since they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities for living a genuine life.

A major legal instrument that upholds the recognition of human rights is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR), which was drafted by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in 1948. This document was one of the
major results of the end of the Second World War. The atrocities committed during the war convinced many countries of
the need to craft an international charter that will ensure that such crimes will no longer be repeated.
The Commission on Human Rights (CHR) of the Philippines was created in 1987 through executive Order No. 163. An
Independent national human rights institution, the CHR ensures that the human rights of individuals, especially the
marginalized and vulnerable, are protected, promoted, and fulfilled – based on equality and non – discrimination (CHR).
Here are some laws and that ensure the protection of human rights and human dignity.
 Sec. 11 of Art. II of the 1987 Constitution. It notes that the state values the dignity of individuals and guarantees that
human rights will be upheld.
 Sec 12 of Art. III of the Constitution “prohibits the use of torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other
means which vitiate the free will and mandates and compensation and rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar
practices and their families”.
 Republic Act 10364 – Expanded Anti – Trafficking in Persons Act
 Republic Act 10368 – Human Rights Victims Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013