High School Mathematics in Artillery Fire

Author(s): H. M. Bacon
Source: The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 35, No. 7 (NOVEMBER 1942), pp. 299-306
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27952685
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 High School Mathematics in Artillery Fire
By H. M. Bacon
Stanford University, California

It is becoming increasingly evident dustrial positions, or for officers' training

that sound knowledge of the mathematics in the armed Services will be those who
usually taught in the elementary and sec have followed a sound program of sub
ondary schools is an essential part of the stantial mathematics in the elementary
equipment of large numbers of men and and secondary schools. The purpose of
women who wish to take their proper such a program has been, and must con
places in our present day world. This is a tinue to be, to give a thorough knowledge
fact which could have been established of basic mathematics, not simply an ac
before the questions of Defense and War quaintance with a scattering of applica
efforts arose. But the demand for men and tions. It is the basic understanding of the
women to do industrial work in connection subject which is the foundation upon
with the war, and for properly prepared which a superstructure of applications can
personnel by the armed Services, has served be built. It is impossible to foresee all the
to call the importance of mathematics applications which can or must be made
strikingly to our attention. by any particular student, or to give him
a solution for every problem which will
It is, of course, obvious that large num
arise. A significant statement appears in
bers of men must have a highly technical
education including mathematics far be one of the manuals on Gunnery prepared
yond the usual four-year high-school by the Army for the instruction of Artillery
course. What is sometimes forgotten is Officers :' 'No manual can cover all possible
that there is an urgent need for great situations. Therefore, when selecting gun
numbers of men who may not require this nery methods, the officer must use initia
more advanced training, but who are of no tive and judgment, as opposed to blind
use without a knowledge of the funda adherence to routine or drill." Similarly, in
mental mathematics taught in the second applying mathematics, one must exercise
ary schools. It is not without reason that initiative and judgment. Without a thor
the complaint comes from naval officers ough knowledge of basic mathematical
that of ". . . 4200 entering freshmen who ideas and methods, developed through
wished to enter the Naval Reserve Of long acquaintance, no one can expect to
ficers' Training Corps, only 10% had develop the judgment necessary to intelli
already taken elementary trigonometry in gent use of mathematics. And, without
the high schools from which they had knowledge, initiative is useless and per
graduated. Only 23% of the 4200 had haps dangerous.
taken more than one and a half years of It is important that the teacher be in a
mathematics in high school."1 position to supply an answer to the honest
This situation must be met in some way, question, "Just how can this basic knowl
and it may be necessary to provide ac edge I'm acquiring be drawn upon in some
celerated and, consequently, abbreviated practical situation?" Teachers are con
courses of mathematical study to furnish fronted with earnest inquiries of this sort
some sort of training in a hurry. But it every day. They answer in many ways,
seems evident that the best prepared can and they give many illustrations. This is
didates for more advanced study, for in proper, and it does not mean that they
1 Letter of Admiral C. W. Nimitz in The think nothing besides these applications
Mathematics Teacher, vol. XXXV, number 2 should be studied. Perhaps such examples
(February 1942), p. 88. of the use of elementary geometry and
299

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 300 THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER
trigonometry in artillery fire as and
aremethods
given in the computation of data
here may be suggestive to theseand conduct of artillery fire. We concern
teachers
and stimulating to their students.ourselves only with the aiming of the gun :
To begin with, it should be noted thatpointing it in the correct hori
first, with
zontal direction;
the artillery officer deals with a subject of second, with tilting it at
considerable mathematical content. It so
the proper angle with the ground?in fact,
only the first
happens that the actual determination of of these problems will be
data and the aiming of a piece of dealt with in any detail. Clearly the first
artillery
determines
can be carried out without resorting, onwhether the projectile will
the spot, to complicated mathematical inright or left of the target, the
strike to the
secondThe
vestigations, proofs, and calculations. whether the projectile will over
shoot orthe
"short-cut" methods used in the field, fall short of the target. The rela
routine operations, are learned tive
bylocation
the of a battery of guns and a
target
officer in a long period of training. is, therefore, described first in
In this
training he may learn by rote, orterms
he may
of direction (deflection), and second
learn with understanding. The man who
in terms of distance (rqnge) and difference
has learned by rote may perform
altitude
satis
(site). These data are known as
Basic
factorily in the field. But suppose, anddata.
the
supposition may well materialize in The fact,
unit of angular measurement is the
that something happens to the mil.2
set ofIf the
incircumference of a circle is
divided the
struments upon which he is depending; into 6400 equal arcs, the angle at
observation post is destroyed, or his com subtended by one of these arcs
the center
munication with it is cut; or the
has enemy
measure one mil. Clearly a straight
succeeds in disabling part of his
angleequip
(180?) is an angle of 3200 mils, a
ment. The routine can no longer be carried
right angle (90?) is an angle of 1600 mils,
out according to pattern. The officer
half a must
right angle (45?) is an angle of 800
mils. In
estimate various angles and distances, and general, since an angle of 360
he must combine them in sundrydegreesways equals
to an angle of 6400 mils, one
get the proper aiming for his gun, or his
degree is equivalent to
unit at best will be ineffective and at worst
6400 160
-=-=17s mils.
may cause casualities among his own
troops. If his learning has been by rote,360 9
and he has no clear understanding of the
One mil is equivalent to
procedure?the "short-cuts" provided in
360 9 9 27
the method?the result may be disaster.
This kind of failure is not part-=-degree=-60
of our 160 160 8
6400
=
American Tradition, but it could become
so if geometry were omitted from Ameri relations can be used in ve
These
can education. Instructors in gunnery
the computations in the exampl
know that the "understanding of short
later in case the reader has a tabl
cuts is still proportional to the student's
trigonometric functions of angles m
geometrical perception." It is the inback
degrees rather than in mils.
ground, the knowledge, the sense of secur
Distances are measured in yards
ity developed by serious study of and ex approximation to an angl
venient
perience with his mathematics milwhich
is the angle subtended by o
contribute to the officer's ready grasp
at a and
distance of one thousand yar
proper handling of the kind of situation
suggested. 2 See R. S. Burington, "The Mil as an
lar Unit and Its Importance to the A
Let us consider a few simple examples of The American Mathematical Monthly,
the use of some basic mathematical ideas number 3 (March 1941), pp. 188-189.

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 HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS IN ARTILLERY FIRE 301

This leads to the very useful approxi estimated with fair ac

mate relation known as the mil relation: Before going on dut
m = w/r. Here w is the width of an ob mines by experiment
served object in yards, r is the distance gle in mils subtended
(range) of the object from the observer fist with arm outstre
in thousands of yards, and m is the meas vations give appro
ure of the angle subtended by the object tended by the full spa
at the eye of the observer (see figure 1). index finger alone, by t
If a is an angle of m mils, then m = w/r. etc. In the field an obj
The mil relation is used as an approxima mated width w is sig
tion if the angle is less than 400 mils. determined by noting
just hides the object. T
permits a calculation
calculation can be ma
While the approximati
is far better than a m
Figure 1 experience will deve
shot can now be fired,
Example 1. The mil relation. Suppose observed, and a corr
in figure 1 that an object BC has widthmade?if necessary!
w = 24 yds., and that it is 1800 yds. We proceed to the m
from A. Then r = 1.8, and angle a will the gun in the right d
have measure w/r = 24/1.8 = 13.3 mils. of ordering a gun po
If we assume AC = 1600 mils (right rection is known as re
angle), it is interesting to check the close gun (piece) is pointed
ness of the approximation furnished by the rection of fire will be
direction. The basis fo
mil relation. To do this, we note that
well known theorem o
CB 24
tan a=-=-= 0.01333. try that "if two paral
AC 1800 transversal, the interi
equal." In figure 2 t
A five-place table of tangents gives 13.6the observation instru
mils as the measure of a. The difference
is 0.3 mil. Hence the relative error desired
in direction is OB
is used to measure an
using the mil relation instead of trigonom
made equal to a.
etry is 0.3/13.6 = 0.022, or only about 2%.
Example 2. An object BC (figure 1) is
known to be 30 yds. in width. An ob
server at A finds a to be 25 mils. What
is the length AC (the range)? Using the
mil relation we have
Figure 2
30 30 6
25=? and r=?=?=1.2. Example 8. In figure 2, the 0-3200 line
r 25 5
(that is, the 0?-180? line) of the instrument
Hence the rangeis established
is AC =direction
in the 1200 yds.
OB. Suppose
the angle
If the reader will applya is foundtrigonometry
to be 3000 mils. The
the finding of AC, supposing
gunner is informed Ahe CB t
of this reading, and
a right angle, heuses will find
it as a deflection that
and adjusts AC =
his piece
yds., an error ofaccordingly.
less than The 0-3200 2%.line of the piece
The range of an
sightobject
(fiA) is now parallel
can to the
be 0-3200
quick

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302 THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER

line of the instrument (OB). The operator ZO'OG = 3200 mils - TOG.
at 0 may measure angle 7 = 6200 mils. He
Also,
then subtracts 3200 mils to give the read O'G
ing for ?. Note the importance of the basic sin ZO'OG =-y
OG
theorem about parallel lines.
While a gun may be aimed by sighting and, therefore
directly at the target (direct laying), this is 0'G = OGsin ZO'OG.
not the usual method because the target
is generally not visible from the gun. In the Since TOG is measured by the instru
latter case (indirect laying) the gun may be ment at 0, and since OG is known (the
aimed ("the piece is laid") by sighting on a distance from the gun to the observation
fixed point (aiming point) other than the post), O'G can be accurately calculated.
target. Similarly, O'O can be calculated.
We take up first a simple example of in
direct laying. The observation post is at 0 For -= OG cos ZO'OG,
(figure 3), the gun is at G, and it is re
quired to lay the gun on the target at T7. from which we have
Suppose the target is visible from ?, 0'0 = OG cos ZO'OG.
though not from G. Let ON and GM be
(parallel) lines directly north from 0 and G Or, it may be possible to estimate O'G with
respectively. Imagine a line OS parallel to fair accuracy; O'O can then be found by
GT. If angle = TOS can be found, then the Pythagorean Theorem :
angle a can be computed at once, since it is O2 = ??2__?7G2
the angle from the north line to OT plus
r. The gun can then be aimed by making The distance OT from observation post
Za'=Za. to target is found by measurement on a
map, photograph, or chart, or measured
with a range finder, estimated, or found by
triangulation or other survey methods.
To sum up, we now have found by some
means or other values for O'G, O'O, and
OT. Since 0'T = 0'0+OT, we can use the
mil relation to calculate '. For '
= O'G/(O'T/1000) mils. A still more accu
rate determination could be made by using
the fact that tan t' = 0'G/0'T, but the
Figure 3 mil relation is ordinarily sufficiently accu
rate. If O'G is merely estimated, it would
be the
The primary task is to determine foolish
an to attempt great accuracy in cal
gle r. Since Zr = ', we reduce culating
this to '.
Since = '
finding '. This maybe do?eas follows. is now known, Za is
First, imagine TO extended to 0' so found
easily that by adding to the angle NOT
TO'G = 1600 mils, a right angle. read
Infrom
thethe instrument. The result is
communicated
field, the officer will probably make an es to the gunner who sets
timate of the two distances O'G Za! =and
Za on. the gun sight. The gun is
If there is sufficient time, and conditions
now pointed in the proper direction. Again,
warrant a more accurate determination
note theof
simple, but basic, geometry and
these two distances, they may be trigonometry
found by involved.
trigonometry. To make an accurate Thedeter
range GT could be calculated by use
mination of O'G, we note that of trigonometry, but we shall not enter

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 HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS IN ARTILLERY FIRE 303

into a discussion of determination of range. 2000 mils, and the distance to be 2200
In the above discussion the customary yds. What is a', the F-azimuth of GT?
terminology of gunnery has been avoided. We follow the plan of solution outlined
This terminology will now be introduced. above. It is first necessary to compute the
We first refer to the lines ON and GM. A target offset '. This requires O'G. Since
line (or "grid line") extending north and TOG = 2000 mils, 0'0G = 3200-2000
south is called a Y Aine. Thus ON and GM = 1200 mils.
are F-lines. Hence O'G = OG sin
The north direction of a F-line is called = 1000 sin 1200 mils
Y-north. The line segments directed from = 1000 (.9239)
0 to and from G to M. are each F-north.
= 924 yds.
In order to determine a true northerly Also 0'0 = OG cos
direction, that is, F-north, a compass is = 1000 cos 1200 mils
used. The north direction indicated by the = 1000 (.3827)
compass is called compass north. The = 383 yds.
clockwise angle between F-north and com Therefore 0'T = 0'0+OT
pass north is called the declination constant = 383+2200
It is evident that with a compass and = 2583 yds.
known declination constant, it is possible
to determine F-north. The clockwise angle To use the mil relation, we want O'!F/1000
from F-north to a line is called the Y-azi = 2.58. From this we have r= (O'G/2.58)
muth of the line. Thus the declination con = (924/2.58) =358 mils.
stant is the F-azimuth of compass north. Hence the target offset is Zr' = 358 mils.
In figure 3, Za is the F-azimuth of OS, Adding this to , the F-azimuth of
a' is the F-azimuth of GT, is the , we find
F-azimuth of OT. The horizontal angle, a= +
with vertex at the target, between the gun = 1300+358
and the observation post is called the tar = 1658 mils
get offset. In figure 3 this is angle GTO = a', the F-azimuth of
= '. GT.
If the reader will review carefully the
discussion given about figureWe 3,
shallheconsider
willoneseemore example of
that we sought to compute indirect laying involving the use of an
the F-azimuth
of GT (that is, a'). To do this weThe
aiming point. found
fundamental idea is this :
a the F-azimuth of OS, a direction 0par
an observation post is set up from which
a target
allel to GT, as follows: we and some other
measured the point (aiming
Y-azimuth of OT ( ) on the
point) can beinstru
seen. The gun G is located
ment at 0; we computed thewhere the aiming
target point can be seen, but
offset
t' = t; we added the offset
the (with proper
target cannot be seen. The observer at
sign) to the F-azimuth of0 OT.
tells the
Thegunner at G the angle between
result
was a which equals a', the required
his line of sight GP on the aiming point
and the required
F-azimuth of GT. The computation of direction
the G to the tar
get.
target offset ' was made by The gunner
using the lays his piece on the tar
mil
relation and an estimatedgetor computed
by use of this clockwise angle TGP (see
length O'G as shown in thefigure figure
4) knownand
as the ex
firing angle.
plained above. Suppose the situation is as shown in fig
Example 4- In figure 3, suppose the dis ure 4. The observer at 0 sights on the tar
tance OG from observation post to gun to get and the aiming point and meas
be 1000 yds., the F-azimuth of OT to be ures the clockwise angle = TOP. The
1300 mils= , the angle TOG to be target offset and the aiming point offset

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304 THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER

Z0 are computed as will be indicated Therefore

presently. The firing angle is then ' = OfT = OT-00' = 2400 - 634 = 1766 yds,
= + + . The target offset and aiming
point offset can be computed by the mil
and OT/1000 = 1.77.
relation as explained in the discussion of Using the mil relation, = '
figure 3. The angles r and 0 are added to = (O'G/1.77) = (773/1.77) =437 mils.
in the case shown in figure 4. Other con Similarly, to compute 0 = 0' we use fig
figurations will require = + ? 0, ure 6, which is an isolated portion of figure
= ? +0, = ? ? . 4 with a point 0" added to make a right
triangle OOn G. Here ZO'OG is the sup
Or, the relation = + +0 can be used if of POG. Hence
plement
r and 0 are regarded as negative under cer
ZO'OG = 3200 ?1700 = 1500 mils.
tain circumstances. The reader can easily
investigate these cases for himself. Consequently
00" = OG cos ZOnOG
= 1000 cos 1500 mils
= 1000 (.0982)
= 98 yds.,
and 0"G=OG sin ZO'OG
= 1000 sin 1500 mils
= 1000 (.9952)
Figure 4 = 995 yds.

Example 5. Suppose that in figure 4 the

distance from gun G to observation post 0
is GO = 1000 yds., and that other data are
as follows : OP = 2000 yds., OT = 2400 yds.,
TOG = 900 mils, POG = 1700 mils, and

Therefore 0"P = 0"0+OP = 98+2000

Figure 5
therefore = 2600 mils. We must com
From
pute r and 0. To compute = ' we use fig this we have at once that the firing
angle is
ure 5, which is an isolated portion of figure
4 with the point 0' added to form the right
triangle OOfG. We have
ZO'OG = TOG = 900 mils
Hence OOf = OG cos ZO'OG
= 1000 cos 900 mils
= 1000 (.6343)
= 634 yds.,
and 0'G = OG-sin ZOfOG
= 1000 sin 900 mils
= 1000 (.7731)
= 773 yds.
= 2098 yds. and (O"P/1000) =2.10. Using
the mil relation,
0"G 995
Z0 = Z0' =-=-= 474 mils.
2.10 2.10
= + +
= 2600+437+474
= 3511 mils.
Since and 0 are fairly large, the mil r
tion introduces appreciable inaccuracie
These could be avoided by use of the t
gent function instead of the mil relation
In practice, however, they would be c
rected from observation of the first sho
Note that the firing angle is greater th
3200 mils (180?). The reader should draw

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 HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS IN ARTILLERY FIRE
diagram roughly to scale and note the con
figuration.
Again it is clear that simple geometry
and trigonometry are all that is involved in
the foregoing theory.
We have described certain simple exam
ples of finding the direction in which a gun
is to be pointed. Methods of finding range
and site, and from them the elevation for
the gun, will not be considered. The fol
lowing diagram (figure 7) is, however, in
cluded to show certain elements of the tra
jectory of a projectile.
Figure 7
The origin is the center of the muzzle of
the gun (piece). The point is the point of
impact where the projectile strikes ; the line
OH is horizontal, and if is directly below
T, then the distance OH is the range. The
line OE, the axis of the bore prolonged
after the piece is laid, is the line of elevation
and it is tangent to the curve OMT, the
trajectory of the projectile. The line OT is
the line of site to the point T. The angle
e = EOT is the elevation: the angle
= TOH is the site: and the angle ZEOH
= + is the quadrant elevation.
The artillery officer, under circumstances
of actual or simulated combat, will rely al
most solely upon estimates of distances in
the computation of firing data; there may
well be no time for making trigonometric
calculations. His ability to make accurate
estimates depends, however, upon the
practice and training which he has had.
Part of this practice involves computing
the correct distance to check the estimate.
Furthermore; an understanding of the
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305
trigonometry which is involved will facili
tate the officer's operations and improve
his performance. The methods chosen for
computing firing data depend upon the
tactical situation. Where a target is sta
tionary, the battery may be prepared and
pieces laid several hours in advance. In
such a case the officer will use the most
refined methods available to him?trigo
nometric computations, and even the in-r
troduction of corrections based upon
meteorological data. Here the geometry
and trigonometry provide the basic results
to which any corrections are later applied.
It should now be clear to the reader that
a thorough knowledge of elementary geo
metry and trigonometry is of the utmost
value to the artillery officer. In fact, the
above are illustrations of the most ele
mentary problems which arise, and the of
ficer will be called upon to solve problems
of considerably greater difficulty. There
are, naturally, many other subjects which
he must know, but a geometrical sense and
knowledge form part of his indispensable
equipment. If he starts his specialized mil
itary training in possession of this equip
ment, he not only smooths the path of his
own achievement, but he serves his coun
try more promptly and more efficiently
than is otherwise possible. Since December
7 we realize that in this promptness lies the
hope of success in the present struggle.
Exercises
Four exercises are presented for the
reader to try if he wishes.
306 THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER

1. A distant object BC of known length from observation post to gun to be 1200

120 yds. is found to subtend an angle BAC yds., the F-azimuth of OT to be 950 mils,
of 40 mils at an observation point A (fig the angle TOG to be 2200 mils, and the dis
tance OT from observation post to target
to be 3000 yds. What is the F-azimuth of
GT? ans. 1222 mils.
3. In figure 4, suppose the data to be as
follows: OG = 600 yds., OP = 1200 yds., OT
= 2000 yds., TOG = 480 mils, LPOG
= 1800 mils. Find the firing angle, ans.
2911 mils.
4. Suppose the data in the accompany
ing figure (figure 8) to be as follows:
GO = 1350 yds., OP = 1200 yds., OT = 1900
yds., TOG = 720 mils, POG = 1800 mils.
ure 1). a) Use the mil relation to calculate Find the firing angle a) using the mil rela
the range AC. b) Calculate AC by trigo tion to compute the target and aiming
nometry and find the relative error in the point offsets; b) using a table of tangents
result of (a), ans. a) 3000 yds. ; b) 1.8%. to compute these offsets, ans. a) 5417 mils:
2. In figure 3, suppose the distance OG b) 5373 mils.

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