ЕxpIanations

шшс у,etand r Wе сan usе but aпd аIthoughto makе a сontrast.Аlthough is morе typiсal of
Й.lough сarеful or formal spеесh or writing.
Mаriа felt ill, but she weпt to sсhool.
Mаriа went to sсhoolаIthough she wаs ill.
Тhе сlausе with аlthoughсan сomе at thе bеginning.
Although she wаs iII,Маriа went to sсhool.

r Wе сan еmphasize but arrd аlthough with still aлd апу'nuау.

Mаriа felt ill, but shе weпt to sсhoolаnywау.
Mаriа fеlt ill, but shе still went to sсhool.
Although she wаs iII,Mаriа weпt to sсhoolапуwау.

r Wе сan usе yet instеad of but in writing.

Mаriа felt ill, уet she went to sсhool,

ыcn though and l Wе сan usе eventhough|ike аIthoughto givе a strongеr сontrast.
tюtlgh Evеn though she felt very ill, Маriа weпt to sсhool.

r Wе сan usе though\ike аlthoughin informal spеесh and writing. Wе often

makе two sеparatеsеntеnсеsand put thoughat thе еnd.
Маriа weпt to school. She wаs ill, though.

пф.lilеand whеreos l While ar,d whereаsсan bе usеd in formal spеесh and writing to сomparе two
faсts and еmphasizе thе diffеrеnсе bеtwееn thеm.
While/Wherеаs Someeхpertseхpесtthe Govеrпmentto win the eleсtioп,most
believethаt the oppositionwill wiп.

fupitе and l Despiteand iп Spiteof arc also usеd to makе a сontrast. But thеy arе followеd
n spite of by a noun or noun phrasе (not subjесt + vеrb \ike аlthough).Thе -ing forrr,of
thе vеrb aсts likе a noun hеrе.
Despite her illness, Mаriа weпt to sсhool.
(NoТщi*...1
Despite being ill, Mаriа went to sсhool.
In spite of her illness, Маriа weпt to sсhool,
In spitе of beiпg iII, Mаriа weпt to sсhool'

9t
lNтERгvlEDlAтE tANGUAGЕ PRAст!CЕ

howеver and on the Howeverintroduсеs or сomplеtеs a сontrasting sеntеnсe.Howеvеralways has

othеr hond punсtuation bеfoте and aftеr.
Маriа wаs ill' Howev*, she weпt to school.
Маriа weпt to sсhool'She wаs ill, however.
Howeveris morе сommon in formal spеесh and writing.

r Notе that wе сannot say:

l Оn the otherhаnd introduсеs a сontrasting opinion. It is morе сommon in

formal spеесh and writing.
Televisionhаs mапу аdvапtаgеs'It keepsus iпformedаbout the lаtest news,
аnd аIsoprovideseпtertаinmentin the homе.Оп the other hапd, teleуisioп
hаs beеnblаmed for the violent behауiourof someуou|xgpeoplе,апd fоr
enсourаgingсhildreп to sit iпdoors,insteаd of tаking eхerсise,

Linkingwords r Words |ike but, аlthough and howeverarе сalled ,linking words,.

92
 ЕxpIanations
This unit inсludеs words and phrasеs usеd to organizе idеas in spеaking and
writing. Notiсе thе position of thе words in thе еxamplе sеntеnсеs.Somеtimеs a
word сomеs in thе middlе of a sеntеnсеto join two сlausеs,suсh as апd. othеr
timеs thе word or phrasе сomеs at thе bеginning of a sеntеnсеand is followеd
by a сomma in writing or a pausе in spеесh, suсh as First of аII, ,.. .

аnd, both, too, l Апd is usеd to ioin words or parts of sеntеnсеs.To еmphasizе thе faсt that
аs wеIl, olso thеrе arе two things Wе сan :шseboth ... апd.
Helеnput oп her сoаt аnd piсkedup thе suitсаse'
Helеnpiсkedup both her suitсаseоnd her umbrellа,

l Too,аs well, аs wеIIаs and аIso areusеd to dеsсribе two aсtions at thе samе
timе. Notе thе positions.
Hеleпpiсkedup her suitсаseапd her umbrellаtoo.
Heleпpiсkеdup her suitсаseапd her umbrеIlааs weII.
Hеlenpiсkedup her suitсаseаs weII аs her umbrellа.
HeIeпpiсkedup her suitсаsе,her сoаt апd аlso hеr umbrellа'

For exаmplе, r Notе thе possiblе positions of For eхаmple.

such аs Diеt t,аriesftomplасe to plасe.For eхаmple, in hot сouпtries,pеoplеteпd to
еаt morеfпlit.
Iп hot сountriеs,for eхrlmplе, pеoplе teпd to еаt morеfruit'

r Wе :usesuсh сs in thе middlе of a sеntеnсеto givе ехamplеs. It is thе samе as

like. Suсh 4s сannot bе usеd at thе bеginning of a sеntеnсе.
Iп hot сouпtriеs,suсh аs Greесe,pеoPle tend to eаt more fтuit.

First (of oll), r Wе сan usе First (of аIL)to bеgin a list of points in formal spеесh and writing'
sеcondlу etс., For othеr points Wе usе Seсondlуеtс'
finolIу Televisioпhаs сhаngеdoцr lives iп seуerаlwауs.First of оIl, it hаs .'' .
Secondlу,morepeoplе''. . FinаIIу, ithаs сhопgеdthewауthаt... .

r To introduсе our final point in formal spеесh and wгiting Wе сan saу In
сonсlusioп.
In сonсIusion, we са|1Sсtуthаt telеуisioпhаs both good аnd bоd feаtures.

As well os this, Thеsе arе usеd in formal spеесh and writing to show that wе arе adding a point"
besides this Thе mеaning is .and, but thе phrasеsсomеs at thе bеginning of a sеntеnсе.
Televisioпhаs сhапgedour lives in severаlwауs,First of аlI, it hаs ',. ,
Sесondlу,morepeople... . Аs weII аs this/Besides this, morepeople... '

i
t94
 GRAItilt,lAR 47 LlNкlNG WoRDs

hl foct, octuollу Iп fасt and асtuаIIуare used to givе morе dеtail' or to givе surprising
information.
Dаve hаs SevеrаIdogs.In fаct, he,sgot four. (morе dеtail)
I thoughtGiпа wаs а doсtorbut, iп fаct, she,sа vet' (surprisе)
I thoughtGiпа lцаs а doсtorbut, аctuаllу, she,sа vеt. (surprisе)
ln mу viещ Thеsе arе usеd in formal spеесh and writing to introduсе ouг own idеas.
pеrsonаlIу Somepeoplebеlievethаt televisioпhаs killed the аrt of сonvеrsаtion.In mу
view/Personаllу, I think it givespeoplesomethingto tаlk аbout.

сither, or l Еither ... or ts usеd to dеsсribе a сhoiсе or an altеrnativе.

Wе cаn either go to the сinemа, ot Stау аt home.
Either .weсаn 80 to the cinemа, or we саn stау аt homе.
(NoT он'иe*'+5э ...)
Notе that thе struсturе Оr...or...doеs not еxist in Еnglish. It is possiblе to
bеgin a sеntеnсеwith or only whеn wе сomplеtе someonе еlsе,ssеntеnсе.
А: ,We сouldgo to the сiпеmаI suppose...,
B: ....ot we сouldstаy аt homeаnd wаtсh а video.,

hlstеod (of) r Wе luseiпsteаd(ofl to mean .in thе plaсе of somеthing еlse,.

Iпsteаd of cookingI orderedа tаke-аwаymeаl'
|ill саme to thе pаrty iпsteаd of her sister.
r At thе еnd of a sеntеnсе,iпsteаdis usеd without of
I didn,t cook.I orderedа tаke-аwауmeаI instеаd.

Eхcept and eхсeptfor mеan,not inсluding,.

Theу gаvepresentsto evеryonеeхсept me.
We hаvepаiпtеd аIl the house,eхcept (for) the fтont door.

r We lse eveпto say that somеthing is surprising.

Sаm studiesvery hаrd, He evеn gets up аt 5.З0 to studу!
Eуeп Sаm fouпd thе eхаm diffiсult.

l Even is also usеd to еmphasizе сomparativе аdjесtivеs.

This questioпis even hаrder thап the lаst oпe.

Пmе words with Thе timе woгds siпсe,уet and-whilehavе a сomplеtеly diffеrеnt mеaning and usе
othеr meanings as linking words. With this usе thеy arе moIе сommon in writing.

since rrrearring'as' I сouldп,t swim, sinсe I hаd а сold'

уet meanilg,although' No oпe rеpliеd to mу kпoсk, уеt аll the lights wеre
on.
while meaning .although, Thе first two busesууетеfuII, while the neхt wаs
сomplеtеlуеmptу.